var textForPages = ["","Proceedings of 25th Central European Conference                  Useful Geography: Transfer from Research to Practice                                                            th                                                       th                                                     12 –13  October 2017, Brno                                                            Hana Svobodová (ed.)                                                                            Masaryk University                                                                     Brno 2018                                               1","All rights reserved. No part of this e-book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any             means  without  prior  written  permission  of  copyright  administrator  which  can be  contacted  at             Masaryk University Press, Žerotínovo náměstí 9, 601 77 Brno.                                      © 2018 Masarykova univerzita            ISBN 978-80-210-8908-2           ISBN 978-80-210-8907-5 (paperback)           https://doi.org/10.5817/CZ.MUNI.P210-8908-2018                                              2","th             The organizers of the 25  Central European Conference:              Department  of  Geography,  Faculty  of  Education,  Masaryk  University,  Brno,             Czech Republic             Department  of  Geography  and  Regional  Development,  Faculty  of  Natural             Sciences, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Slovak Republic                         Program Committee:             Prof. Martin Boltižiar, Department of Geography and Regional Development,             Faculty of Natural Sciences, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra,             Slovak Republic             Assoc.  Prof.  Alena  Dubcová,  Department  of  Geography  and  Regional             Development,  Faculty  of  Natural  Sciences,  Constantine  the  Philosopher             University in Nitra, Slovak Republic             Assoc.  Prof.  Eduard  Hofmann,  Department  of  Geography,  Faculty  of             Education, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic             Assoc. Prof. Jaromír Kolejka, Department of Geography, Faculty of Education,             Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic             Assoc.  Prof.  Alfred  Krogmann,  Department  of  Geography  and  Regional             Development,  Faculty  of  Natural  Sciences,  Constantine  the  Philosopher             University in Nitra, Slovak Republic             Assoc. Prof. Hana Svatoňová, Department of Geography, Faculty of Education,             Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic             Dr.  Hana  Svobodová,  Department  of  Geography,  Faculty  of  Education,             Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic                                                     3","Reviewers:           Prof. Martin Boltižiar, Department of Geography and Regional Development,           Faculty of Natural Sciences, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra,           Slovak Republic           Dr.  Jaromír  Čapek,  Department  of  Military  Geography  and  Meteorology,           Faculty of Military Technology, University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic           Dr.  Rastislav  Čief,  Department  of  Geography,  Faculty  of  Education,  Catholic           University in Ruzomberok, Slovak Republic           Mgr. Radek Durna, Department of Geography, Faculty of Education, Masaryk           University, Brno, Czech Republic           Assoc.  Prof.  Eduard  Hofmann,  Department  of  Geography,  Faculty  of           Education, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic           Dr.  Martin  Hubáček,  Department  of  Military  Geography  and  Meteorology,           Faculty of Military Technology, University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic           Dr.  Jiří  Jakubínský,  Department  of  Carbon  Storage  in  the  Landscape,  Global           Change Research Institute – CzechGlobe, Brno, Czech Republic           Dr.  Tomáš  Janko,  Institute  for  Research  in  School  Education,  Faculty  of           Education, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic           Assoc. Prof. Jaromír Kolejka, Department of Geography, Faculty of Education,           Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic           Assoc.  Prof.  Alfred  Krogmann,  Department  of  Geography  and  Regional           Development,  Faculty  of  Natural  Sciences,  Constantine  the  Philosopher           University in Nitra, Slovak Republic           Dr.  Silvie  R.  Kučerová,  Department  of  Geography,  Faculty  of  Science,  Jan           Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic           Dr.  Aleš  Létal,  Department  of  Geography,  Faculty  of  Science,  Palacký           University Olomouc, Czech Republic           Dr. Libor Lněnička, Department of Geography, Faculty of Education, Masaryk           University, Brno, Czech Republic           Dr.  Darina  Mísařová,  Department  of  Geography,  Faculty  of  Education,           Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic           Prof. František Petrovič, The Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences,           Faculty  of  Natural  Sciences,  Constantine  the  Philosopher  University  in  Nitra,           Slovak Republic           Assoc.  Prof.  Marian  Rybanský,  Department  of  Military  Geography  and           Meteorology,  Faculty  of  Military  Technology,  University  of  Defence,  Brno,           Czech Republic           Mgr.  Kristýna  Rybová,  Department  of  Geography,  Faculty  of  Science,  Jan           Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic                                              4","Dr.  Hana  Svobodová,  Department  of  Geography,  Faculty  of  Education,             Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic             Ing.  Zdeněk  Šilhan,  Department  of  Regional  Economics  and  Administration,             Faculty  of  Economics  and  Administration,  Masaryk  University,  Brno,  Czech             Republic             Prof.  Václav  Talhofer,  Department  of  Military  Geography  and  Meteorology,             Faculty of Military Technology, University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic             Mgr.  Libor  Trtek,  Department  of  Geography,  Faculty  of  Education,  Masaryk             University, Brno, Czech Republic              All papers have been peer-reviewed.             The authors of individual papers are responsible for technical, content, and             linguistic correctness.                                                                                       5","CONTENT              INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 11           GEOGRAPHY AS A SCIENCE, DIDACTICS OF GEOGRAPHY ........................... 12           Traditional, disappearing and emerging human geography topics at           grammar achools and in undergraduate geography teacher training           programmes ............................................................................................. 12             Rastislav Čief, Branislav Nižnanský           Pupil’s difficulties in performing problem-based learning tasks in           geography: Results of the qualitative analysis .......................................... 23             Tomáš Janko, Petr Knecht, Silvie Rita Kučerová, Jan Daniel Bláha           Theoretical concept of regional inequalities in the context of creating           university textbook – regional development – factors, inequalities           and cross-border cooperation ................................................................... 30             Radoslav Klamár, Alena Madziková, Martin Rosič           Useful geography in education ................................................................. 46             Jaromír Kolejka           Development studies and development geography in the system of           Earth sciences ........................................................................................... 56             Zdeněk Opršal, Pavel Nováček            European Union in the practical life of primary school pupils (at the            nd           2  level of primary schools in Slovakia) .................................................... 65             Iveta Rakytová           The evaluation of potential contributions of outdoor education –           teacher’s versus pupil’s point of view ....................................................... 82             Hana Svobodová, Darina Mísařová, Radek Durna, Eduard Hofmann           Experience-based learning in teaching of the local landscape ................... 91             Ivana Tomčíková           Activating methods in geography teaching (geography by senses) ......... 103             Jana Vojteková, Michaela Žoncová           Geography and its application in education within the cross border           cooperation project “Springs connecting” (case study) ........................... 112             Kamil Zágoršek, Emil Drápela, Tomáš Vitvar, Matthias Kändler, Jiří             Šmída, Hynek Böhm                                            6","PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, LANDSCAPE RESEARCH ......................................... 119             Possibilities of air temperature data processing from the             meteorological stations in Brno and surrounding area ........................... 119               Karel Dejmal, Petr Kolář, Josef Novotný, Alena Roubalová             Water regime and prediction of its impact on river crossing in             different types of zonal landscape .......................................................... 132               Filip Dohnal, Marian Rybanský, Kateřina Šimková             The significance of historical landscape structure in South Moravia for             the protection of the landscape, landscape function and the             protection of agricultural land resources ................................................ 143               Marek Havlíček, Hana Skokanová, Bořivoj Šarapatka, Renata               Pavelková, Patrik Netopil             InVEST software as a modelling tool for ecosystem services             assessment (example of Pollinator Abundance model for Nitra and             surrounding area) ................................................................................... 154               Martin Jančovič             Cultural heritage and geodiversity of landforms in the landscape of             the Archdiocese of Olomouc ................................................................... 165               Karel Kirchner, František Kuda, Lucie Kubalíková, Marek Havlíček, Ivo               Machar, Vilém Pechanec             The pre-industrial landscape as a cultural heritage: Malá Haná .............. 173               Jaromír Kolejka             Natural aspects of the development of the landscape with dispersed             settlement (example of the Hrušov village cadastral area) ..................... 187               Ján Lacika, Ján Hanušin             New approaches to studies of extinct ponds .......................................... 203               Aleš Létal, Renata Pavelková, Patrik Netopil, Marek Havlíček, Václav               David, Hana Skokanová, Jindřich Frajer, Bořivoj Šarapatka             Wetland – yes or no (The Paríž wetlands National Nature Reserve –             Slovakia) ................................................................................................. 216               František Petrovič, Matej Mojses, Zlatica Muchová             Analysis and assessment of land cover changes and landscape             stability in the Nitra river basin (Slovakia) .............................................. 227               Matej Vojtek                                                 7","Using multicriterial analysis to assess the diversification of rural           landscape ................................................................................................ 237             Michaela Žoncová, Jana Vojteková            CARTOGRAPHY, GIS AND DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES ................................. 248           Utilization of GIS in mapping invasive plant species of the River Nitra .... 248             Michaela Bencová, Vladimíra Lišková, Jozef Ťažký, Dávid Tomko-             Králo           New maps of the transport infrastructure’s impact on biodiversity ........ 259             Ivo Dostál, Petr Anděl, Marek Havlíček            Visualization of Traffic Offences in the City of Brno (Czech Republic):           Achieving 3D Thematic Cartography through Open Source and Open           Data ........................................................................................................ 270             Lukáš Herman, Jan Russnák, Radim Stuchlík, Jiří Hladík           Dependence of occurrence of forest fires in Vysočina region on           temperature and its spatial distribution ................................................. 281             Martin Hubacek, Sarka Hoskova-Mayerova, David Sladek, Karel             Dejmal, Katerina Simkova           Interaction Primitives in 3D Geovisualizations ........................................ 294             Vojtěch Juřík, Lukáš Herman, Čeněk Šašinka           Old Roads in Dolní Pomoraví in the Mikulčice and Kopčany Area:           Hypotheses Supported By the Analysis of Old Maps and Aerial           Imagery................................................................................................... 304             Jaromír Kolejka, Martin Boltižiar, Matej Vojtek           Analyses of Availability Using GIS Taking into Consideration of Real           Terrain .................................................................................................... 314             Matej Močko, Martina Zigová, Michal Ševčík, Imrich Jakab           The Computation of Real Area Using GIS Demonstrated on           Management of Invasive Plants .............................................................. 326             Michal Ševčík, Petra Gašparovičová, Martina Zigová, Tomáš Rusňák,             Imrich Jakab           Selected Indicators of Computer Literacy of the Population in Slovakia.. 336             Katarína Vilinová, Gabriela Repaská, Laura Babjaková                                               8","HUMAN GEOGRAPHY ............................................................................. 345             Demographic development in Slovakia in 2016 ...................................... 345               Miloš Bačík             Polish minority in the Czech part of Těšín Silesia in 2017: can accent             on schools prevent the entire assimilation? ........................................... 355               Hynek Böhm             Methodological issues of using the gravity model to determine the             power of border effect ........................................................................... 367               Emil Drápela, Nikola Kárníková             Actors of territorial development in the city of Brno: focused on             significant developers of housing construction ....................................... 376               Zdeněk Dvořák, Josef Kunc, Petr Tonev             Health geography – the context of health and the environment on the             example of asthma diagnosis ................................................................. 389               Dana Hübelová, Alice Kozumplíková, Jarmila Überhuberová             Comparison of Czech regions using Creativity Index ............................... 402               Markéta Chaloupková             Military training areas and their hinterland in the Czech Republic with             focus on tourism ..................................................................................... 413               Martina Jaňurová, Aneta Krajíčková             Weekend recreation as a tool for dispersed settlement preservation             (case study of village Terchová) .............................................................. 425               Dominika Kaisová             The design of a cycling route in the model territory of Levice and its             surroundings .......................................................................................... 434               Tomáš Kováč, Martin Boltižiar             Trade and economic relations of agricultural companies in the             suburban region ..................................................................................... 447               Ondřej Krejčí, Antonín Věžník             Geotourism within urban areas: new ways of promotion of natural             and cultural heritage (case study from Brno city) ................................... 462               Lucie Kubalíková, Aleš Bajer             Experience to apply the method of assessing the recreational             potential of suburban forests in urbanized areas ................................... 473               Natálie Levandovská                                              9","City spatial structure in case study of the Russian cities Perm and           Samara.................................................................................................... 482             Libor Lněnička           Nitra wine region – the most diverse wine region in Slovakia ................. 494             Jana Némethová, Marek Civáň            Unrecognized state entities in the (geo)political space of the 21st           century ................................................................................................... 506             Štěpán Podhrázský           Quality of life evaluation in the municipality with a great employer:           case study of the Mírov municipality ...................................................... 515             Zdeněk Šilhan, Hana Svobodová           Specifics of the retail network spatial structure in the Piešťany town..... 525             Miroslava Trembošová, Sandra Wiecková, Ivana Gálisová           Selected indicators of computer lteracy of the population in Slovakia .... 