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    <pre style="white-space:pre-line"><code>2.5. Ritual Texts about the White Old Man

               The tradition of worshiping the deity commonly known as the White Old Man (čaγan ebügen) is one
               of the most developed within the Mongolian religion. Moreover, it remains strongly alive in multiple
               variations even in contemporary settled environments, from Kalmykia all the way through Xinjiang
               and Khalkha areas to Inner Mongolia, although specific ideas and forms of reverence for the White
               Old  Man  are not  uniformly  present  among  all  the  Mongols.  The  great  expansion  of respect  in the
               White Old Man corresponds to a very broad understanding of his competences – he is perceived as a
               protective deity of the landscape, a protector of livestock, a giver of family happiness and a safeguard
               of property (Birtalan 2001: 958). The White Old Man acts as a character in Buddhist čam-rituals, from
               where in general awareness he is understood as a benevolent, even comical deity. His popularity is
               manifested  primarily  in  the  great  demand  for  various  iconographic  depictions  (e.g.,  Meinert  2011:
               698–713),  although  personal  devotional  relationships  of  lay  devotees  to  the  White  Old  Man  are
               relatively rare compared to certain orthodox Buddhist deities (particularly White Tārā).
                     The  White  Old  Man  is  usually  considered  of  pre-Buddhist  origin,  but  no  direct  evidence  is
               available, as the deity, by its general character, may refer to many sources. The external appearance is
               likely to have been influenced by the Chinese Deity of Long Life, Shouxing 壽星 (Birtalan 2013a,
               2013b), partially as well by Chinese imaginings of the “lords of the soil and the ground” (tudigong 土
                     458
               地公).  Among some of the Oirat groups (e.g., among Xinjiang Öölöd), a variant of the White Old
               Man, the White Grandfather (tsagaan aav) is understood as an all-encompassing deity of the universe,
               perhaps under diffuse influence of neighbouring monotheistic religions. Among modern Kalmyks, the
               White Grandfather (tsagan aav, or the White Uncle tsagan avg) also began to be worshipped as the
               Master of Time (Humphrey s.d.: 1) descending regularly to earth at the New Moon and the Half-Moon
               to oversee and judge all people (Humphrey s.d.: 4), as mentioned in ritual texts edited below. In the
               folk  religion  of  the  Altai  Uriankhais,  the  White  Old  Man  partially  gave  way  to  the  White  Saint
                                                                                                 th
               (tsagaan gegeen), a mythologized image of the monk and pro-Qing army-leader of the 19  century
               Γungγajalcan  (Tib.  kun  dga’  rgyal  mtshan,  1835–1895),  which  developed  among  the  Mongolian-
               speaking inhabitants of Altai in parallel with the emergence of the systematized religion Burkhanism
               among the Turkic-speaking Altaians, where the main deity is Ak-Burkhan (White Burkhan; Шерстова
               2010:  176).  Among  Christianized  Buryats,  the  White  Old  Man  merged  with  Saint  Nicholas  of  the
               Russian Orthodox Church (Birtalan 2001: 959).
                     The entire tradition  has attracted considerable scholarly attention,  with numerous versions of
               related ritual texts having been edited to date (Mostaert 1957, Heissig 1966: 129–139, Rintchen 1975:
               128 only a fragmentary Buryat oral invocation of the White Old Man, Sárközi 1983, Цолоо 1999: 62–
               65,  Altan  2007,  Joriγtu,  Badai  &  Γangbolud  2013:  257–267,  Kápolnás  2012  and  others).  Futaki
               Hiroshi (Futaki 2005) proposed a classification of the White Old Man ritual texts (without editing and
               translating  them)  and  recently  Ágnes  Birtalan  (Birtalan  2020)  published  a  detailed  chapter  on  the
               entire  tradition  with  translation  of  all  major  types  of  the  White  Old  Man  (including  a  complete
               bibliography of related studies up to 2013).


               2.5.1. Extended Narrative Version of the White Old Man Offering Text

               2.5.1.1. Msc. B 55/3: Incense Offering Sutra of the White Old Man
               Manuscript description: A brush-written manuscript on Russian machine-made paper of two types
                                                                                    th
               (without producer’s stamps). Professional administrative style of the early 20  century. 10 fols. Size:
               17.6 × 7.6 cm.
               Palaeographic analysis: The manuscript includes two slightly different styles which can be attributed
               either to the collaboration of two separate scribes, or instead to the alternation of brushes and quality
               of ink by one skilled scribe. In the first case (mostly fol. 3r-5r) the style is characterized by longer,
               strongly  inclined  sidü  strokes,  between  which  the  main  connecting  line  is  interrupted;  also,  other


               458  Елихина 2020: 230 published a rare thangka depicting the White Old Man as tudigong together with his wife
               influenced by the Chinese notion of “Grandmother of the Soil and the Ground” (tudipo 土地婆).

                                                           155</code></pre>
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