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    <pre style="white-space:pre-line"><code>According to the oral tradition, personal encounters of local deities and spirits with people are
                   85
                                                                                              86
               rare,  but the course of events in the human realm and the realm of local deities/spirits  are closely
               intertwined.  Within  the  oral  tradition  of  the  Altai  Uriankhais,  all  major  events  in  human  society
               (particularly among nobles and the ruling classes) have parallel repercussions in the realm of local
               spirits.  Conversely,  quarrels  among  local  spirits  can  negatively influence relations  between  people,
               namely between local nobles (Srba 2019: 189). The human rulers are generally considered to possess a
               sacred authority which applies even to local deities, who must obey their will. The will of the human
               rulers towards the  local deities  is normally  expressed  in  the ritual manner  of propitiating  offerings
               requiring  rain,  mild  weather,  good  harvests,  and  other  forms  of  blessings,  but  in  case  the  deities
               decline  their  help,  the  ruler  is  allowed  to  issue  stricter  orders  or  express  reproach.  For  example,
               according to oral tradition in Zavkhan, the sacred Otgontenger Mountain once refused to “accept” the
               offerings and reply by providing the rain indispensable for the summer pastures. The local authorities
               asked the neighbouring tulku lama Dilav Khutagt (better known as Diluwa Khutugtu) for advice and
               he recommended that the local ruler approach the mountain and communicate an official order to the
               mountain  itself,  as  it  was  one  of  his  subordinates.  As  the  result,  the  deity  really  provided  rain
               (Баярсайхан et al. 2017: 134–135).
                     The  local  aspects  in  the  performance  of  the  rituals  of  mountain  veneration  are  important.
               According to a persistent belief, a ritual of venerating local deities should be performed by a local
               lama, otherwise a non-resident lama would either lead away the deity to his own place, or the deity
                                                                  87
               might follow the lama voluntarily and abandon the place.
                     The texts of offerings to deities of the land are classified into two major categories: site-specific
               and  non-site-specific,  which  can  be  used  at  various  places  (Lindahl  2010:  236).  Jared  R.  Lindahl
                                                                   88
               pointed out the distinction described by Samten Karmay  between sites related to the cult of local
               deities (yul lha) and mountains associated with specifically Buddhist context (gnas ri). Lindahl raised
               the question of whether the difference between yul lha and gnas ri sites could bear relation to the fact
               that site-specific ritual manuals in Mongolia start with a ritual visualization of the local deities in a
               manner similar to tantric tutelary deities, while non-site-specific ritual manuals “do not ritually conjoin
               the invoked local deity with a visualized image.” (Lindahl 2010: 242–243) In shorter Mongolian site-
               specific texts, the visualization of a deity is implicitly included in the part of its invitation (jalalγ-a).
               Here, the non-site-specific texts are represented by three versions of the famous ritual text composed
               by čorji lama Aγwangdorji (ColMo. tsorj lam Agvaandorj). The site-specific texts are represented by
               texts related to the deities of Khangai Mountains, Tsagaan Uul, Bogd Uul and Galshar Uul.
                                                                                                89
                     Incense offering texts for local deities of Mongolia written in Tibetan widely prevail over texts
               written in or translated into Mongolian (in premodern times). The terminology and fixed expressions
               were  elaborated  similarly  in  both  languages  and  learned  lamas  were  capable  of  fluent  ad  hoc
               translation of religious texts. Therefore, the question of the primary language of a ritual text is not

               85  For encounters with the Lord of Altai in the oral tradition of the Altai Uriankhais, see Srba 2019: 186–188.
               The  encounter  with  the  Lord  of  Altai  is  generally  considered  an  expression  of  special  grace  and  affection
               provided by the deity and it should not be communicated to other people except closely before one’s death. On
               the contrary, too early a communication to others about a similar experience can lead to illness, disability and
               even  death.  In  some  cases,  the  oral  tradition  does  not  clearly  define  whether  the  object  of  the  auspicious
               encounter was the deity itself or another being closely related to the deity, as for example in case of encounters
               with a giant snake on the mountain Takhilgat Khairkhan in Tsagaankhairkhan sum, Zavkhan aimag (Баярсайхан
               et al. 2017: 148–149). According to other narratives, the local spirits (lus) are visible only to high lamas and
               tulkus or to individuals empowered by them (Баярсайхан et al. 2017: 167–168, Баясгалан 2019: 233, Srba 2019:
               188–189, 190). According to the popular belief, lus spirits can be visible also to newborn babies.
               86  The  wide  category  of  local  deities,  spirits,  lords  of  places  etc.  can  be  divided  into  various  “realms”  and
               categories in the orthodox Buddhist view, but in the oral tradition they form rather a loosely unified group.
               87  According to my own field research conducted among the Altai Uriankhai in Bayan-Ölgii aimag during the
               local ovoo stone cairn ceremonies, particularly in June 2018. The local deities are not necessarily believed to be
               ever-present in the place. Oral tradition sometimes mentions random encounters of deities or spirits going to the
               place where they will be worshipped.
               88  Karmay 1998: 432–433; Lindahl 2010: 235.
               89  The text was published several times, for example by Tatár 1976, Сүхбаатар 2001: 47–57. Charles Bawden
               (1970:  57–66)  published  an  official  document  of  1893  ordering  the  reciting  of  this  text  in  the  banners  for
               improving the weather.

                                                           62</code></pre>
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