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    <pre style="white-space:pre-line"><code>3
               later syncretic Mongolian tradition, if any, can be credited to the Nestorian source.  Similarly, Islam
                                                                     th
               became removed from the Mongolian cultural area in the 15  century, while the Chinggisid khanates,
               which underwent thorough and far-reaching Islamization at a considerable geographical remove from
               the  traditional  Mongol  homeland,  no  longer  considered  themselves  part  of  the  Mongolian  cultural
                     4
               sphere.
                     According  to  Buddhist  chronicles,  the  extensive  missionary  activities  for  spreading
               Buddhadharma  by  the  monks  of  the  Gelugpa  school  (commonly  named  sir-a-yin  šasin,  ColMo.
               shariin shashin “yellow doctrine/religion”) started in the 1570s and in only a few decades covered the
               territorial reach of most regional Chinggisid rulers. Recent scholarship has proved that Buddhism was
                                                       th
                                               th
               not absent from Mongolia in the 15  and 16  centuries even before the famous conversion of Tümed
               Altan Khan, which has ever since been regarded as the turning point and the beginning of the later
               spread  of  Buddhism  in  Mongolia,  traditionally  credited  exclusively  to  the  Gelugpa  monks.
               Archaeological findings of manuscripts in Olon Süm (ClMo. Olan Süm-e), Kharbukhiin Balgas and
               the  Arjai  Agui  (ClMo.  Arjai  aγui)  complex  in  Ordos  of  grotto  temples  with  frescoes  and  wall
               inscriptions show that Buddhist knowledge and ritual methods intersected with the earlier Mongolian
               spiritual  traditions  already  during  the  largely  undocumented  era  of  the  15   and  16   centuries.
                                                                                               th
                                                                                      th
                                                                                 th
               Moreover, the great variety of texts  translated into Mongolian in the 17  century suggests that the
               monks active in the courts of the Mongolian nobility were not limited to the Gelugpa order. After the
               affiliation to non-Gelugpa orders (commonly known as ulaγan-u šasin, ColMo. ulaanii shashin, “red
               doctrine”,  or  ulaγan-u  yosu,  ColMo.  ulaanii  yos  “red  tradition”)  lost  its  political  significance  in
               Tibeto-Mongol relations, the marginal traditions related to the earlier Tibetan schools were practised
               in Mongolia only under the auspices of the dominant Gelugpa monastic system, but never disappeared
               entirely.  The Western Mongolian Oirat confederacy embraced Gelugpa Buddhism officially in 1615
                      5
               and  all  three  successor  khanates  (Dzunghar,  Khoshuut  and  Kalmyk)  acted  further  as  unequivocal
               supporters of the Gelugpa school in Tibet and among their own subjects.
                     The traditional narrative of Altan Khan’s conversion tells that the first Buddhist monks arriving
               from Tibet incited the prohibition and mass destruction of the ongon (ClMo. ongγon) figurines revered
               by shamanic custom mainly as embodying ancestral spirits. The biography of Neyiji Toyin (Neiji Toin,
               1557  (uncertain)  –1653), a highly  educated  monk  of  Oirat  origin  with long meditative  experience,
               brings rare testimony of active measures taken against shamans with the support and contribution of
               local Mongol rulers, who organized the burning of the ongons and used various methods of rewarding
               the laity  for their active  learning  of  Buddhist  texts.  According  to  his biography,  Neyiji  Toyin  was
               ready to tolerate parts of the original beliefs  in situations where their complete replacement  would
                                                6
               cause harm to the person’s devotion.  However, the oral tradition indicates the use of harsher violence
               by  the  ruling  power  against  shamans.  The  incorporation  of  Buddhism  into  the  East  Mongolian
                                                   7

               3  The only modern group among the ethnic Mongols with a supposed Nestorian origin is a small community
                                                          th
               called Erküt in Ordos, which in the first half of the 20  century still preserved a clearly separate spiritual identity
               from  the  majority  Buddhist  Ordos  Mongols,  although  the  forms  of  their  worship  were  already  strongly
               influenced by the Buddhist religious environment (Mostaert 1934).
               4  A small group of ethnic Mongols practicing Islam lives in the eastern part of Alaša close to the Ningxia Hui
               Autonomous  Region  in  China,  though  this  geographical  circumstance  indicates  it  to  be  a  recent  case  of
               Islamization. Another “core Mongol” Muslim group are the Sart Kalmyks in Issyk Kul Province in Kyrgyzstan,
               who are descendants of Öölds in the present Mongolküree, who moved westward only during the Dungan revolt
               in 1862–1877 and converted to Islam in the new environment.
               5  Monasteries following explicitly non-Gelugpa traditions were rare, such as Aguin Süme in Ordos (on the left
               side of the Yellow River, now belonging to Dengkou County of Bayannuur City in Inner Mongolia. Also, the
               alleged turn of the Fifth Goviin Noyon Khutagt Danzanravjaa from Gelugpa to the “Red Religion” took place
               more within the limits tolerated by official orthodox discourse than as targeted resistance against the religious
               establishment.
               6  Boγda  neyiji  toyin  dalai  manjusiri-yin  domuγ-i  todurqai  geyigülügči  čindamani  erike.  Peking  xylograph.
               Modern  edition  Altanorgil  2009,  Russian  translation  Пурбуева  1984.  Analysis  of  Neyiji  Toyin’s  missionary
               methods Heissig 1953.
               7  According  to  Kürelša  et  al.  1998:  46,  the  oral  tradition  reports  at  least  three  cases  in  which  local  banner
               governors summoned the local shamans and forced them to undergo trial by fire, from which respectively only
               one  survived  (the  sole  shaman  named  Naran  Abai,  out  of  the  300  shamans  of  the  ten  banners  of  Non  river
               repressed by Tüsiyetü-yin doγsin da wang Norburinčin around the year 1800), three survived (in the repression in

                                                           30</code></pre>
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