543             Katarína Vilinová, Gabriela Repaská, Laura Babjaková           Potential of the tourism development in municipalities of the local           action group Horný Liptov ...................................................................... 553             Gréta Vrbičanová, Hilda Kramáreková                                                                      10","INTRODUCTION                                th             During  the  days  12 –13 th   October,  2017,  the  25 th   edition  of  the  Central             European Conference, entitled “Useful Geography: Transfer from Research to             Practice”, took place at the Pedagogical Faculty of Masaryk University in Brno.             The main organizer in the odd year is the Department of Geography, Faculty             of Education, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic, in partnership with             the Department of Geography and Regional Development, Faculty of Natural             Sciences, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Slovak Republic. The             cooperation of Czech and Slovak geographers continues further in the area of             exchange of new geographic knowledge, information and contacts. In addition             to Czech and Slovak geographers, the conference was attended by colleagues             from Poland and Russia.             The  conference  itself  was  conceived  rather  unusually  compared  to  the             previous years. The model of the presentation of linearly ordered papers in             the thematic sections was abandoned and was given a space for discussion             and  deeper  reflection  of  current  geography  problems  through  three  panel             discussions:                Physical  geography  and  its  applications  (in  cartography,  GIS,  education,                planning, safety)                Socio-economic  geography  and  its  application  (in  professional  practice,                education, planning)                Regional  geography  and  its  application  (in  cartography,  GIS,  education,                planning, management)             The  proceedings  itself,  unlike  the  narrowly  focused  panels,  is  thematically             conceived  very  widely  –  it  contains  contributions  from  four  sub-geographic             disciplines:                  Geography as a science, didactics of geography                  Physical geography, landscape research                  Cartography, GIS and digital technologies                  Human geography             In total 48 papers are published and I believe that each geographer can find             a lot of new information and interesting ideas that could be used mainly in             transfer from research to practice.                                                          Hana Svobodová, editor                                               11","GEOGRAPHY AS A SCIENCE, DIDACTICS OF GEOGRAPHY               TRADITIONAL, DISAPPEARING AND EMERGING HUMAN GEOGRAPHY           TOPICS AT GRAMMAR ACHOOLS AND IN UNDERGRADUATE GEOGRAPHY                            TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAMMES                              Rastislav Čief, Branislav Nižnanský            Katolícka Univerzita Ružomberok, Technická Univerzita Liberec, Hrabovská cesta 1,                        Ružomberok 034 01 / Studentská 2, Liberec 461 17                        rastislav.cief@ku.sk, branislav.niznansky@tul.cz            Abstract:  Traditional  Human  Geography  was  referred  to  as  Socio-economic           Geography in the didactic practice of the Soviet bloc. Thematic areas of the           Socio-economic Geography curriculum included traditional topics: population           and settlement, economy, manufacturing and non-manufacturing industries,           services, tourism and foreign trade. The current curriculum of the subject of           Geography  has  undergone  the  transformation  of  the  content  of  the           curriculum.  The  original  topic  of  the  population  and  settlements  has  been           modified mainly under the influence of the development of Social Geography           at the CU in Prague. In the field of Economic Geography, the thematic content           has  responded  to  the  Industry  Classification  System,  with  emerging  topics           related  to  the  quaternary  and  quinary  sector  of  economy.  There  have           emerged topics related to Cultural Geography, including the development of           Political  Geography.  The  paper  presents  the  comparison  of  traditional,           disappearing and emerging topics of Human Geography within the curricula of           grammar  schools  and  undergraduate  Geography  teacher  training           programmes.           Keywords:  educational programme, topics of Human Geography, textbooks,           study plans                                    1 INTRODUCTION           Human  Geography  belongs  to  fast-growing  disciplines.  The  paper  describes           analysis of Human Geography topics in selected educational materials used at           secondary  schools  and  in  undergraduate  Geography  teacher  training           programme. The analysis of changes in Human Geography topics at secondary           schools was carried out on the basis of comparison of old and new Geography           textbooks in the Slovak Republic. We also outlined the differences of topics in           Czech  textbooks.  Human  Geography  in  undergraduate  programmes  was           analyzed on the basis of comparisons  with the topics of the Bachelor State           Exam. All of this was carried out within the context of “National Geography           Standards  (NGC  1996-2017)”.  While  comparing  the  thematic  areas  and           conceptual  bases,  we  are  pursuing  the  objective  of  monitoring  the  current           trends  by  distinguishing  traditional,  disappearing  and  emerging  topics  and                                            12","concepts  of  Human  Geography  in  Geography  education  on  the  secondary             level.                2 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY TOPICS IN GRAMMAR SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS IN                                   THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC             The comparison of old and new Geography textbooks at grammar schools in             the Slovak Republic has shown a characteristic feature, which is a significant             reduction  of  the  extent  and  the  content  in  Human  Geography,  which  also             follows from the processed analysis, resulting in elaborated schemes (Tables             1-5).             Tab. 1: The topic of “Population” in grammar school textbooks 2006 and 2009                         Source: Mládek 2006                 Source: Tolmáči 2009              In a traditional topic of “Population”, there is a  significant reduction in the             text (Three chapters within six pages instead of original eleven chapters within             thirty-two  pages).  The  following  concepts  have  been  omitted:  Neolithic             Revolution,  ecumene,  unecumene,  subecumene,  specific  mortality,  infant             mortality, fertility, demographic cycle, demographic revolution, demographic             transition  and  re-emigration.  In  the  older  textbooks,  the  procedural             knowledge  dimension  was  represented  by  a  formula  for  calculating             population movement, which is not present in the new textbooks. Also, the             graphical comparison of the changes in the share of continents in the total             population of the world has disappeared.             Preserved  concepts  are:  population  explosion,  population  density,  natality,             mortality,  life  expectancy,  natural  movement,  mechanical  movement,  total             movement,  age  pyramid,  progressive  type,  stationary  type,  regressive  type,             race,  europoid,  mongoloid,  equatorial,  nation,  nationality,  language  family,             religion, Christianity, Catholicism, Protestantism, Orthodoxy, Islam, Hinduism,             Buddhism, Judaism.             Newly  added  adjectives  “monotheistic,  polytheistic”  suggest  an  effort  to             describe  the  concept  of  religion  better,  which  is  so  important  within  the             education now (but obscure in the past).             We need to say that in connection with the current issue of migration, the             curriculum reduction within the topics of “formula for calculating population             movements” and “demographic cycle theory” was not chosen appropriately.                                               13","Tab. 2: The topic of “Settlements” in grammar school textbooks 2006 and 2009                                Source: Mládek 2006                Source: Tolmáči 2009            In another traditional topic of “Settlements”, there is a significant reduction in           the  text  (one  chapter  within  two  pages  instead  of  original  twelve  chapters           within  sixteen  pages).  The  following  concepts  have  been  omitted:           municipality,  Zipf‘s  law,  Christalle's  Central  place  theory,  monogenetic,           polygenetic,  functional  division  of  the  town,  suburbs,  satellite  town  and           suburban zone.           Preserved  concepts  are:  settlement,  municipality,  settlement,  urbanization,           city,  metropolis,  agglomeration,  conurbation,  megalopolis,  polyfunctional,           monofunctional, village and countryside.           A newly added and important concept (15% of the text on settlements) in the           new  textbook  is  “slums”.  Interestingly,  the  older  textbook  criticizes  the           concept of “village” as archaic, but it is used again in the new textbook and is           no  longer  marked  as  archaic.  We  have  identified  several  disappearing           concepts  (not  used  in  the  new  textbook)  related  to  suburbanization           (suburban, suburban zones, satellite town, suburban zone). But according to           the  authors,  the  topic  of  suburbanization  can  be  classified  as  an  emerging           topic.                                                    14","Tab.  3:  The  topic  of  “Primary  and  Secondary  Sector”  in  Grammar  School             Textbooks 2006 and 2009                                         Source: Mládek 2006                 Source: Tolmáči 2009              In  the  next  traditional  topic  “Primary  and  Secondary  Sector”,  there  is             a significant reduction in the text (three chapters within four pages instead of             original sixteen chapters within twenty-five pages). The omitted concepts are:             types  of  agricultural  landscape,  arable,  grasslands,  land  with  mixed  crops,             permanent  coppice,  suburban  agricultural  land,  self-supplying,  market,             extensive,  intensive,  farm,  plantation,  manufactory,  industrial  revolution,             mechanization, automation and industries.             Preserved  concepts  are:  agriculture,  crop  production,  livestock  production,             food,  feed,  technical  crops,  delicacies,  cattle,  sheep,  pigs,  poultry,  energy,             renewable and non-renewable resources, localization factors, global economy             and multinational companies.             The  new  concepts  can  be  found  within  the  extended  characteristics  of  the             primary sector (fisheries, forestry, mining, world granaries). These concepts,             similarly  to  the  other  two  added  (Asian  tigers,  economic  crisis),  have  been             considered to be more traditional than emerging in Human Geography.                                                   15","Tab.  4:  The  topic  of  “Tertiary  and  Quaternary  Sector”  in  Grammar  school           textbooks, 2006 and 2009                              Source: Mládek 2006                Source: Tolmáči 2009            In  another  traditional  topic  “Tertiary  and  Quaternary  Sector”,  there  is  also           a significant reduction in the text (one chapter  within two pages instead of           original  fifteen  chapters  within  nineteen  pages).  The  omitted  concepts  are:           special  types  of  transport,  direction  of  transport  development,  forms  of           tourism, agritourism, mineral and thermal spas, climate spas and trip tourism.           Preserved concepts are: transport, rail transport, road transport, air transport,           water transport, pipeline transport, services, tourism, seaside areas, mountain           areas and tourism of settlements.           The  disappearance  of  all  concepts  related  to  all  forms  of  tourism  is           questionable within the context of the rise of tourism and related free-time           activities. No new concepts have been found within the topic of “tertiary and           quaternary sector” (a current and emerging topic in modern Geography).            Tab. 5: The topic of “Political Geography” in grammar school textbooks, 2002,           2006 and 2009                        Source:   Mariot 2002 and Mladek 2006      Source: Tolmáči 2009            Another  traditional  topic  of  “Political  Geography”  also  saw  a  significant           reduction  in  the  text  (one  chapter  within  two  pages  instead  of  original  ten                                           16","chapters  within  twenty-seven  pages).  The  following  concepts  have  been             omitted:  countries  of  the  first  world,  countries  of  the  second  world,             humanitarian  aid,  cultural  and  geographic  regions,  models  of  the  world             development,  consumer  society,  global  ecological  problems,  republic,             parliamentary  type,  presidential  type,  constitutional  monarchy,  absolutist             monarchy, unitary state, federation, liberalization, privatization, convertibility,             inflation, OPEC, OECD, Comecon and OAU.             Preserved concepts are: rich north, poor south, states, colonies, third world             countries,  decolonization,  European  Union,  UN,  and  dictatorship.  The  new             concepts  are:  strategic  interests,  superpowers,  globalization,  terrorism,             organized crime and unnaturally created borders.             The topic's inclusion is very inconsistent in terms of the placement level of the             topic within the textbook and its dramatic changes in chapter titles, omitted             and added concepts. For example, why has a significant concept of (if not one             of the most important) “humanitarian aid” been omitted, while the concepts             with a rather negative meaning have been added?               3 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY TOPICS IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS                                   IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC             We  conducted  a  comparison  of  the  content  of  secondary  school  textbooks             focused  on  Human  Geography  in  the  Czech  Republic  that  have  lead  to  the             following comments.             The title of the discipline of Human Geography itself is different. The authors             of  the  textbooks  of  “Economic  Geography”  (currently  used  at  Business             Academies)  address  the  discipline  with  the  concept  of  “Social             (Sociogeographic)  discipline”  (Skokan  2006)  or  “Social  Geography  (Bičík             2005)”.  The  former  textbook  partially  introduces  the  social  disciplines.  (See             Table  6,  left  column)  The  textbook  of  Geography  for  Secondary  Schools  2             introduces the socio-economic part as a subchapter of “Human Geography” to             the main unit of “Socio-Economic Geography” (See Table 7).             Tab.  6:  Sub-disciplines  of  Human  Geography  and  Economic  and  Geographic             Topics named in the textbook of “Economic Geography”                      Source: Skokan 2006              Out of the three secondary school textbooks dealing with the topics of Human             Geography, the textbook written by the authors S. Mirvald et al. (2003) is the             most detailed in terms of the extent and the contents. Its content, apart from             two chapters, is very similar to the analyzed Slovak textbooks. On the other             hand, the approach to creating chapter titles is different. Human Geography                                             17","topics  use  mainly  traditional  concepts.  We  can  mention  the  concepts  of           structural changes and the international division of labour, just to name a few           concepts we didn’t come across in the analysis of Slovak textbooks. Very close           economic-geographical concepts were also found in the titles of the textbooks           written by L. Skokan (See Table 6, right column).           In the contents of the analyzed Czech textbooks, we found two topics that are           different  from  traditional  topics  of  Human  Geography:  “Landscape  and  the           Environment”  and  “Applied  Geography”  (See  Table  7).  While  the  topic  of           “Landscape  and  the  Environment”  can  be  found  separately  in  secondary           school textbooks in the  Slovak Republic, the topics of “Applied Geography”           are  represented  only  by  the  issue  of  spatial  planning  within  the  topic  of           “Landscape and the Environment”.           These two topics, which were found in three analyzed Czech textbooks, are           structured very similarly. But there are only about four chapters dealing with           the issues of “Landscape and the Environment” and “Applied Geography” in           the textbook of L. Skokan et al., while there are ten chapters in the textbook           written by S. Mirvald et al.            Tab.  7:  Contents  of  S.  