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    <pre style="white-space:pre-line"><code>appeared.  As  excellent  examples  of  critical  editing  of  Mongolian  manuscripts  in  Europe  including
               ritual texts, it is necessary to mention Heissig’s edition of manuscripts from Olan süme (1966b, 1976,
               with only a limited presence of ritual texts) and E. Chiodo’s edition of birch-bark manuscripts from
               Kharbukhiin Balgas (2000, 2009, with a wide presence of ritual texts of almost all genres).
                     Recently, Mongolia-related anthropology and religious comparative studies have built on both
               textual  studies  and  oral  ethnographic  sources  and  passed beyond  them  into  new  syntheses  (studies
               dealing with the aspects of fortune in Mongolian life and religion by Empson 2011 and by Swancutt
               2012, study on the ritual tradition of Mergen Monastery by Humphrey & Hürelbaatar 2013).
                     In  Mongolia,  scholarly  interest  in  ritual  texts  has  been  prominent  only  since  the  onset  of
               democratization. J. Tsoloo published a collection of Oirat written ritual texts in the Clear script (1999).
               Ritual texts concerning the worship of local deities linked to sacred mountains were published by O.
               Sükhbaatar (Сүхбаатар 2001) and in several recent non-academic editions including a Tibetan version
               of  texts  composed  originally  in  Tibetan  (Соронзонболд  2016,  2018,  Тэрбиш  2018).  The  leading
               personality of anthropological and ethnographic comparative research based both on oral and written
               sources is S. Dulam (e.g., his crucial study on the fire worship Дулам 2013: 59–103), for Western
               Mongolia M. Ganbold (Ганболд 2001).
                     Since the 1980s, several specialized editions of ritual texts have appeared in Inner  Mongolia
               (China), such as an edition of fire worship texts (Bulaγ 1993), an overview of Ordos ritual texts in
               general  (OTTIM  1990),  sacrifices  to  heavenly  deities  ataγ-a  tngri  (Qurčabaγatur  1990),  Ordos
               keyimori offering texts (Sonum 2008), and Oirat ritual manuscripts (Joriγtu, Badai & Γangbolud 2012,
               Гаldan 2013). The voluminous edition of Clear script manuscripts preserved by Ööld Mongols of the
               Ili River basin in Xinjiang (Erdemtü 2015–, currently 50 volumes) includes many so far unexamined
               ritual texts.
                     The  research  of  Mongolian  ritual  texts  is  a  well-established  field  within  western  Mongolian
               studies, currently producing both textologically precise editions of primary sources and finding its way
               into  larger  synthetic  studies.  In  Mongolia,  the  ritual  texts  are  gaining  a  new  understanding  in  the
               context of recently rediscovered Tibetan works written by Mongolian lamas. In Inner Mongolia, ritual
               texts prove their regional diversity and superregional congruences in locally specialized compendia of
               folk customs.


               1.7. Mongolian and Tibetan: Who Should Understand the Text?

               The  long  process  of  translating  Buddhist  scriptures  from  earlier  intermediary  languages  (mostly
               Tibetan, but also Uyghur and Chinese in the early period) to Mongolian is attested from the late 13
                                                                                                         th
               century onward, starting with the Mongolian translation of Sakya Paṇḍita’s Subhāṣitaratnanidhi and
                          th
               the early 14  century translations  by Choiji Odser (ClMo. Čoyiji Odser, Tib. chos kyi ’od zer), to
               whom the creation of basic Mongolian Buddhist terminology is traditionally attributed, as well as the
               rules of literary language and written poetry. The archaeological findings of Mongolian texts in Turfan
               dating  to  the  14   and  15   centuries  attest  fragments  of  Buddhist  literature,  mostly  limited  to
                               th
                                        th
               woodblock  prints  officially  diffused  from  the  Yuan  capital,  while  the  more  recent  archaeological
                                                                                                         th
                                                                                             th
               findings from Olon Süm (ClMo. Olan Süm-e) in Inner Mongolia (supposedly late 15  to early 17
                                                                                 th
               centuries) and Kharbukhiin Balgas in the Khalkha area (first half of the 17  century) provide evidence
               for the copying and active using of Mongolian religious texts on a local level.
                     The extensive translation work that began during the late reign of Altan Khan of Tümed almost
               in parallel under the auspices of a number of local Mongol rulers and culminated during the rule of the
               last great khan Ligden of Chakhar by a compilation of the whole Mongolian version of the Tibetan
               Buddhist canon Kangyur/Kanjur (ClMo. Γanjuur, Tib. bka’ ’gyur; around 1629) might be explained
               by the general effort to create, through the acquisition of Buddhist texts in the language of the state, an
               effective symbol of the government of enlightened rulers, generating a positive impact on the life of
               the  whole  community.  At  the  same  time,  the  translations  of  Buddhist  texts  were  needed  as  an
               accompanying means in conferring specific initiations to Mongolian nobles, which were given to them
               despite the lack of knowledge of Tibetan and without having completed a standard monastic education.
                     Following  the  Manchu alliance with,  and  gradually domination  over, the Mongols, the  Qing
               court  continued  to  support  the  translation  of  Tibetan  Buddhist  texts  into  Mongolian  as  one  of  the


                                                           45</code></pre>
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