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    <pre style="white-space:pre-line"><code>shamanic  environment  resulted  in  a  range  of  semi-Buddhisized  forms  partially  substituting  for  the
               shamans, with high importance ascribed to the divine possession of gürtem (Tib. sku rten) lamas and a
               modified  form  of  a  lay  gürtem  identity  called  layičing  (probably  corrupted  Tib.  chos  skyong,  the
               “officially  accepted”  form  of oracles in Tibetan  and Mongolian  Buddhism;  Tucci  &  Heissig  1970:
               344–346).  The  shamans  proper  were  divided  into  the  semi-Buddhisized  “shamans  of  the  white
               direction” (čaγan jüg-ün böge), who used prayers to buddhas during their rituals, and “anti-Buddhist”
               “shamans of the black direction” (qar-a jüg-ün böge), who used invocations to the ancestor spirits
               instead (Kürelša 1998: 48).
                     Similar oppressive actions against shamans were undertaken during the advance of Buddhism
                                                                 8
                                                                                      th
                                                       th
               among the Buryats  in the 18  and early 19  centuries.  By the end of the 19  century, only a few
                                          th
               peripheral groups remained predominantly shamanic (Daurs and Western Buryats) and only slightly
               more preserved a strong shamanistic tradition that coexisted alongside monastic Buddhism (Darkhads,
               Eastern  Buryats,  Tannu  and  Khövsgöl  Uriankhais,  Khorchins).  In  other  regions,  the  oral  tradition
                                                                                                      9
               testifies to occasional rivalries between shamans and lamas with victory for one side or the other,  but
               more  frequently  the  coexistence  was  peaceful,  if  granting  higher  social  prestige  to  the  side  of  the
                     10
               lamas.
                     Since 1990s, a modern renaissance of shamanism has taken place both in Mongolia and Inner
               Mongolia. This movement mostly defines itself as a religion apart from the Buddhist tradition and
               constituting the only indigenous religion of the Mongols, although shamans operating in the frame of
               the pre-modern syncretic tradition also occur. New shamans, frequently separated from the local ethnic
               ties  and  settled  in  urban  centres,  occasionally  visit  countryside  localities  which  have  long  been
               deprived of experience with the shamanic tradition (for example Oirat subgroups like Zakhchin). In
               turn, people living in the original  localities of their ethnic subgroups assume an indecisive attitude
               towards shamans, perceiving them as a new phenomenon and somewhat doubtful of their authenticity
               and the authenticity of their statements. However, they mostly accept their services, inter alia due to
                                                                                       11
               the absence of well-educated Buddhist lamas and extant alternative lay traditions.
                     Many  rituals  are  performed  and  communitarian  ceremonies  organized  neither  by  lamas  nor
               shamans,  but  instead  by  local  elders  who  may  or  may  not  have  in  addition  official  administrative
               functions. They can organize an offering celebration at a local ovoo stone cairn, define the proper date
               and even lead the ceremony, or can decide on offerings to be brought to a water-spring or another
               sacred  or  pristine  place.  Additionally,  the  elders  can  lead  a  wedding,  which  represents  a  very
               complicated set of ritual actions, in which they pronounce blessings and control the sequence of songs.
               The elders also guide the household celebrations of the White Month (Lunar New Year), a task of
               great responsibility when every symbolic action has direct repercussions on the life of the family and
               the related community. Moreover, many ritual tasks are performed by the responsible individuals of
               the household, such as the daily libation of milk or tea (sačuli, ColMo. satsal) to heaven (tngri, ColMo.
               tenger) or the local landscape (delekei, ColMo. delkhii) performed by the housewife or the offering of
               the first slice of meat to the fire performed usually by the household head. Blessings and benedictions
               (irügel,  ColMo.  yerööl)  and  praises  (maγtaγal,  ColMo.  magtaal)  can  be  also  performed  by
               professionals (irügelči, maγtaγalči, ColMo. yeröölch, magtaalch), who in present-day Mongolia hold
               the  status  of  (folk)  artists.  Similarly,  the  performance  of  heroic  epics  in  their traditional  form  had
               considerable significance in relation to local deities and spirits, who were supposed to be entertained,



               1904 in Darqan Banner, only Čaγalai böge with two disciples), and eleven survived (in the reported repression
               against  shamans  organized  by  Darqan  soliyatu  wang).  A  very  similar  tradition  is  attested  among  Altai
               Uriankhais in the Mongolian Altai. According to the oral tradition of the Altai Uriankhais in Buyant sum, Bayan-
               Ölgii, the banner governor, ordered the gathering of all his subject shamans and forcing them to pass through fire
               to  prove  their  abilities.  From  dozens  of  shamans,  only  two  passed  through  fire  alive  and  well.  These  two
               shamans  were  allowed  to  perform  their  rites,  while  the  others  thus  eliminated.  Repeatedly  narrated  by  N.
               Erdenebayar, Ölgii.
               8  Bělka 2001: 42–44, Atwood 2004: 466.
               9  Birtalan 2016, a legend from the Banner of Dalai Choinkhor Wang in Баярсайхан et al. 2017: 170.
               10  Сапожников 1949: 337–338.
               11  According to  my  own  field research  experience among Zakhchin and  Altai Uriankhais in  Mongolia in the
               2010s.

                                                           31</code></pre>
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