Mirvald’s  et  al.  textbook  focused  on  Socio-economic           Geography                                Source: Mirval 2003                                                         18","Tab. 8: NGS - US National Geographic Standard                             Source: © NGC 1996-2017              The chapters with these topics (Mirvald 2003) can be considered as emerging             topics. Their characteristics, such as interdisciplinarity and focus on the issues             of the landscape, including its human-geographic components, are a response             to  the  current  requirements  of  geographical  education.  The  very  content             structure of this textbook is very similar to the second part of the list (Table 8,             right column) of the topics of the US National Geographic Standard (NGS, ©             NGC 1996-2017). The difference in the contents of the chapters dealing with             the issues of a man in the country and the issues of Geography in the NGS and             in S. Mirvald’s textbook (2003) highlight the novelty of the topics and their up-             to-date  response  within  the  context  of  traditional  topics  of  Human             Geography.  See  the  chapters  of  “Landscape  and  the  Environment”  and             “Applied Geography” (Table 7) and thematic units of “the Environment and             Society” and “The Use of Geography” (Table 8).                    4 THE TOPICS OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY IN UNDERGRADUATE                        GEOGRAPHY TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAMMES              The  analysis  of  the  topics  of  Human  Geography  and  their  occurrence  in             undergraduate programmes was carried out on the basis of the topics of the             Bachelor State Exam. We analyzed the topics in the Department of Regional             Geography of the Comenius University in Bratislava and the Departments of             Geography  at  the  Catholic  University  in  Ružomberok  and  the  Technical             University in Liberec.             In  all  three  cases,  students  choose  one  question  from  Human  Geography,             which is one out of the three thematic areas of the State Exam (33% of the             curriculum at Bachelor State Exam). The requirements of Slovak universities             include  the  knowledge  of  24  (27)  shorter  or  more  detailed  topics.  The             Department  of  Geography  in  Liberec  (KGE  TUL)  requires  a  debate  on  one             theme out of previously known fifteen themes consisting of one main topic             and three subtopics.             All  three  departments  require  traditional  topics  of  “Population”  and             “Settlements”  with  a  traditional,  already  mentioned  conceptual  basis.  The             KGE  TUL  themes  also  include  a  regional  element  within  the  topics  of                                             19","“Population Geography of the Czech Republic” and “Settlement Geography of           the Czech Republic”.           The topics of the “Population” and “Settlements” make up almost half of the           extent of the analyzed assignments provided to students on the department’s           web site. The second part is again focused on traditional topics of primary up           to tertiary sectors, beginning with agriculture and ending with tourism.           It cannot be said that any of the above mentioned topics is a disappearing one           in  regard  to  the  analyses  made.  On  the  contrary,  in  Liberec  topics  we  find           interconnection of the population mobility in relation to the functional spatial           structure of the settlement with respect to the concepts of Time Geography.           Similarly, the concepts related to the “exploitation of resources in the context           of  uneven  development  and  the  issues  of  the  development  of  peripheral           areas of the Czech Republic” or “the role of infrastructure and development           barriers” can be considered as emerging concepts.           In some topics dealing with Human Geography in the Department of Regional           Geography at UK in Bratislava we can find some not quite traditional (from           the point of view of previous analysis) Human Geography concepts, e. g. agro-           complex  or  social  and  technical  infrastructure.    In  “Applied  Geography”,  an           emerging topic is for example the topic of “The map of the usage of the Earth,           its preparation and its construction, the forms of the usage of the Earth”.                                     5 CONCLUSION           Seeing the results of comparisons of older and newer textbooks (and Bachelor           State Exam topics), it is very difficult to predict the trends of emerging and           disappearing topics of Human Geography. We can see a rather conservative           structure of the topics and the main trend is in the reduction of the content           and extent of the curriculum, with exceptional addition of selected concepts           (e.g.  monotheistic,  polytheist,  extended  characteristics  of  primary  sector,           etc.). Sometimes we observe an almost inadequate expansion, as in the case           of the concept “slums”.           A very similar conservative model of conceptual construction was also found           in three documents used by all three Geography departments in the Slovak           Republic  and  the  Czech  Republic  which  included  Human  Geography  topics.           Virtually,  the  whole  contents  of  the  given  topics  consisted  of  the  concepts           which we described in the analysis of Slovak secondary school textbooks. As           shown above, we can see the transfer of the original extent and the contents           from the secondary school leaving examination to the level of the Bachelor           State Examination.           In selecting educational materials and their following deeper analysis, we find           important to focus on the following issues:           1. Conceptual basis of traditional concepts of Human Geography in Geography           for  secondary  schools  and  undergraduate  Geography  teacher  training           programmes, its variants, its key concepts and occasionally or exceptionally           occurring concepts.           2. The need to link the  concepts and topics of Human Geography with the           topic of “Man and country” (or “Environment and Society”), the key concepts           of this topic, its interdisciplinary view.                                           20","3. Partial issues of the topic of “Applied Geography” (The Uses of Geography):             geoinformation  technologies,  spatial  planning,  globalization,  regional  policy             and  regional  development,  sustainable  development,  renewable  resources,             etc. Human Geography aspects of these topics and the orientation of Human             Geography to addressing the issues of a landscape, settlements and human             society within the context of new trends in Human Geography.             These  conclusions  indicate  a  relatively  great  power  of  the  paradigm  of             traditional Human Geography. Where the foundations of Human Geography             are being laid, which is at  secondary schools and in undergraduate teacher             training  programmes,  the  construction  of  its  conceptual  basis  is  based  on             traditional concepts. It is disturbed only exceptionally and to a minimal extent             by topics which still have to defend their position in Human Geography.                                         REFERENCES             BIČÍK,  I.  a  kol.  2005.  Hospodářský  zeměpis.  Globální  geografické  aspekty             světového hospodářství. Učebnice pro obchodní akademie a jiné střední školy.             Nakladatelství ČGS s.r.o. 96 s. ISBN 80-86034-52-6.             BIZUBOVÁ, M., KUSENDOVÁ, D., RUŽEK, I., RUŽEKOVÁ, M. a TRIZNA, M. 2008.             Geografia pre 1. ročník gymnázií. 1.vydanie. SPN: Bratislava. 96 s. ISBN 978-             80-10-01429-3.             LAUKO, V. a TOLMÁČI, L. 2004. Geografia pre 2. ročník gymnázií. Slovensko.             2.vydanie. Orbis Pictus Istropolitana. 64 s. ISBN 80-7158-468-1.             MARIOT, P. et al. 2002. Geografia pre 2. ročník gymnázia, I. diel. 4.vydanie.             Orbis Pistus Istropolitana. 88 s. ISBN 80-7158-402-9.             MLÁDEK  et  al.  2003.  Geografia  pre  1.  ročník  gymnázií,  2.diel.  Humánna             geografia. 3.vydanie. SPN, Bratislava. 103 s. ISBN 80-10-00235-6             MLÁDEK  et  al.  2006.  Geografia  pre  1.  ročník  gymnázií,  2.diel.  Humánna             geografia. 4.vydanie. SPN, Bratislava. 109 s. ISBN 80-10-00767-6             MIRVALD, S. et al. 2003. Geografie 2 pro střední školy Socioekonomická část.             SPN: Praha. ISBN 80-7235-008-0.             National geography standards 1994, NGC 1996-2017.             SKOKAN,  L.  et  al.    2006.  Hospodářský  zeměpis  1  pro  obchodní  akademie  a             ostatní střední školy. 4. vydání, Fortuna: Praha 135 s. ISBN 80-7168-861-4.             TOLMÁČI,  L.,  LAUKO,  V.,  GURŇÁK,  D.  a  KRIŽAN,  F.  2011.  Geografia  pre  3.             ročník gymnázií. 1.vydanie. VKÚ, Harmanec. 119s. ISBN 978-80-80-8042-610-1             TOLMÁČI, L., GURŇÁK, D. a KRIŽAN, F. 2009. Geografia pre 2. ročník gymnázií.             1.vydanie. VKÚ Harmanec. 112 s. ISBN 978-80-8042-580-7                                           Shrnutí             V  příspěvku  je  popsána  analýza  témat  humánní  geografie  ve  vybraných             edukačních materiálech používaných na středních školách a na bakalářském             stupni studijního programu Učitelství geografie. Analýza změn témat humánní             geografie středních škol je provedena na základě porovnání starých a nových             učebnic  geografie  v  SR.  Načrtnuty  jsou  i  rozdíly  v obsahu  a  rozsahu  témat                                             21","v českých  učebnicích.  Humánní  geografie  v  bakalářských  programech  je           analyzována podle témat bakalářských státnic. To vše v kontextu dokumentu           „National Geography Standards (NGC 1996–2017)“. Porovnáním tematických           okruhů a pojmových bází sledujeme cíl monitorovat aktuální trendy odlišením           témat  a  pojmů  v  humánní  geografii  tradičních,  ustupujících  a  nastupujících           v realizaci obsahu geografického vzdělávání na středoškolské úrovni.           Při výběru a analýze dalších edukačních materiálů považujeme za důležité, se           zaměřit na následující problémy:           1.  Konceptuální  báze  tradičních  pojmů  humánní  geografie  v  středoškolské           a bakalářské  geografii,  její  varianty  její  klíčové  pojmy  a  občasně  případně           výjimečně se vyskytující pojmy.           2. Propojení pojmů a témat humánní geografie s tématem „Člověk a krajina“           případně „Environment and Society“, klíčové pojmy tohoto tématu z hlediska           humánní geografie, jeho interdisciplinární záběr.           3. Parciální problémy tématu „Aplikovaná geografie“ (The Uses of Geography):           geoinformační technologie, územní plánováni, globalizace, regionální politika           a  regionální  rozvoj,  udržitelný  rozvoj,  obnovitelné  zdroje  apod.           Humánněgeografické  aspekty  uvedených  témat  a  orientace  humánní           geografie na geografická řešení problémů krajiny, sídel a lidské společnosti.           Uvedené závěry indikují poměrně  velkou  sílu paradigmatu tradiční humánní           geografie.  Tam,  kde  se  kladou  její  základy,  tj.  na  středních  školách           a v bakalářském stupni přípravy učitelů, je konstrukce její pojmové báze téměř           beze zbytku postavená na tradičních konceptech.                                                                          22","PUPIL’S DIFFICULTIES IN PERFORMING PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING                 TASKS IN GEOGRAPHY: RESULTS OF THE QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS                              1                                        2                                                         3                                                                       4                   Tomáš Janko , Petr Knecht , Silvie Rita Kučerová , Jan Daniel Bláha                              Masaryk University Faculty of Education                            1                2                              janko@ped.muni.cz,   knecht@ped.muni.cz                          Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem                            3                   4                              silvie.kucerova@ujep.cz,   jd@jackdaniel.cz              Abstract:  The  authors  conducted  22  unstructured  heuristic  interviews  with             the 7th and 8th grade pupils of the Czech lower secondary schools. During the             interview the pupils were asked to perform a problem-oriented learning task             with the help of visuals in the contemporary Czech geography textbooks and             Czech School Atlas of the World. The aim was to determine where exactly the             pupils fail when performing the assigned learning task. The interviews were             analysed  using  a  qualitative  content  analysis  with  open  coding  as             a methodological  tool.  This  working  paper  is  an  outcome  of  the  research             project Visual Geographic Information and its Role in Geographic Education             (GA16-01003S) funded by the Czech Science Foundation (GAČR).             Key words: didactics of geography, geography education, learning tasks, lower             secondary school pupils, problem solving                                       INTRODUCTION             Both our our interest and motivation to conduct research, presented in this             working paper, result from the needs of teaching practice. Czech geography             teachers  still tend to hold a conservative attitude towards using cognitively             more  difficult  tasks  (Řezníčková,  2009).  The  same  problem  applies  to             geography  textbooks  (Průcha,  2014)  and  geography  curriculum  (Hanus  \&             Marada, 2013). This contrasts with the theories of learning which hold that             learning is effective in particular if questions and tasks with different levels of             difficulty are preferably in an appropriate balance (comp. Mullis et al., 2009             and others). International comparative research proves that Czech pupils fail             to  solve  more  difficult  problem-based  learning  tasks  on  a  long  term  basis             (Martin  et  al.,  2012).  Problem-based  learning  is  considered  an  ideal  rather             than  regular  teaching  method  at  levels  of  lower  and  upper  secondary             education (Hübelová, Janík, \& Najvar, 2008). This research tries to respond to             the above-mentioned shortcomings. The aim is not only to develop the theory             and  identify  where  exactly  pupils  fail  while  performing  problem-based             learning  tasks,  but  also  to  solve  a  practical  problem  and  discover  how  to             design educational tools to support pupils’ learning. Taking into account the             current  state  of  knowledge,  we  want  to  examine  pupils’  learning  in  the             authentic educational context.                                               23","THEORETICAL BACKGROUND           Ainsworth (2006) states that based on mapping an extensive research field,           the  researcher’s  interest  should  focus  primarily  on  research  questions           revealing  subject  specific  characteristics  of  the  particular  learning  content           related  to  the  principal  aim  of  the  learning  task  (or  more  precisely  to  the           learning  objectives).  The  aim  of  such  research  is  to  apply  its  findings  while           designing learning materials. Problem-based geography tasks are supposed to           have  some  distinctive  features  reflecting  the  objectives  and  content  of           geography as a school subject. It is assumed that processes of teaching and           learning geography are so distinctive that they are possible to analyse only by           means of research tools reflecting this distinctive feature (cf. Lambert, 2010,           p. 85). This claim is in line with the content-oriented approach to the quality           of teaching which “aims at taking into consideration the contextualization of           teaching and learning processes, i.e. the fact that they always take place on           a certain  substance  basis  which  can  be  established  through  acting  and           communicating.   Teaching and learning cannot therefore be of a high quality           if its content is empty. Putting emphasis on the content ought not to interfere           with  our  regard  for  the  pupil  or  the  process,  and  thus  for  the  methods  of           teaching.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  pupil’s  learning  as  well  as  a  teaching           process  and  its  methodology  takes  place  within  the  particular  content           structured in learning tasks.  Accordingly, a teacher can approach a pupil or           methods  of  teaching  only  through  the  pupil’s  involvement  in  the  content.”           (Janík et al., 2013, p. 161)                                       THE STUDY           Research objective           The  research  methodology  might  be  termed  the  basic  research  on  applied           problems (Mayer, 1997; 2008). The objective of the research was to identify           the  problems  the  lower  secondary  school  pupils  face  when  performing           problem-based learning tasks in geography.           Research sample           The  research  sample  consisted  of  22  eighth  grade  pupils  of  the  lower           secondary  schools  in  the  Czech  Republic  (aged  13–14  years).  