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    <pre style="white-space:pre-line"><code>in neighbouring Tekes) in the recent generation, the conditions to become a khar bagsh were almost
               entirely limited to literacy in the Clear script, though earlier an innate predisposition mostly inherited
               in  a  genealogic  lineage  was  supposed.  Outside  the  Ili  River  basin,  a  very  similar  tradition  now
               probably extinct is attested among the Altai Uriankhais, particularly on the Xinjiang side of the Altai
                                                      16
               mountain  range  (Khandgait  and  Chingel).  A  comparable  and  still  extant  tradition  of  reading  and
               chanting sutras written in Clear script became recently documented among the Dörvöds in Naranbulag
                                           17
               sum,  Uvs  aimag  in  Mongolia.  In  neighbouring  Dörgön  sum,  also  inhabited  by  Dörvöds,  a  recent
                                                                                          18
               tradition was reported of handwritten copying of sutras in the Clear script by laymen.
                     From  the  earlier  period,  attested  in  Old  Turkic  inscriptions,  the  inhabitants  of  Mongolia
                                                                                      19
               worshipped  “Eternal  Heaven”  (möngke  tngri)  and  “Mother  Earth”  (etügen  eke),  a  pairing  still
               appearing in later ritual texts. The image of a uniform heaven is later pushed into background by the
               idea of  plentiful  celestial  beings  (tngri),  most frequently  9  (9  tngri  subordinated  to  the  main  tngri
               Qormusta ) or 99 divided into two camps (44 western and 55 eastern or right and left) or 33 tngri in
                        20
               the heavens giving the sum of 99 together with the earthly 77 luus (ColMo. lus, water spirits, lords of
               waters,  relevant  to  Skt.  nāgas).  Texts  of  the  Buddhist  period  frequently  mention  Esrün  Qormusta
                                                                                           21
               (more standardly esrua qormusta, ColMo. (Esrua/Eservaa/Eserün) Khurmast tenger)  as the head of
               celestial  beings.  With  the  gradual  adoption  of  Tibetan  Buddhist  concepts,  the  tngri  became
               synonymous to the celestial realm of gods (Tib. lha), shifting the tngri from the unlimited “eternality”
               to the status of mortal but long-lived beings. Mongolian ritual texts and folk literature, particularly
               heroic epics, frequently mention that the tngri can also dwell on land; sometimes sons of the heavenly
               gods descend to the earth. Occasionally, the oral tradition can see the emanation of Qormusta tngri in
               an extraordinary personality.
                                         22
                     In  the  Mongolian  concept  shared  across  religious  traditions,  the  landscape  is  inhabited  by  a
               large  number  of  various  invisible  beings  belonging  to  different  realms  according  to  the  Buddhist
               concept.  The most important  are the lords  or masters  of  places (γajar-un ejen)  and  waters  (usun-u
               ejen), also referred together as masters and sovereigns of the land and the waters (γajar usun-u ejen) as
               well as various other terms (see Chapter 2.1.). These beings are seen as the rightful owners of natural
               sites, of which man is only an integral part and user. In order to enjoy good fortune in one’s life and
               husbandry, it is  considered necessary to repeatedly comfort  and please these beings and  avoid any
               activities which might cause them harm or displeasure (for example polluting a water spring or the
               upper part of a stream, shooting wild animals that are not indispensable for subsistence, moving stones
               and rocks, picking flowers etc.). If a harm or impurity is already caused, then purification rituals must
               be  performed  to  propitiate  these  invisible  beings.  In  case  it  is  unavoidable  to  carry  out  a  harmful

               16  In Khandgait the last khar bagsh were studied by ethnographer and folklorist Damrinjab (Chinese Academy of
                                             th
               Social Sciences) at the end of the 20  century (personal communication), while several names of khar bagsh in
               Chingel are attested in my recordings of the local oral history. At least one khar bagsh (named Menddavaa)
               moved in the 1930s to the present-day Altai sum in Bayan-Ölgii aimag (see subchapter 1.9.1.).
               17  The  tradition  was  recently  popularized  among  scholars  in  Oirat  studies  by  Prof.  Na.  Sükhbaatar  and  the
               organization Tod Nomiin Gerel Töv.
               18  G. Batdelger and his grandson B. Tsevegee as his follower (Батсуурь 2008).
               19  Etüken, etügen with earlier forms Itügen, Ötügen, recorded as Itoγa by Plano Carpini (travelled to the Mongol
               Empire in 1245–1247).  Occasionally,  the singular Etüken is replaced by seventy-seven etügen parallel to the
               group of tngri (Birtalan 2001: 985). Regarding the appearance of seventy-seven luus, it seems, that the earlier
               concept of etügen as the female lord(s) of the earth, is rather substituted by luus. In the common understanding
               of  the  recent  Mongolian  nomads,  the  impersonalized  and  undivided  unity  of  the  animated  landscape  is
               conversely addressed as altan delekei (“the golden earth”).
               20  Банзаров 1891: 12, English translation Banzarov 1981: 62. Banzarov sees a parallel between nine tngri spirits
               subject to Qormusta and nine marshals (yisün örlüg) of Chinggis Khan, himself metaphorically designated as
               “the son of Qormusta tngri” or “the Son of Heaven” (Qormusta tngri-yin köbegün, tngri-yin köbegün).
               21  Qormusta  through  the  Old  Uyghur  and  Sogdian  goes  back  to  Avestan  Ahura  Mazdā,  the  creator  deity  in
               Zoroastrianism. Esrün also reaches  back through  its  Old Uyghur and Sogdian  forms to Avestan zruuan- and
               Pahlavi zrlwʾn), the Zoroastrian deity of Time later adopted by Manichaeism as the “Father of Greatness”, the
               eternal divine manifestation of good.
               22  In the oral tradition of Altai Uriankhais, Baldandorji, the ruler of Darqan güng banner (1904–1915, with its
               centre  in  present  Bulgan  sum,  Bayan-Ölgii  aimag)  was  reportedly  an  incarnation  of  Qormusta  tngri,  who
               descended to the earth in a dream (Srba 2019: 140).

                                                           33</code></pre>
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