Sampling  was           purposive  –  the  pupils  attended  three  different  elementary  schools  from           different regions of the Czech Republic. Both pupils’ legal representatives and           pupils  were  presented  an  informed  agreement  which  included  information           about the purpose and benefits of the research for the participating pupils.           The type of sampling did not allow for any generalisation of research findings,           e.g. according to the demographic characteristics of the  pupils. We did not           seek  to  achieve  maximal  structural  variation,  even  though  it  should  be           required. We were limited by the informed agreements from pupils’ parents           and  the  pupils’  willingness  to  cooperate.  Only  one  pupil  was  always           interviewed, but in some cases another pupil was present at an interview in           particular for organisational reasons. Teachers were not present.                                              24","METHOD             A  heuristic  interview  (Moustakas,  2015,  pp.  313–314)  was  used  for  data             collection.  It  is  a  technique  for  clearing  up  and  solving  problems  in  which             participants/respondents are motivated by means of open questions, learning             tasks, arguments, and counter-arguments. A heuristic interview helps a pupil             discover mistakes, coincidences, and nature of phenomena; draw conclusions             and make generalisations. Pupils ought to answer the question: In which of             these cities: Kiev, Moscow and Oslo is the biggest difference in summer and             winter  temperatures?  Stimulating  material  (one  page  from  a  textbook  and             appropriate map extracts from the school atlas) was available to the pupils.             A researcher encouraged pupils to work with stimulating material, follow its             structure, formulate hypotheses, and give reasons for their arguments  with             the help of follow-up and adequate questions.             Data analysis             Consequently, audio recording was transcribed with the help of oTranscribe             application  (http://otranscribe.com/).  The  interviews  were  analysed  using  a             qualitative content analysis  with open coding as a methodological tool. We             tried to find similarities and analogies through the research data during the             analysis  of  interviews.  We  also  tried  to  capture  the  moments  which  were             surprising, unique, different and relevant to the specified research question.                                          FINDINGS             When performing problem-based learning task in geography, pupils faced the             following kinds of difficulties: (a) linking pieces of visual information if they are             not in one place, (b) correct interpretation of both visual and verbal messages,             (c)  substitution  of  wrong  notions  and  misconceptions  with  the  presented             subject matter, (d) basic understanding of the subject matter.              Ad (a): Linking pieces of visual information if they are not in one place             The first kind of pupils’ difficulties concerned their low ability to work with             different  types  of  representation,  in  particular  when  individual  types  of             representation occurred in different places. Efficiency of learning materials is             higher, provided that all necessary pieces of information are presented in one             place, which results from the recommendations for designing visual materials             in textbooks supported by research (Sweller, 2005; Mayer, 2011). Therefore,             work with an atlas is an inseparable part of geographical education (Lambert,             1999).              An illustrative example of interviews no. 1:                   T: Yes, exactly. What are you going to do with it?                   P: Well, I don’t know.                   T: How to solve it?                   P: Well, by finding it on the Internet.                   T: Hmm, is there any other possibility when we have here…?                   P: So, by having a look at the atlas.                   …                                             25","T: And the atlas is here – actually, these are map extracts, extracts of                 maps from the atlas.                 P: Well, I don’t know a lot about it.                 T: What do mean by not knowing a lot about it?                 P: I think that there are very small… like these. It has too small fonts                 and it is pretty confusing. It could be more illustrative, hmm, I don’t                 know.             Ad (b): Correct interpretation of both visual and verbal messages           The second kind of pupils’ difficulties concerned their low ability to read and           interpret maps. This problem has already been discussed in studies by Hanus           and Marada (2014).           An illustrative example of interviews no. 2:                 T: You’ve managed to read it from the map perfectly well. Good.                 P:  Well,  I  won’t  probably  find  here  how  many  degrees  there  are  in                 January here.                 T: Can you read it from the map of July temperature?                 P:  I  don’t  think  so.  Or  maybe  yes,  but…  I  don’t  think  so…  Or  is  it                 possible?                 T: and when we have a look at this map. Will it help us?                 P: No.            Ad  (c):  Substitution  of  wrong  notions  and  misconceptions  with  the           presented subject matter           The third kind of pupils’ difficulties concerned pupils’ low willingness to accept           scientifically justified explanation of geographical phenomena and processes           which are contrary to pupils’ existing/wrong notions. Ozturk and Alkis (2010)           drew  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  subject  matter  of  geography  is  often           interpreted wrongly by pupils.            An illustrative example of interviews no. 3:                 P: Well, I think this text here is contradictory. Because it is written here                 that the Atlantic Ocean cools the land in the summer but warms it in                 the winter. And then that the influence of the ocean decreases in an                 easterly direction. So again it the other way round. In short, the ocean                 is  much  warmer  in  the  summer  and  much  colder  in  the  winter.  It                 should be better explained.                 T: How could it be better explained?                 P: I don’t know.            Ad (d): Basic understanding of the subject matter           The  fourth  kind  of  pupils’  difficulties  revealed  that  pupils  may  have  certain           problems to understand instructions to a learning task.  In particular, a serious           difficulty lied in identifying a problem for solving and structuring the subject           matter into intermediate steps.                                           26","An illustrative example of interviews no. 4:                   P: Now I don’t know the answer to this question. I wouldn’t guess it.                   But  here  I  can  see  that  precipitation  sometimes  occurs  there  near                   Moscow. For example, here you can see that precipitation occurs in the                   winter.                   T: Hmm.                   P: So and here you can see how, for example… It is so in the summer.                   I don’t know. I would recognize it only…, I simply recognize it mostly                   because I remember it.                                        CONCLUSION             Most  pupils  felt  that  performing  the  presented  learning  task  was  difficult.             Pupils were limited to a certain extent in situations where they have to find             information  alone  with  the  help  of  more  modes  of  representation  and             consequently  give  reasons  for  their  geographical  statements.  Research  has             revealed that the four kinds of difficulties  we describe here are possible to             overcome  through  an  appropriate  teacher’s  intervention.  Considering  the             pupils’  learning  needs,  the  role  of  a  teacher  appears  as  crucial  for  pupils’             performing problem-based learning tasks. A hypothesis that special attention             should be paid to both the type of learning content and the type of related             learning task has been confirmed (cf. Sikorová, 2011). In future, it is necessary             to examine whether the different aim of a learning task may be reflected in             the different requirements for design of geographic information presented to             pupils in learning materials.              Acknowledgements: The working paper is an outcome of the research project             Visual  Geographic  Information  and  its  Role  in  Geographic  Education  (GA16-             01003S) funded by the Czech Science Foundation (GAČR). The authors wish to             thank the foundation for their support of this research.                                         REFERENCES             AINSWORTH, Shaaron. DeFT: A conceptual framework for considering learning             with multiple representations. Learning and Instruction, 2006, vol. 16, no. 3,             pp.              183-198.             ISSN             0959-4752.             https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.03.001             JANÍK,  T.,  J.  SLAVÍK,  V.  MUŽÍK,  J.  TRNA,  T.  JANKO,  V.  LOKAJÍČKOVÁ,  J.             LUKAVSKÝ, E. MINAŘÍKOVÁ, J. SLIACKY, Z. ŠALAMOUNOVÁ, S. ŠEBESTOVÁ, N.             VONDROVÁ, P. ZLATNÍČEK. Kvalita (ve) vzdělávání: obsahově zaměřený přístup             ke zkoumání a zlepšování výuky. Brno: Masarykova univerzita, 2013. ISBN 978-             80-210-6349-5.             HANUS,  Martin,  Miroslav  MARADA.  Mapové  dovednosti  v  českých             a zahraničních  kurikulárních  dokumentech:  srovnávací  studie.  Geografie,             2013, vol. 118, no. 2, pp. 158-178. ISSN 1212-0014.             HANUS,  Martin  and  Miroslav  MARADA.  Mapové  dovednosti:  vymezení             a výzkum. Geografie, 2014, vol. 119, no. 4, s. 406-422. ISSN 1212-0014.                                              27","HÜBELOVÁ, D., T. JANÍK, P. NAJVAR. Pohledy na výuku zeměpisu na 2. stupni           základní školy: souhrnné výsledky CPV videostudie zeměpisu. Orbis Scholae,           2008,   vol.   2,   no.    1,   pp.   53-72.   ISSN    1802-4637.           https://doi.org/10.14712/23363177.2018.221https://doi.org/10.14712/23363           177.2018.221           LAMBERT,  David.  Exploring  the  use  of  textbooks  in  Key  Stage  3  geography           classrooms: A small-scale study. Curriculum Journal, 1999, vol. 10, no.1, pp.           85-105. ISSN 0958-5176. https://doi.org/10.1080/0958517990100107           LAMBERT,  David.  Geography  education  research  and  why  it  matters.           International  Research  in  Geographical  and  Environmental  Education,  2010,           vol.    19,    no.     2,    pp.    83-86.    ISSN     0958-5176.           https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2010.482180           MARTIN,  M.  O.,  I.  V.  S.  MULLIS,  P.  FOY,  G.  M.  STANCO.  TIMSS  2011           International  Results  in  Science.  Chestnut  Hill:  TIMSS  \&  PIRLS  International           Study Center, Boston College, 2012. ISBN 978-90-79549-18-4.           MAYER, Richard E. Multimedia learning: Are  we asking the right questions?           Educational  Psychologist,  vol.  32,  no.  1,  1997,  pp.  1-19.  ISSN  0046-1520.           https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3201_1           MAYER, Richard E. Applying the science of learning: Evidence-based principles           for the design of multimedia instruction. American psychologist, 2008, vol. 63,           no. 8, pp. 760-769. ISSN 0003-066X.           MAYER, Richard E. Instruction based on visualisations. In: MAYER, R. E. a P. A.           ALEXANDER,  eds.  Handbook  of  research  on  learning  and  instruction.  New           York: Routledge, 2011, pp. 427-445. ISBN 978-0-415-80461-5.           MOUSTAKAS,  Clark.  Heuristic  research:  Design  and  methodology. In:           SCHNEIDER,  K.  J.,  J.  F.  PIERSON  a  J.  F.  T.  BUGENTAL,  eds.  The  handbook of           humanistic  psychology:  Leading  edges  in  theory,  research,  and  practice.           London: Sage, 2015, pp. 309-319. ISBN 978-0-7619-2782-2.           MULLIS,  I.  V.  S.,  M.  O.  MARTIN,  G.  J.  RUDDOCK,  Ch.  Y.  O'SULLIVAN,  a  C.           PREUSCHOFF.  TIMSS  2011  Assessment  Frameworks.  Boston:  TIMSS  \&  PIRLS           International Study Center Lynch School of Education, Boston College, 2009.           ISBN 1-889938-54-8.           OZTURK,  Mustafa  a  Secil  ALKIS.  Misconceptions  in  geography.  Geographical           Education, 2010, vol. 23, pp. 54-63. ISSN 0085-0969.           PRŮCHA,  Jan.  Results  and  Prospects  of  Textbook  Research  in  the  Czech           Republic. Orbis Scholae, 2014, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 91-99. ISSN 1802-4637.           REZNICKOVA,  Dana.  The  transformation  of  geography  education  in  Czechia.           Geografie, 2009, vol. 114, no. 4, pp. 316-331. ISSN 1212-0014.           SIKOROVA, Zuzana. The role of textbooks in lower secondary schools in the           Czech Republic. IARTEM e-Journal, 2011,  vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 1-22. ISSN  1837-           2104.           SWELLER, John. Implications of cognitive load theory for multimedia learning.           In:  MAYER,  R.  E.,  ed.  The  Cambridge  handbook  of  multimedia  learning.           Cambridge:  Cambridge  University  Press,  2005,  pp.  19-30.  ISBN  978-0-521-           54751-2.                                            28","Shrnutí             Cílem  předběžného  výzkumného  sdělení  je  představit  výsledky  kvalitativní             výzkumné  sondy,  která  zjišťovala,  s  jakými  problémy  se  žáci  2.  stupně  ZŠ             vypořádávají  při  řešení  problémově  orientované  geografické  učební  úlohy.             Autoři realizovali 22 nestrukturovaných heuristických rozhovorů s žáky 7. a 8.             ročníku  ZŠ.  V  průběhu  rozhovoru  zkoumaní  žáci  řešili  problémově             orientovanou  učební  úlohu  doprovázenou  vizuáliemi  zastoupenými  ve             vybraných současných českých učebnicích zeměpisu a ve Školním atlasu světa.             Cílem bylo zjistit, v čem žáci nejčastěji  selhávají při řešení nastolené učební             úlohy. Rozhovory byly vyhodnoceny metodou kvalitativní  obsahové analýzy.             V příspěvku  jsou  prezentovány  výsledky  prvotních  analýz  realizovaných             rozhovorů, které umožní odpovědět na otázku: Jaké obtíže mají žáci při řešení             učebních  úloh  týkajících  se  příslušného  geografického  tématu?  Příspěvek  je             součástí  řešení  projektu  GA  ČR  Vizuální  geografická  informace  a  její  role             v geografickém vzdělávání (GA16-01003S).                                                                                       29","THEORETICAL CONCEPT OF REGIONAL INEQUALITIES IN THE CONTEXT OF               CREATING UNIVERSITY TEXTBOOK – REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT –                FACTORS, INEQUALITIES AND CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION                          Radoslav Klamár, Alena Madziková, Martin Rosič           Department of Geography and Applied Geoinformatics, Faculty of Humanities and             Natural Sciences, University of Prešov, 17. novembra 1, 08001 Prešov, Slovakia            radoslav.klamar@unipo.sk, alena.madzikova@unipo.sk, martin.rosic@unipo.sk            Abstract: The aim of this paper is to present one of three principal chapters of           an  upcoming  university  textbook  titled  Regional  Development  –  Factors,           Inequalities and Cross-Border Cooperation. Each of the platforms in question           whether the factors of regional development, regional inequalities or cross-           border cooperation use their own research instruments and a set of research           methods that are important to be comprehensibly outlined to students as one           linked system. In the paper presented the attention is drawn to the stage of           dealing  with  one  of  them,  namely  the  problem  of  regional  inequalities  in           works  by  domestic  and  foreign  authors  while  the  structure  of  summarizing           study  has  been  designed  as  the  basis  for  the  contents  of  the  upcoming           university textbook chapter. Apart from defining terms inequality or regional           inequalities  the  attention  is  focused  on  their  attributes,  classification,           characteristics of the most often used evaluation indicators and the selection           of statistical instruments and criterion for their measuring.           Key  words:  factors  of  regional  development,  regional  inequalities,  cross-           border  cooperation,  indicators,  statistical  criterion  for  evaluation,  university           textbook                                    1 INTRODUCTION           The  problem  of  regional  development,  development  factors,  regional           inequalities  and  cross-border  cooperation  has  been  debated  and  evaluated           from various point of views whether the economic, social or spatial one. Each           of said areas has own particularities and uses own set of research methods           that  provide  different  evaluation  approaches,  analysis  and  own  “solutions           manuals”.  This  trend  is  also  reflected  in  the  increased  attention  to  said           problem within university education in the form of creating a specialisation           module  Regional  Development  and  Regional  Policy.  It  should  support  the           integration of education, the increase and improvement of content coherence           in the given area and support education and upbringing of future experts in           the field of regional development. One of the means to achieve the goal is to           prepare quality study materials for students in the form of a comprehensive           university  textbook  titled  Regional  Development  –  Factors,  Inequalities  and           Cross-Border  Cooperation  that  would  approach  the  given  areas  of  regional           development  as  one  interlinked  system  aiming  to  eliminate  fragmentation           and to increase the consistency of teaching content and would present it in           a comprehensible manner to students.                                           30","Within  this  context,  the  submitted  paper  focuses  on  one  of  three  principal             chapters of university textbook which is the chapter paying close attention to             the problem of regional inequalities. The structure of the summary study is             outlined  as  the  base  for  creating  the  contents  of  the  chapter  under             preparation.  Apart from defining terms “disparity” or “regional inequalities”             the attention is paid to their attributes, classification, characteristics of most             frequently  used  evaluation  indicators  and  the  selection  of  statistical             instruments and measures to measure them.  The study text is grounded in             more papers by authors of domestic or foreign provenance who work in the             field.                                   2 REGIONAL INEQUALITIES                2.1 Definition, Attributes and Classification of Regional Inequalities             The result of various regional factors differentiation and different availabilities             of  regions  are  regional  disparities  or  inequalities.  The  term  “disparity”  is             widely used despite non-existence of one generally acceptable definition.             The  word  originates  in  the  16 th   century  in  the  French  word  “disparité”             originating  in  Latin  “disparitas”  meaning  “dividend”.  A  similar  origin  of  the             term in the Latin term disparity (us) is searched by Michálek (2012) having the             meaning  of  “dividend”  or  “inequality”.  In  English  language  there  are  more             synonym:  unlikeness,  incongruity,  inequality,  difference  or  dissimilarity.             Kutscherauer  (2008)  understands  inequalities  in  a broad  sense  as             “a difference  or  inequality  of  events  or  processes  whose  identification  and             comparison  have  a rational  meaning  (recognition,  psychological,  social,             economic, political)”. In foreign literature the term “inequality” was defined             by e.g. Dunfort (1993), Milanovic (2005), Baštová et al. (2011), Ancuţa (2012)             etc.             Apart  from  the  need  to  define  the  term  “regional  inequalities”  it  is  also             important  to  know  their  attributes.  Michálek  (2013)  considers  the  basic             attributes  of  regional  inequalities  to  be  the  sphere  of  their  occurrence  –             territoriality,  their  measurability  and  topicality.  Kutscherauer  (2008)  adds             suggestibility,  the  way  of  origination,  impacts  and  a  particular  attribute  or             a viewpoint  in  the  form  of  non-quantifiable  spheres  of  monitoring  regional             inequalities (e.g. prestige, power, fame etc.).             From  the  geographical  point  of  view,  territoriality  related  to  vertical  and             horizontal  classification  of  regional  inequalities  is  especially  important             (Michálek,  2013).  The  horizontal  aspect  mostly  comes  out  of  two             classifications  while,  considering  their  nature,  they  can  be  divided  into             material  and  non-material  inequalities  and  considering  the  sphere  of  their             occurrence they can be divided into territorial, economic and social. Similarly,             Kutscherauer  (2008)  divided  regional  inequalities  into  social,  economic,             territorial and physical on the grounds of paper by Wishlade, Youill (1997) and             Molle (2007).                                                 31","2.2 Regional Inequalities Evaluation Indicators           As  for  the  evaluation  of  regional  inequalities  in  connection  with  their           decomposition into economic, social and territorial inequalities, it is possible           to use a set of simple indicators or to construct more sophisticated integrated           indicators.  The  method  of  indicators  selection  depends  on  the  preferences           and  experiences  of  particular  researcher.  Even  the  number  of  selected           indicators is important. The low number may distort the real situation and,           vice versa, the high number may cause the loss of evaluation clarity.           When  evaluating  the  economic  performance  and  monitoring  regional           inequalities, it is possible to rely on numerous economic indicators. The most           representative one is gross domestic product (GDP) whereby the economic           development  rate  and  inhabitants´  standard  of  living  is  evaluated.  Regional           GDP is calculated as the total of added values in the industries in the region           and taxes on products reduced by subventions on products. For the needs of           inter-regional  comparisons  it  is  re-calculated  per  inhabitant  in  purchasing           power parities that eliminate the effects of different price levels in countries.           The  advantages  of  using  GDP  are  as  follows:  comparability  –  it  is  used  by           a majority of countries in the world; availability of statistical data needed for           its  calculation;  general  acceptability  as  a complex  indicator.  On  the  other           hand, it has some drawbacks: the effect of commuting to work (in the target           region  of  commuting  to  work  also  the  workers  coming  from  other  regions           contribute to the regional GDP); in the regions with high share of DFI the GDP           includes the profit made that is eventually transferred to the country of the           owner; apart from earnings, the GDP calculation does not include the items           such as health, leisure time, freedom etc.           GDP is such an essential indicator that there are papers evaluating regional           inequalities only using this indicator (e.g. Tvrdoň, Skokan, 2011, Canaleta et           al.,  2004,  Barrios,  Strobl,  2009,  Buyst,  2011  and  others).  However,  the  vast           majority of papers combine GDP with other indicators. In Slovakia, regional           inequalities have been evaluated using GDP in Matlovič et al. (2008), Matlovič,           Matlovičová  (2005,  2011),  Klamár  (2008,  2011,  2016),  Rajčáková,  Švecová           (2012,  2014),  Habanik  et  al.  (2013),  Matlovičová  et  al.  (2014)  and  others.           When  evaluating  inequalities  in  the  Czech  Republic  more  papers  relied  on           GDP,  mostly  on  the  regional  level  in  e.g.  Baštová  et  al.  (2011),  Svatošová,           Boháčková (2012), Měrtlová  (2012). In Hungary, there  were papers  such as           Nemes-Nagy  (2006),  Kebza  et  al.  (2015),  Dusek  et  al.  (2013),  in  Romania           Goschin  et  al.  (2008),  Antonescu  (2010),  Ancuţa  (2012),  Patache  (2013),           Neagu  (2013),  in  Slovenia  Wostner  (2005),  in  Austria  Steiner  (2005)  and  in           Spain Villaverde, Maza (2009).           Numerous  papers  contained  GDP  as  the  indicator  in  inter-regional           comparisons  in  more  countries.  Slovak  regions  were  often  a  part  of  wider           comparisons  within  V4  countries  regions  as  in  Tvrdoň,  Skokan  (2011),           Poledníková,  Lelková  (2012),  Zdražil,  Kraftová  (2012),  Poledníková  (2013).           Other comparisons evaluated the wider region of Central and Eastern Europe           (e.g. Petrakos et al., 2005, Kropková, Sojková, 2008, Kallioras, 2010). As  for           countries  outside  Europe  the  evaluation  using  GDP  in  papers  by Bradshaw,           Vartapetov  (2003)  can  be  mentioned  and  as  for  inequalities  in  Russia           Zubarevich,  Safronov  (2011)  in  Russia,  Ukraine  a Kazakhstan,  Swastyardi                                            32","(2008)  in  Indonesia,  Rodríguez-Oreggia  (2005)  and  Tello,  Ramos  (2012)  in             Mexico and Milanovic (2005) in China, India, USA, Indonesia, Brazil.             Another economic indicator used when evaluating inequalities is gross value             added. It is calculated as a difference between production in basic prices and             intermediate  consumption  in  purchase  prices  (Matlovič  et  al.,  2008).  This             indicator is much less frequent compared to GDP in e.g. Matlovič et al. (2008),             Klamár (2008), Klamár, Rosič (2009), Rajčáková, Švecová (2012) and Měrtlová             (2012). As an indicator it is closely linked with GDP (it makes approx. 90% of             GDP), the rest are net product taxes. As indicators they develop similarly, but             only  in  exceptional  events  of  dramatic  growth  or  decrease  of  taxes  their             development differs.             The  third  economic  indicator  is  gross  fixed  capital  formation.  Gross  fixed             capital  formation  includes  the  acquisition  of  fixed  assets  reduced  by  the             decrease  in  fixed  assets  by  producers  during  a  given  period  of  time.  Fixed             assets are tangible assets that were produced as outputs in the production             process  and  will  be  used  in  other  production  processes  repeatedly  or             permanently  longer  than  one  year  (Michálek,  2013).  Gross  Fixed  Capital             Formation calculated on the basis of per-capita is one of the key indicators for             considering the competitiveness of a region in the national context. It mainly             expresses  the  willingness  of  companies  to  develop  and  invest  in  their             production,  business  or  development  activities  in  the  given  region  (Mariš,             2011).  It  well  reflects  the  perspectives  of  the  future  development.  This             indicator was used in evaluations in Matlovič, Matlovičová (2011), Měrtlová             (2012),  Poledníková,  Lelková  (2012),  Rajčáková,  Švecová  (2012),  Zdražil,             Kraftová (2012) and Matlovičová et al. (2014).             Another used economic indicator for evaluating regional inequalities is foreign             direct investments (FDI). They are deemed to be one of the most important             accelerators of economic development. For public, they are often simplified as             the main factor of job vacancies formation. FDI can contribute to the solution             of  the  whole  range  of  problems  in  numerous  sectors  and  areas.  FDI  as  an             indicator  is  operated  with  in  papers  by  Sucháček  (2005),  Klamár  (2008),             Matlovič, Matlovičová (2005, 2011), Rajčáková, Švecová (2012), Padová et al.             (2012), Habanik et al. (2013), Matlovičová et al. (2014).             Even  labour  productivity  is  one  of  such  economic  indicators.  Labour             productivity represents the efficiency of work done that is expressed by the             rate  of  production  volume  and  time  consumption  (Michálek,  2013).  It  is             possible to increase the work productivity by the increase of output volume             (using  production  or  organisation  innovations)  or  by  decreasing  the  input             volume. It can sometimes occur even without any significant innovations e.g.             as a result of dismissals, when a lower number of workers has to produce the             same  production  volume.  Labour  productivity  as  the  indicator  of  regional             inequalities  has  been  used  when  making  evaluations  in  Boldrin,  Canova             (2001),  Poledníková  (2013).  Employee´s  labour  productivity  in  industry  was             used  by  Matlovič  et  al.  (2008),  Klamár  (2008),  Rajčáková,  Švecová  (2012),             Klamár (2011, 2016), employee´s labour productivity in construction business             was used in Matlovič et al. (2008), Klamár (2011, 2016).             Other economic indicators can be found only in a few papers e.g. number of             organisations focused on profit making per 1000 inhabitants, the number of             self-employers  per  1000  inhabitants  (Matlovič,  Matlovičová,  2005,  2011,                                             33","Klamár,  2008,  2011,  2016,  Matlovič  et  al.,  2008,  Padová  et  al.,  2012,           Rajčáková, Švecová, 2014), monthly labour costs per one employee (Matlovič           et al. 2008, Matlovič, Matlovičová, 2011, Klamár, 2011, 2016), the number of           enterprises  having  250  and  more  employees  (Matlovič,  Matlovičová,  2011,           Matlovičová et al., 2014) and tax collection (Matlovič, Matlovičová, 2005).           Another group are social indicators of regional inequalities. Social inequalities           are  frequently  considered  to  be  the  core  ones  (Dunfort  2009  In  Michálek,           2013)  because  they  are  the  result  of  economic  development,  immediately           reflect  life  conditions  of  inhabitants  and  the  social  climate  of  regional           communities.           The significant interconnection of economic prosperity in the region and the           social  situation  can  be  mainly  demonstrated  by  indicators  describing  the           labour market such as the employment/the unemployment rate and average           monthly  wages.  These  social  indicators  are  the  most  available  ones  when           evaluating regional inequalities and thus they are mostly used which enables           to  compare  not  only  the  regions  in  particular  countries  but  also  countries           themselves.  At  the  same  time,  they  are  indicators  that  are  sensitively           perceived by inhabitants.           The unemployment rate is, along with GDP, the key indicator when evaluating           regional inequalities. Blažek, Uhlíř (2002) consider it to be the basic indicator           of  regional  problems.  It  is  calculated  as  a  share  of  the  unemployed  work           labour  and  a  total  number  of  economically  active  inhabitants.  As  it  has           a relatively  high  informative  capability,  it  is  used  in  international  and           interregional  or  even  intraregional  comparisons.  Its  mathematical           construction  differs  on  various  levels  having  regard  to  the  options  of  using           available  statistical  indicators.  And  this  is  also  its  biggest  limitation.  When           evaluating  regional  inequalities  in  Slovak  regions,  more  authors  used  the           unemployment  rate  e.g.  Rajčáková,  Švecová  (2002,  2012,  2014),  Ira  et  al.           (2005), Matlovič, Matlovičová (2005, 2011), Rajčáková (2006), Klamár (2008,           2011, 2016), Matlovič et al. (2008), Padová et al. (2012), Habanik et al. (2013),           Matlovičová et al. (2014), Madajová et al. (2014), in the Czech Republic it was           Baštová et al. (2011), Svatošová, Boháčková (2012), Měrtlová (2012), Kebza et           al.  (2015)  in  Hungary,  Goschin  et  al.  (2008)  and  Ancuţa  (2012)  in  Romania,           Puljiz, Maleković (2007) in Croatia, Tello, Ramos (2012) in Mexico, Zubarevich,           Safronov (2011) in Russia, Ukraine a Kazakhstan.           The second indicator linked with the labour market is the employment rate. It           is calculated as the ratio of working people aged 15-64 years to the number of           people aged 15-64 years. Its figure shows the efficiency of using work labour           in  regions.  The  regions  with  higher  employment  rate  belong  to  more           developed  and  advanced  regions.  The  main  limitations  are  in  comparability           with regard had to a slightly different construction of calculation on various           regional  levels.    This  indicator  was  used  in  a  small  number  of  papers  e.g.           Poledníková  (2013),  Matlovič  et  al.  (2008),  Klamár  (2008,  2011,  2016),           Poledníková, Lelková (2012), Patache (2013), Rajčáková, Švecová (2014).           The third frequently used social indicator with strong economic undertone is           average monthly wages. It belongs to basic economic parameters using which           we can illustrate the differentiated development of regions. It is an average           monthly  wages  in  enterprises  having  20  and  more  employees  (Matlovič,           Matlovičová,  2005).  The  problem  when  exhibiting  it  is  that  it  does  not                                           34","evaluate the needed middle of the wage range (average wage and a wage of             average  (middle)  worker  (mediane)  shows  a significant  difference).  In  the             Slovak Republic the median wage oscillates at about 80% of average monthly             wages. Along with other indicators the average monthly wages is mentioned             in the papers by Egger et al. (2005), Matlovič, Matlovičová (2005, 2011), Puljiz,             Maleković (2007), Matlovič et al. (2008), Klamár (2008, 2011, 2016), Habanik             et  al.  (2013),  Rajčáková,  Švecová  (2012,  2014),  Matlovičová  et  al.  (2014),             Madajová et al. (2014), Kebza et al. (2015).             Besides the indicator of average monthly wages, also the disable income of             households,  the  net  monthly  income  and  expenditures  per  person  are             employed  as  indicators.  These  indicators  have,  apart  from  wages,  an             important expressive value because persons with no income living in common             household  with  persons  having  income  are  also  included  in  the  evaluation.             The  net  monthly  incomes  are  made  of  net  employment  incomes,  social             benefit incomes, other incomes, positive difference between taken and paid-             up  loans.  Net  monthly  expenditures  per  person  are  made  of  consumer             expenditures and other expenditures without statutory contributions such as             social  welfare  contributions  including  monetary  gifts  outside  the  household             and paid-up loans. These evaluation indicators were used by Azzoni (2001),             Felsenstein,  Portnov  (2005b),  Matlovič,  Matlovičová  (2005,  2011),  Nemes-             Nagy (2006), Puljiz, Maleković (2007), Goschin (2008), Matlovič et al. (2008),             Měrtlová  (2012),  Zdražil,  Kraftová  (2012),  Matlovičová  et  al.  (2014),  Klamár             (2016).             Selected demographic indicators are important social indicators even though             compared with the unemployment rate or average monthly wages they are             less  frequent  in  papers.  The  natural  and  migration  increase/decrease  are             used as indicators in papers by Ira et al. (2005), Rajčáková (2006), Rajčáková,             Švecová  (2002,  2014),  Svatošová,  Novotná  (2012),  Padová  et  al.  (2012),             Svatošová,  Boháčková  (2012), Kebza  et  al.  (2015).  Another  demographic             indicator  is  the  gross  birth  rate  which  was  used  in  Matlovič,  Matlovičová             (2005),  Matlovič  et  al.  (2008),  Klamár  (2011,  2016),  Poledníková,  Lelková             (2012). The ageing index was used in Svatošová, Novotná (2012), Padová et             al. (2012), Svatošová, Boháčková (2012). All three above specified indicators             are closely linked with each other. From the duo of the natural and migration             increase/decrease, the natural increase/decrease plays a more important role             because  it  influences  the  population  development  in  countries  and  their             regions. The natural increase/decrease is significantly influenced by the gross             birth rate that is more suitable when comparing territorial units and it is more             used nowadays. The advantage is data availability, their mutual compatibility             and  comparativeness.  The  ageing  index  reflects  continuous  changes  in  the             population  age  structure  that  are  summarily  called  as  ageing.  They  are             changes at which the number (share) of older age groups increases, but on             the other hand, there is a decrease in the children share. Ageing influences             national economies, requires substantial changes in population social, health             and pension insurance whereby it considerably influences regional disparities.             The  important  social  category  is  housing.  Quality  and  affordable  housing  is             a significant factor influencing the manpower mobility as well as the quality of             inhabitants´  life.  The  intensive  residential  construction  activity  and  the             number of finished flats on one side reflect the attractiveness of given region             for  permanent  living  and,  on  the  other  side,  it  brings  the  municipality                                             35","favourable  conditions  for  economic  growth  (Hamada,  Kasagranda,  2014).           Based  on  available  data,  the  most  frequent  indicator  is  the  number  of           completed  dwellings  per  1000  inhabitants.  It  can  be  found  in  papers  e.g.           Matlovič  et  al.  (2008),  Klamár  (2011),  Matlovičová  et  al.  (2014),  Matlovič,           Matlovičová (2011).           Within  social  indicators  even  less  traditional  indicators  used  can  be  found           such as the income of health care insurance companies from contributions per           inhabitant (Matlovič, Matlovičová, 2011, Matlovičová et al., 2014), the social           support  index  and  poverty  (Madajová  et  al.,  2014),  the  number  of  social           beneficiaries  per  inhabitant  (Padová  et  al.,  2012),  the  poverty  risk  rate           (Padová et al., 2012, Rajčáková, Švecová, 2014), the number of places in social           care  establishments  and  the  number  of  crimes  per  1000  inhabitants           (Svatošová, Novotná, 2012, Svatošová, Boháčková, 2012, Rajčáková, Švecová,           2014).           The  third  group  of  indicators  evaluating  regional  inequalities  is  made  of           territorial indicators. The selection of indicators to use is quite wide however           the concrete selection is to the large extent dependent on the availability of           statistical data. Most frequently used are indicators related to infrastructure           (technical).  Ira  et  al.  (2005)  state  that  infrastructure  in  certain  territory           expresses  the  qualitative  and  quantitative  characteristics  of  development           conditions in model regions (districts) and to certain extent it influences the           quality of inhabitants´ life.           From  the  point  of  development  of  regions  the  important  ones  are  the           indicators  of  transport  infrastructure;  the  mostly  used  one  is  highways           density  on  certain  area  used  in  e.g.  Rajčáková  (2006),  Klamár  (2008),           Svatošová,  Novotná  (2012),  Poledníková  (2013),  Rajčáková,  Švecová  (2014),           Kebza et al. (2015). Railways density was used in Klamár (2008), Rajčáková,           Švecová (2014). Another infrastructure indicator is the share of municipalities           connected  to  water  and  sewage  system  (Ira  et  al.,  2005,  Rajčáková,  2006,           Klamár,  2008,  Rajčáková,  Švecová,  2012).  Klamár  (2008),  Poledníková           (2013), Rajčáková, Švecová  (2012)  used  as  an  indicator  the  number  of           households connected to the Internet.           The individual authors used said indicators primarily to evaluate the level of           disparities within the region´s economic and social development. Whether it           was an evaluation within individual countries, or larger units (V4 countries or           jointly newly acceded EU countries). Works comparing disparities of the EU           countries and non-European countries are also represented. Works evaluating           regional disparities in small countries have a specific position (e.g. Felsenstein,           Portnov, 2005b). In some works the indicators used for evaluating disparities           were in the context of competitiveness (Rajčáková, Švecová, 2014), regional           politics  and  cohesion  (Boldrin,  Canova,  2001,  Rajčáková,  Švecová,  2014),           globalisation (Steiner, 2005), trade liberalisation in relation to income (Egger,           et  al.,  2005),  unemployment  to  income  (Puljiz,  Maleković,  2007)  and           decentralisation (Canaleta et al., 2004, Gil et al., 2005). Specifically were used           the  indicators  to  evaluate  disparities  in  relation  to  spatial  polarisation  and           spatial  gradient  (Sucháček,  2005,  Kebza  et  al.,  2015).  Summary  works           dedicated  to  the  importance  of  individual  indicators  have  a special  position           (Michálek, 2012, 2013, Hamada, Kasagranda, 2014).                                             36","In the recent years it has been evident that there are efforts to capture the             level  of  regional  development  and  reveal  the  lagging  regions  by  a  complex             indicator  that  would  take  into  consideration  economic,  social,  demographic             characteristics  of  the  regions  as  well  as  selected  parameters  of  technical             infrastructure  (e.g.  Rajčáková,  Švecová  2002,  2009).  The  segment  of             integrated  indicators  represents  a  higher  level  of  identification  and             consequent evaluation of regional inequalities. It comes out of an appropriate             interconnection  (integration)  of  individual  indicators  or  their  substantial             characteristics  and  features  that  are  a  complex  view  on  a  certain  area  of             occurrence.  Their  essential  attributes  should  be  a  sufficient  comparative             ability, mathematical manageability and information manageability (Michálek,             2013).  Aggregate  indicators  are  able  to  describe  complex  terms  such  as             prosperity, effectiveness or sustainability. Their advantage is that they can be             more easily interpreted than a whole set of partial indicators and enable a fast             comparison of regions from the given aspect (Svatošová, Novotná, 2012).                   2.3 Statistical Instruments and Measures to Measure Regional                                        Inequalities             The given summary of the wide spectrum of indicators points out to various             options  for  own  selection.  However,  the  choice  of  one  particular  set  of             indicators  is  only  one  of  steps  when  evaluating  regional  inequalities.             Concurrently with it, it is important to define the hierarchic level of evaluation             units and, in particular, the selection of statistical instruments and measures             to measure inequalities. In this respect, there are more statistical measures             or  indexes.  Felsenstein,  Portnov  (2005b)  give  seven  basic  indexes.  More             concretely, they are the variation coefficient, the Williamson index, the Theil             index,  the  Atkinson  index,  the  Hoover  coefficient,  the  Coulter  coefficient             and the Gini coefficient. Micheali et al. (2010) use as statistical measures the             scatter, the standard deviation, the variation coefficient, the Gini coefficient,             the  Theil  index,  the  Atkinson  index,  the  cluster  analysis  and  the  neural             network  method  when  evaluating.  Veselovská  (2015)  emphasises  that  the             most frequently used inequality rate is the Gini coefficient. Other frequently             used indexes are the Theil index, the Hoover index, the Atkinson index and             the variation coefficient.             Regarding the abovementioned, there are more methods to measure regional             inequalities. However, some measurement methods and statistical measures             (indexes)  are  used  more  frequently  in  papers  than  others.  It  is  due  to  the             character  of  given  methods,  mathematical  calculation  difficulty,  the             interpretation of results, and the usage of the given method in other papers in             the past and experiences of the researcher.             Most  frequently  used  instruments  are  the  standard  deviation  and  the             variation  coefficient.  The  standard  deviation  is  an  average  difference             between  values  and  diameter  when  ignoring  signs  (Blažek,  1996).  But  its             application  is  problematic  because  it  depends  on  the  choice  of  measuring             signs  or  measured  values.  Thus,  it  is  not  appropriate  to  be  used  when             comparing  various  indicators  or  for  long-term  comparisons  (Michaeli  et  al.,             2010).  When  evaluating  inequalities,  the  standard  deviation  was  used  by             Blažek (1996), Rajčáková, Švecová (2014), Madajová et al. (2014).                                              37","More  convenient  instrument  for  the  spatial  analysis  is  the  variation           coefficient that is not dependent on measured values of input indicators. It           represents  the  relative  dispersion  rate  derived  from  the  standard  deviation           (Michálek,  2012).  The  variation  coefficient  is,  along  with  the  standard           deviation, a dimensionless measure but it is often expressed in a percentage.           The following authors used the variation coefficient in their papers related to           regional  inequalities:  Matlovič,  Matlovičová  (2005,  2011),  Matlovič  et  al.           (2008), Klamár (2011, 2016), Habanik et al. (2013), Matlovičová et al. (2014),           Madajová  et  al.  (2014).  In  the  Czech  Republic  the  coefficient  was  used  in           Blažek (1996), Štika (2004), Baštová et al. (2011), Svatošová, Novotná (2012),           in  Romania  Ancuţa  (2012),  in  Croatia  Puljiz,  Maleković  (2007),  in  Spain           Villaverde,  Maza  (2009),  in  Russia,  Ukraine  and  Kazakhstan  Zubarevich,           Safronov (2011) and in Brazil it was in Azzoni (2001).           The second very often used index to measure regional inequalities is the Gini           coefficient. The cause is the fact that there are relatively few instruments that           are  able  to  compare  ratios  and  their  spatial  concentration  (Dakos,  2007  In           Michálek, 2012). In numerous studies there is a combination of the Gini and           the  variation  coefficient  when  measuring  regional  inequalities  e.g.  Štika           (2004),  Matlovič,  Matlovičová  (2005,  2011),  Matlovič  et  al.  (2008),  Klamár           (2011,  2016),  Habanik  et  al.  (2013),  Matlovičová  et  al.  (2014).  The  Gini           coefficient  was  also  used  in  Padová  et  al.  (2012)  and  Rajčáková,  Švecová           (2014) where it was combined with the standard deviation and the variation           extent. The combination of the variation and the Gini coefficient was used to           evaluate inequalities in the Czech Republic by Boháčková et al. (2011), while           the comparison also included the Theil index. As for other papers that used           the Gini coefficient can be quoted those that have already been mentioned in           connection with the variation coefficient: Felsenstein, Portnov (2005b), Puljiz,           Maleković  (2007),  Tvrdoň,  Skokan  (2011)  and  Zubarevich,  Safronov  (2011).           The  Gini  coefficient  was  used  when  measuring  regional  inequalities  in           Romania in Goschin et al. (2008), Antonescu (2010), Neagu (2013), in Slovenia           Wostner (2005), Milanovic (2005) in China, India, USA, Indonesia, Brazil, Tello,           Ramos (2012) in Mexico and within selected countries Gil et al. (2005).           The third of most frequently used statistical measures or indexes is the Theil           index. As given by Michálek (2012), the Theil index belongs to the group of           indexes called “general entropy class” and points out to the disorderliness of           the  share  of  the  studied  indicator.  It  represents  the  weighted  amount  of           inequalities within individual sub-groups or regions and, to certain extent, it           solves  the  imperfection  of  the  Gini  coefficient  lying  in  the  fact  that  its           calculated value for a country as a whole is different from the value of the Gini           coefficients calculated for its particular regions. Therefore, one advantage of           using the index is the limitation of the influence of the number of territorial           units  or  regions  to  the  variability  rate.  The  Theil  index  combined  with  the           variation  coefficient  and  the  Gini  coefficient  was  used  when  evaluating           regional  inequalities  in  Štika  (2004),  Felsenstein,  Portnov  (2005b),  Puljiz,           Maleković (2007), Baštová et al. (2011), Tvrdoň, Skokan (2011), Habanik et al.           (2013). The combination with only the Theil index when measuring regional           inequalities can be found in Gil et al. (2005), Goschin et al. (2008), Milanovic           (2005),  Neagu  (2013),  Tello,  Ramos  (2012).  Azzoni  (2001),  Villaverde,  Maza           (2009)  used  the  Theil  index  and  the  variation  coefficient  and  in  Swastyardi           (2008) there is only the Theil index used.                                           38","Less frequent index is the Williamson index that is a convenient modification             to  measure  dispersion.  It  was  used  by  Felsenstein,  Portnov  (2005a)  when             evaluating inequalities in 23 selected small countries including Slovakia. Even             the Hoover/Robin Hood index can be used. It expresses what share from one             studied social-economic indicator is necessary to regroup so that its  spatial             arrangement  equal  another  studied  indicator  included  in  the  measurement             (Michálek, 2013). This index was described in detail by Felsenstein, Portnov             (2005b),  Nemes-Nagy  (2006).  In  other  papers  such  as  ones  by  Villaverde,             Maza  (2009),  Tello,  Ramos  (2012),  Neagu  (2013)  it  is  possible  to  find             the Atkinson index and in Goschin et al. (2008) can be found the Herfindahl             index also taking into account the differences of regions sizes.             For evaluating regional inequalities, foreign literature contains the method of             convergence.  The  method  first  evaluates  the  development  of  individual             indicators  characterising  territorial  differences  and  after  that  specifies             whether  the  differences  reduce  (convergence)  or,  the  other  way  round,             enlarge (divergence) (Michálek, 2012). This approach can be found in Barro,             Sala-i-Martin  (1992),  Boldrin,  Canova  (2001),  Egger  et  al.  (2005), Azzoni             (2001).             The method of distance from the fictive object in our conditions was used by             Matlovič,  Matlovičová  (2011).  The  nature  of  the  method  is  based  in  the             comparison  of  individual  regions  with  a  so-called  fictive  object  (region)             achieving  the  best  values  with  all  indicators  (Matlovič,  Matlovičová,  2011).             Other methods that can be mentioned are the cluster analysis and the factor             analysis.  Those  were  used  in  Boldrin,  Canova  (2001),  Ira  et  al.  (2005),             Kropková,  Sojková  (2008),  Poledníková,  Lelková  (2012),  Zdražil,  Kraftová             (2012). A relatively new approach to measuring inter-regional differences is             the method of neural networks. It is a highly sophisticated evaluation method             which, in essence, disables its effective usage in practice.                                        3 CONCLUSION             The presented problem of regional inequalities, their classification, selection             of evaluation indicators and measuring methods introduces a short excursion             making an initial platform for the creation of a chapter having the same name             in the university textbook titled Regional Development – Factors, Inequalities             and Cross-Border Cooperation. Regional inequalities as a chapter will naturally             follow  the  introductory  part  on  regional  development  factors  whose             identification, selection and evaluation will represent the important base for             the  selection  of  corresponding  indicators  entering  into  the  evaluation  of             regional  inequalities.  The  regional  development  factors  and  regional             inequalities  resulting  from  them  enable  to  consequently  point  out  to             problematic  lagging  regions  that  are  in  many  cases  also  peripheral  border             regions.  One  of  the  options  to  develop  and  economically  integrate  them  is             through  cross-border  cooperation  with  border  regions  on  the  other  side  of             the  border  that  very  often  have  similar  fate.  Cross-border  cooperation             thereby  creates  the  potential  platform  for  searching  for  solutions  for             developing the regions and also the base for the last chapter of the university             textbook  integrally  connected  with  the  problem  of  regional  development             factors and regional inequalities.                                              39","The university textbook under preparation reacts for the needs of permanent           and flexible education in the field of regional development and the transfer of           latest  knowledge  into  the  education  process.  Its  contents  will  be  program-           connected with already issued university textbooks (Regional Development for           Geographers, 2010; Geography of Europe, 2015) that have already informed           of  the  problem  of  regional  development,  factors,  inequalities  and  cross-           border cooperation.            Acknowledgement: This article was supported by the scientific project KEGA           011PU-4/2017 “Integration of teaching and increase of the content coherence           of the related disciplines of the specialized module of Regional development           and regional policy” and scientific project VEGA 1/0077/17 “Political – spatial           structure of the state in conditions of the globalization”.                                      REFERENCES           ANCUŢA,  C.  2012.  Aspects  regarding  the  socio-economic  indicators  used  in           approaching the territorial disparities. In: Geographica Pannonica, 16, Issue 1,           pp. 26-34.           ANTONESCU,  D.  2010.  The  Analysis  of  Regional  Disparities  in  Romania  with           Gini/Struck Coefficients. In: The Romanian Economic Journal, 2, Issue 40, pp.           160-183.           AZZONI, C.R. (2001): Economic growth and regional inequality in Brazil. In: The           Annals of Regional Science, 35, pp. 133-152.           BARRIOS,  S.,  STROBL,  E.  (2009).  The  dynamics  of  regional  inequalities.  In:           Regional  Science  and  Urban  Economics,  39  (5),  pp.  575-591.  .           https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2009.03.008           BAŠTOVÁ, M., HUBÁČKOVÁ, V., FRANTÁL, B. (2011). Interregional differences           in the Czech Republic, 2000-2008. In: Moravian Geographical Reports, 19 (1),           pp. 2-16.           BLAŽEK, J., (1996). Meziregionální rozdíly v České republice v transformačním           období.  In:  Geografie  –  Sborník  České  geografické  společnosti,  101  (4),  pp.           265-277.           BLAŽEK, J., UHLÍŘ, D., (2002). Teorie regionálního rozvoje. Praha: Karolinum,           212 p. ISBN 80-246-0384-5.           BOLDRIN,  M.,  CANOVA,  F.  (2001).  Inequalities  and  convergence  in  Europe’s           regions.  Reconsidering  European  Regional  Policies.  In:  Economic  Policy,  16,           Issue 32, pp. 205-253. s://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0327.00074           BRADSHAW,  M.  J.,  VARTAPETOV,  K.  (2003):  A New  Perspective  on  Regional           Inequalities in Russia. In: Eurasian Geography and Economics, 44 (6), pp. 403-           429. https://doi.org/10.2747/1538-7216.44.6.403           BUYST,  E.  (2011).  Continuity  and  Change  in  Regional  Disparities  in  Belgium           During  the  Twentieth  Century.  In:  Journal  of  Historical  Geography,  37,  pp.           329-337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhg.2010.11.005           CANALETA,  C.  G.,  ARZOZ,  P.  P.,  GÁRATE,  M.  R.  (2004).  Regional  economic           disparities  and  decentralisation.  In:  Urban  Studies,  41,  pp.  71-94.           https://doi.org/10.1080/0042098032000155696                                           40","DUNFORT,  M.  (1993).  Regional  Disparities  in  the  European  Community:             Evidence from the Regio Databank. In: Regional Studies, 27 (8), pp. 727-743.             https://doi.org/10.1080/00343409312331347915             DUSEK, T., LUKÁCS, R., RÁCZ, I., (2013). Development differences among the             regions of Hungary. In: Procedia Economics and Finance, 9, pp. 264–277.             EGGER, P., HUBER, P., PFAFFERMAYR, M. (2005). A note on export openness             and regional wage disparity in Central and Eastern Europe. In: The Annals of             Regional Science, 39, pp. 63-71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00168-004-0202-0             FELSENSTEIN, D., PORTNOV, B. (2005a). Understanding regional inequalities in             small  countries.  In:  Regional  Studies,  39  (5),  pp.  647-658.  .             https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400500151921             FELSENSTEIN, D., PORTNOV, B. (2005b): Measures of Regional Inequality for             Small  Countries.  In:  D.  Felsenstein,  B.  Portnov  (eds.):  Regional  disparities in             small countries. Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-24303-8, pp. 47-62.             GIL,  C.,  PASCUAL,  P.,  RAPÚN,  M.  (2005).  Does  Decentralisation  mater  to             Regional  Inequalities?  The  case  of  Small  Countries.  In:  D.  Felsenstein,             B. Portnov (eds.): Regional disparities in small countries. Springer, ISBN 978-3-             540-24303-8, pp. 211-231.             GOSCHIN, Z., CONSTANTIN, D. L., ROMAN, M., ILEANU, B. (2008). The Current             State and Dynamics of Regional Disparities in Romania. In: Romanian Journal             of Regional Science, 2 (2), pp. 80-105.             HABANIK,  J.,  HOSTAK,  P.,  KUTIK,  J.  (2013).  Economic  and  Social  Disparity             Develeopment  Within  Regional  Development  of  the  Slovak  Republic.  In:             Economics    and     Management,     18    (3),   pp.    457-464.             https://doi.org/10.5755/j01.em.18.3.4203             HAMADA,  R.,  KASAGRANDA,  A.  (2014).  Vybrané  ekonomické,  demografické             ukazovatele, ukazovatele infraštruktúrnej vybavenosti a vzdelanostnej úrovne             obyvateľstva na meranie regionálnych disparít. In: V. Šilhánková, M. Maštálka             (eds.): Regionální politika na prahu nového programovacího období. pp. 29-             48. ISBN 978-80-87756-05-8             IRA,  V.,  PAŠIAK,  J.,  FALŤAN,  Ľ.,  GAJDOŠ,  P.  (2005).  Podoby  regionálnych             odlišností na Slovensku (príklady vybraných okresov). Sociologický ústav SAV,             Bratislava, 381 p. ISBN 80-855544-39-3             KALLIORAS,  D.  (2010).  Regional  inequalities  in  the  new  European  Union             member-states:  Is  there  a  “population  size”  effect?  In:  European  Spatial             Research and Policy, 17 (2), pp. 107-116. https://doi.org/10.2478/s10105-010-             0013-5             KEBZA, M., KUBEŠ, J., NOVÁČEK, A. (2015). Východo-západní gradient sociální             a ekonomické  prostorové  diferenciace  Maďarska.  In:  V.  Klímová,  V.  Žítek             (eds.): XVIII. mezinárodní kolokvium o regionálních vědách, Hustopeče, Brno:             MU ESF Brno, pp. 41-48.             KLAMÁR,  R.  (2008).  Slovakia  and  the  analysis  of  its  disparities.  In:  Folia             geographica, 12, pp. 145-162.             KLAMÁR,  R.  (2011).  Vývoj  regionálnych  disparít  v  Slovenskej  republike             s osobitným  zreteľom  na  regióny  východného  Slovenska.  In:  Folia             geographica, 18, pp. 89-170.                                              41","KLAMÁR,  R.  (2016):  Development  tendencies  of  regional  disparities  in  the           Slovak  Republic.  In:  Geographica  Pannonica,  20  (3),  pp.  136-151.           https://doi.org/10.5937/GeoPan1603136K           KLAMÁR, R., ROSIČ, M. (2009). Regional disparities in Prešov region according           to the structure of industry. In: Folia geographica, 14, pp. 121-154.           KROPKOVÁ,  Z.,  SOJKOVÁ,  Z.  (2008).  Skúmanie  regionálnych  disparít  v rámci           nových členských krajín Európskej Únie. In: Acta oeconomica et informatica, 1,           pp. 10-14.           KUTSCHERAUER, A. (2008). Regionální disparity v územním rozvoji ČR – jejich           vznik,  identifikace  a  eliminace.  Výzkumná  studie  DÚ  4.  VŠB-Technická           univerzita Ostrava. 145 p.           MADAJOVÁ,  M.,  MICHÁLEK,  A.,  PODOLÁK,  P.  (2014).  Úroveň  regionálnych           disparít na Slovensku a jej zmena v období rokov 2001-2011. In: Geographia           Slovaca, 28, pp. 127-152.           MATLOVIČ,  R.,  MATLOVIČOVÁ,  K.,  KLAMÁR,  R.  (2008).  Vývoj  regionálnych           disparít začiatkom 21. storočia na Slovensku vo svetle vybraných indikátorov.           In: Regionální studia=Czech regional studies, 2, pp. 2-12.           MATLOVIČ,  R.,  MATLOVIČOVÁ,  K.  (2005).  Vývoj  regionálnych  disparít  na           Slovensku  a  problémy  regionálneho  rozvoja  Prešovského  kraja.  In:  Folia           geographica, 8, pp. 66-88.           MATLOVIČ, R., MATLOVIČOVÁ, K. (2011). Regionálne disparity a ich riešenie na           Slovensku v rozličných kontextoch. In: Folia geographica, 18, pp. 8-88.           MATLOVIČOVÁ,  K.,  ŽIDOVÁ,  A.,  KOLESÁROVÁ,  J.  (2014).  Dynamika           regionálnych  disparít  na  Slovensku  v predkrízovom  období  a ich  riešenie           vybranými nástrojmi regionálnej politiky. In: Geographia Slovaca, 28, pp. 63-           100.           MARIŠ,  M.  (2011).  Spatial  disparities  of  regional  development  in  the Slovak           Republic.  In:  Determinanty  kvality  života  na  vidieku:  medzinárodná  vedecká           konferencia, Nitra, ISBN 978-80-552-0667-7, p.23.           MĚRTLOVÁ,  L.  (2012).  Porovnání  regionálních  disparit  v  regionech  České           republiky.  In:  V.  Klímová,  V.  Žítek  (eds.):  XV.  mezinárodní  kolokvium           o regionálních vědách, Valtice, Brno: MU. pp. 81-90.           MICHAELI, E., MATLOVIČ, R., IŠTOK, KLAMÁR, R., HOFIERKA, J., MINTÁLOVÁ,           T., MITRÍKOVÁ, J. (2010). Regionálny rozvoj pre geografov. Prešov: Prešovská           univerzita v Prešove, 717 p. ISBN 978-80-555-0065-2           MICHÁLEK,  A.  (2012).  Teoreticko-konceptuálne  východiská  výskumu           priestorových  a regionálnych  disparít.  In:  Acta  Geographica  Universitates           Comenianae, 56 (1), pp. 25-43.           MICHÁLEK, A. (2013). Indikátory identifikácie a merania regionálnych disparít           (niekoľko poznámok k výberu indikátorov). In: Geografický časopis 65 (4), pp.           363-381.           MILANOVIC,  B.  (2005).  World  Apart:  Measuring  International  and  Global           Inequality. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 52 p. ISBN 978-0691130514           MOLLE, W. (2007). European Cohesion Policy. London: Routledge, 347 p. ISBN           978-0-415-43812-4.                                             42","NEAGU, O. (2013). Measurement of TerritorialConvergence. An Analysis in the             case of Romania. In: Annals of the “Constantin Brâncuşi” University of Târgu-             Jiu, Economy Series, 3, pp. 117-125.             NEMES-NAGY, J. (2006). Regional Inequalities: General Models and the Case of             the Transition Countries. In: Romanian review of regional studies, Vol. II (1),             pp. 23-34.             PADOVÁ, J., PIROVÁ, B., POTOMOVÁ, J. (2012). Analýza regionálnych disparít             na  príklade  vybraných  ukazovateľov  v období  rokov  2004-2010  na  území             Slovenskej republiky. In: V. Klímová, V. Žítek (eds.): XV. mezinárodní kolokvium             o regionálních vědách, Valtice, Brno: MU. pp. 69-80.             PATACHE, L. (2013). Employment and Regional Inequality in Romania. In: Acta             Universitatis Danubius. Economica, 9 (4), pp. 259-266.             PETRAKOS, G., PSYCHARIS, Y., KALLIORAS, D. (2005). Regional Inequalities in             the  EU  Enlargement  Countries:  An  Analysis  of  Small  Versus  Large  New             Member  States.  In:  D.  Felsenstein,  B.  Portnov  (eds.):  Regional  disparities  in             small countries. Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-24303-8, pp.233-247.             POLEDNÍKOVÁ,  E.  (2013).  Evaluation  of  Visegrad  Four  convergence  in  the             context of EU cohesion. In: Ekonomická revue, 16, pp. 19-28.             POLEDNÍKOVÁ,  E.,  LELKOVÁ,  P.  (2012).  Evaluation  of  regional  disparities  in             Visegrad four countries, Germany and Austria using the cluster analysis. In: V.             Klímová,  V.  Žítek  (eds.):  XV.  mezinárodní  kolokvium  o  regionálních  vědách,             Valtice, Brno: MU. pp. 36-47.             PULJIZ,  J.,  MALEKOVIĆ,  S.  (2007).  Regional  Income  and  Unemployment             Disparities  in  Croatia  In:  7th  International  Conference  “Enterprise  in             Transition”. University of Split, May 24-26, 2007, 18 p.             RAJČÁKOVÁ, E. (2006).  Regionálne disparity na Slovensku –  vývoj a  súčasný             stav. In: Geografická revue, 2(2), pp. 425-448.             RAJČÁKOVÁ, E., ŠVECOVÁ, A. (2002). Postavenie okresov  a krajov Slovenska             z hľadiska  hodnotenia  vybraných  sociálnych  a  ekonomických  znakov.  In:             Geographia Slovaca, 18, pp. 167-175.             RAJČÁKOVÁ,  E.,  ŠVECOVÁ,  A.  (2009).  Regionálne  disparity  na  Slovensku.  In:             Geographia Cassoviensis, Vol. III (2), pp. 142-149.             RAJČÁKOVÁ,    E.,   ŠVECOVÁ,   A.   (2012).   Regionálne   disparity             a konkurencieschopnosť regiónov Slovenska. In: V. Klímová, V. Žítek (eds.): XV.             mezinárodní kolokvium o regionálních vědách, Valtice, Brno: MU. pp. 59-68.             RAJČÁKOVÁ,  E.,  ŠVECOVÁ,  A.  (2014).  Regionálne  dispatity  na  Slovensku             v kontexte  kohéznej  politiky  EÚ  2007-2013.  In:  Geographia  Slovaca,  28,  pp.             101-126.             RODRÍGUEZ-OREGGIA,  E.  (2005).  Regional  disparities  and  determinants  of             growth  in  Mexico.  In:  The  Annals  of  Regional  Science,  39,  pp.  207-220.             https://doi.org/10.1007/s00168-004-0218-5             STEINER,  M.  (2005).  The  Globalisation  of  Austrian  Regions:  New  Policy             Challenges  and  Opportunities  In:  D.  Felsenstein,  B.  Portnov  (eds.):  Regional             disparities in small countries. Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-24303-8, pp.283-295.                                                43","SUCHÁČEK, J. (2005). Core-Periphery in the Czech Republic. In: New Members           –  New  Challenges  for  the  European  Regional  Development  Policy,  Sborník           příspěvků, CERS, pp. 394–399.           SVATOŠOVÁ, L., BOHÁČKOVÁ, I. (2012). Metodologické přístupy k hodnocení           regionálních disparit. In: V. Klímová, V. Žítek (eds.): XV. mezinárodní kolokvium           o regionálních vědách, Valtice, Brno: MU. pp. 11-18.           SVATOŠOVÁ,  NOVOTNÁ  (2012).  Regionální  disparity  a jejich  vývoj  v České           republice  v letech  1996-2010.  In:  Acta  Universitatis  Bohemiae  Meridionalis,           15, pp. 103-110.           SWASTYARDI,  D.  (2008).  Regional  Inequality  in  Indonesia:  Is  the  General           Allocation Fund (DAU) Likely To Have An Impact? A Research Paper, in partial           fulfillment of the requirements for obtaining the degree of Masters of Arts In           Development Studies. The Hague, The Netherlands, 60 p.           ŠTIKA,  R.,  (2004).  Regionální  rozdíly  v Česku  v 90.  letech  v kontextu           novodobého  vývoje.  In:  Geografie  –  Sborník  České  geografické  společnosti,           109 (1), pp. 15-26.           TELLO,  C.,  RAMOS,  R.  (2012).  Wage  inequality  and  economic  growth  in           Mexican regions. In: Investigaciones Regionales, 24, pp. 115-152.           TVRDOŇ, M., SKOKAN, K. (2011). Regional disparities and the ways of their           measurement: the case of the Visegrad four countries. In: Technological and           Economic Development of Economy, 17 (3), pp. 501-518.           VESELOVSKÁ,  Z.  (2015).  Sociálne  nerovnosti  a možnosti  ich  merania.  In:           Geographia Cassoviensis, Vol. IX (1), pp. 69-79.           VILLAVERDE,  J.,  MAZA,  A.  (2009).  Measurement  of  regional  economic           disparities. In: UNU-CRIS Working Papers W-2009/12, 45 p.           WISHLADE, F., YOUILL, D. (1997). Measuring Disparities for Area Designation           Purposes:  Issues  for  the  European  Union.  In:  Regional  and  Industrial  Policy           Research Paper, 24, Glasgow: University of Strathclyde. 33p.           WOSTNER, P. (2005). The Dynamics of Regional Disparities in a Small Country:           The Case of Slovenia. In: D. Felsenstein, B. Portnov (eds.): Regional disparities           in small countries. Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-24303-8, pp.169-185.           ZDRAŽIL, P. KRAFTOVÁ, I. (2012). Konvergují regiony zemí V4? In: V. Klímová,           V.  Žítek  (eds.):  XV.  mezinárodní  kolokvium  o  regionálních  vědách,  Valtice,           Brno: MU. pp. 48-58.           ZUBAREVICH, N.V., SAFRONOV, S.G. (2011). Regional Inequality in Large Post-           Soviet  Countries.  In:  Regional  Research  of  Russia,  1(1),  pp.  15-26.           https://doi.org/10.1134/S2079970511010138                                                      44","Shrnutí             Príspevok  predstavuje  jednu  z troch  nosných  kapitol  pripravovanej             vysokoškolskej  učebnice  s názvom  Regionálny  rozvoj  –  faktory,  nerovnosti             a cezhraničná  spolupráca.  Každá  z riešených  oblastí,  či  už  ide  o  faktory             regionálneho  rozvoja,  regionálne  disparity  i  cezhraničnú  spoluprácu  využíva             vlastný  súbor  výskumných  metód,  ktoré  je  potrebné  zrozumiteľným             spôsobom priblížiť študentom ako jeden prepojený systém. V predkladanom             príspevku  je  pozornost  sústrená  na  stav  riešenia  jednej  z nich,  a to             problematiky  regionálnych  disparít,  pričom  štruktúra  prehľadovej  štúdie  je             koncipovaná  ako  základ  pre  vytvorenie  obsahovej  náplne  pripravovanej             kapitoly  vysokoškolskej  učebnice.  Okrem  definovania  pojmu  regionálne             disparity  sa  pozornosť  zameriava  na  ich  atribúty,  klasifikáciu,  najčastejšie             využívané hodnotiace ukazovatele a výber štatistických nástrojov a mier na ich             meranie.                                                                                         45","USEFUL GEOGRAPHY IN EDUCATION                                       Jaromír Kolejka             Masaryk University, Faculty of Education, Department of Geography, Poříčí 7,                                603 00 Brno, Czech Republic                                   kolejka@ped.muni.cz            Abstract:  The  usefulness  of  geography  in  a  professional  community           demonstrates  the  applied  geography.  The  applied  geography  and  its           outcomes  positively  interfere  with  a  number  of  human  activities  as  a  rule           when  it  comes  to  solving  various  spatial  and  spatial-temporal  tasks.  The           applied  geography  gained  wide  recognition  of  both  other  Earth-studying           disciplines  and,  in  particular,  the  users  of  research  results  in  practice.           Similarly, it is necessary to gain an understanding of geography as a system of           the knowledge and skills applicable to the everyday life of ordinary citizens. In           this area, the contemporary geography faces a number of difficulties. There is           a  need  to  deliberately  consider  appropriate  tools  to  promote  “the  useful           geography”  among  the  widest  public,  preferably  by  demonstrating  its           usefulness in solving model tasks. Some selected solutions are offered in this           contribution.           Key words: project learning, search study, practical skills                                    1 INTRODUCTION           There is no doubt among geographers that geography is a beneficial scientific           discipline  with  many  outcomes  in  practice  in  an  unlimited  variety  of           applications. However, the general public and often professionals from other           branches  rarely  see  the  practical  side  of  geography.  Relatively  little  is           contributed  by  the  predominant  factual  form  of  geography  teaching  at  all           levels of schools, which presents geography as a set of knowledge about the           countries  of  the  world,  accompanied  by  an  excursion  into  the  professional           geographic  terminology.  Graduates  of  geography  study  receive  a  significant           amount of topographic facts, they learn to use the basic terms used in the           individual partial or auxiliary geographic disciplines, their basic meaning and           use are introduced to pupils and students. Relatively little lessons are devoted           to the methodological part of education, which should be focused on the use           of geographic knowledge when dealing with various life situations.           The  geographic  education  has  long  been  standing  up  for  an  ongoing           challenge: strengthening the skill side of school geography. In principle, two           forms  of  strengthening  the  skills  of  young  geographers  are  offered:  1.  The           field training where pupils and students acquire practical habits both in the           stay and in the move in the field, as well as in the field collection of data; 2.           The project education is designed to initiate geographic thinking to address           specific  spatial  or  temporal-spatial  tasks,  typically  in  the  form  of           a multiparametric study (Svatoňová et al. 2012).                                             46","Since the field education issue is the subject of another contribution in this             publication, it is necessary to focus on the project education in this paper. The             topics addressed with regard to the need to promote geography as a useful             discipline  need  to  be  directed  to  the  questions  that  put  the  reality  of  life             before students and their families, relatives or pther people. It should not be             about some abstract or thematically distant tasks, but about targeting events             that  ordinary  people  can  normally  get  in  touch  with.  There  are  also  some             exceptional  events  that  may  occur  in  the  place  of  residence,  in  the             neighborhood of the school or during the recreation elsewhere. Examples of             motivational geographic studies are offered in this contribution. The paper is             focused  on  two  representative  examples  only  from  an  endless  range  of             possibilities: the location of the object and the localization of human activity             in the area.                           2 GEOGRAPHIC TOOLS OF DECISION-MAKING             The methodology of geography is based on three general tools:             a) the spatial approach,             b) the knowledge synthesis, and             c) the hierarchy and location.             These  tools  need  to  be  used  in  any  decision  making  procedures  in  the             territory, and their usage personifies the essence of geographic thinking.             The use of the “spatialial approach” instrument means that decision-making             respects the territorial distribution of factors having effect on the intention             what  the  decision-making  deals  with.  The  spatial  distribution  of  areas  and             objects  within  the  territory  represents  the  landscape  structure.  There  four             landscape structures were formed in the landscape:             1.  natural  –  primary  (spatial  distribution  of  landscape  units  –  areas  with             different  natural  features:  terrain,  geological  structure,  soils,  water  and             energy conditions, atmosphere and biota);             2. economic – secondary (represented by the spatial distribution of areas with             different human utilizing – with a different “land cover”, e.g. forest, meadow,             arable land, built-up area, water body etc.);             3.  social  –  tertiary  (which  consists  of  spatial  distribution  of  areas  to  which             different individual or common interests apply and the restrictions bound to             these  areas,  e.g.  nature  conservation,  natural  resources  protection,  limits             given  by  technical  and  transport  infrastructure,  private  ownership  of  land,             etc.);             4. spiritual – quaternary (this structure means the spatial distribution of areas             that  are  perceived  differently  by  humans,  positively  or  negatively,  always             subjectively and differentiated from person to person).             The use of the “synthesis” tool is represented in the art of putting things into             functional  (causal,  synergistic)  and  spatial  (neighbouring,  synchronic)             contexts,  searching  and  finding  relationships  between  objects  and             phenomena,  and  using  indicators  of  objects  and  phenomena  unless             documented  in  the  territory.  “Everything  is  related  to  everything”  in  the                                              47","environment and it is necessary to know that changing one factor will cause           others  to  change.  This  fact  can  build  “geographic  foresight”  of  the           phenomenon or object development. While it is not possible for the general           public  to  have  a  qualified  prognosis  of  a  phenomenon,  it  is  about  data,           knowledge  and  experience  based  on  the  idea  of  why  things  are  here  and           exactly  here,  and  how  things  may  evolve.  To  this  end,  it  is  necessary  to           cultivate  the  art  of  working  with  causal  and  neighbouring  contexts  in  the           territory  among  students  and  pupils.  They  may  play  a  key  role  in  decision           making.           The use of the “hierarchy” tool means the art to move from the “overhead”           (not the same as the “overview”) to detail and vice versa, and to understand           that  different  levels  of  resolution  apply  partially  or  completely  different           criteria for objects and phenomena assessment, and hence decision making.           In  particular,  this  aspect  of  the  geographic  view  of  the  territory  must  be           imparted  not  only  to  pupils  and  students  of  geography  but  also  to  their           teachers.  Other  methods  and  data  are  applicable  at  the  local  level  of           resolution, other at the chorological and regional level, others at the global           level. Additionally, there are relationships between these levels that need to           be clarified during geographic education.                       3 HORIZONS OF GEOGRAPHIC DECISION MAKING           The landscape is not just a human environment. Man in landscape/territory:                  • works,                  • lives,                  • resting.           However, he/she the landscape/territory:                  • uses,                  • transforms,                  • enriches and deprives,                  • threatens and is threatened.           A decision making is included in all these processes regardless some processes           have  an  accompanying  character  for  purposeful  human  activities.  Most           decisions in the landscape are spatial in their nature and are based on spatial           data. Depending on the time urgency, the sequence of decision horizons can           be distinguished:                  • operative – instantaneous (in seconds, minutes, hours),                  • short-term – tactical (in days, months),                  • medium-term – outlook (in years, five-year),                  • long-term – strategic (in decades).           The  activities  of  persons  skilled  in  the  above-mentioned  geographic  tools,           teachers of geography among others, then include:                  • creating spatial data (geodata),                                            48","• purposeful interpretation of existing geodata,                    • provision of local spatial knowledge (territorial know-how),                    • application of general spatial knowledge (expert know-how).             It  is  clear  that  the  issue  of  correct  decision  making  is  very  broad  and             complicated,  even  for  professionals.  The  transforming  such  issues  into  the             geographic education necessarily requires adequate simplification and at the             same  time  rewording  for  different  age  categories  of  pupils  or  students.             Ideally, many examples of how to demonstrate the process of the geographic             decision-making  in  the  form  of  a  game  may  be  found  that  will  have  both             a team and later a form of work in small groups. The simplification may be             made  on  the  basis  of  prioritization  in  all  steps  of  the  solution,  while  the             attractivity  can  be  achieved  by  linking  with  other  teaching  subjects  at  the             elementary school or the high school, where geography is the subject being             taught.                4 GAMES WITH A USEFUL GEOGRAPHY – FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF                                   GEOGRAPHIC THINKING             One of the ways, in which the usefulness of geography may be demonstrated             to  pupils  or  students  when  deciding  on  the  territory´s  future,  is  a  simple             search study (Kolejka, 2014). In such a case, the strategic decision making is to             optimize the land use. The aim of such a classroom work is to stimulate the             children's  territorial  imagination  to  solve  the  task,  to  support  the  need  to             work  with  different  data,  their  purposeful  evaluation  and  synthesis  to  get             a clear result. Depending on the age of the students, the teacher's share in the             preparation and execution of the teaching changes.             The  search  study  serves  to  make  pupils  or  students  aware  of  the  fact  that             there  are  several  factors  affecting  the  location  of  each  object  and  the             phenomenon that it can not be satisfied with the sole criterion of selecting,             assessing  and  thus  localizing  human  activities  in  the  landscape.  There  are             a number of themes for possible tasks such as:                    • what a new vineyard needs,                    • where to build a house,                    • where is the downhill ski slope,                    • where we plant orchards,                    • what threatens the flood,                    • where will be a large crop of wheat,                    • where is a risk of soil erosion,                    • where the tractor goes through,                    • and many others.             Relatively  little  preparation  requires  a  task:  Where  to  build  a  house  in  the             valley.  The  teacher  prepares  a  chart  of  the  possible  situation  (Fig.  1)  and             organizes a discussion forum in the class of geography, in which the pupils will             individually  express  themselves  on  the  individual  potential  locations  of  the             house, mentioning pros and cons for individual solutions (1 to 5).                                             49","Fig.  1.  Drawing  of  a  geographical  situation  to  discuss  and  solve  the  task  of           finding and justifying the best location of a new house.           Source: own processing            Students  can  comment  on  the  effect  of  the  relief  on  sunlight  on  different           slopes  and  what  arises  of  it  for  the  use  of  the  house.  What  role  the  wind           plays? What happens in the upper and lower part of the valley? What role           does  the  convenience  of  the  population  and  access  to  natural  resources           (water,  land)  play?  The  issue  of  potential  natural  hazards,  cumulation  of           exhaust  fumes,  and  the  impact  of  the  nature  and  human  beings  on  the           environment  in  general  can  be  developed  in  the  discussion.  They  learn           rational spatial thinking and the result of knowing is that the ideal solution           does not usually exist and that compromises are to be expected.           A  more  complex  (multiparametric)  but  more  specific  task  is  to  conduct           a search study. It consists of answering the sequence of five basic questions:           1.  Why?  :  what  is  the  object  of  the  assessment  (house,  garage,  erosion,           landslide, escape)?           2. What? : does affect the choice of location for activity setting up?           3. How? : to evaluate influencing factors?           4. How much? : all criteria are met?           5. Where? : what is the shape and position of a suitable area, line, point?           The answer to the first question means precising and targeting the study. It           means  the  aim  of  the  study.  The  establishing  a  representative  set  of  key           criteria for assessing the (in)suitability of a site for the intended purpose is the           answer  to  the  second  question.  The  third  question  requires  an  assessment           scale.  The simplest scale contains “yes” and “no” only. The fourth question           finds  the  answer  in  the  integration  of  partial  evaluation  of  the  territory                                           50","according to the criteria. It can be the sum, the product, the intersection of             the values of all monitored partial evaluations. The fifth question is answered             by compiling a map showing the result.             An example of this type of game is to find a suitable area for setting up a new             vineyard using fictive data. Criteria are: geology (Fig. 2), soils (Fig. 3), slope             (Fig. 4), aspect (Fig. 5), relative elevation above the bottom of the valley (Fig.             7).  The  scale  is  “yes”  “no”  (evaluated  thematic  maps  will  be  converted  to             black-and-white Boolean images). The integration is done by overlaying black-             and-white images (maps) of the assessed territory (black colour means “no”,             white “yes”). The result of overlaid images is a simple map, where only the             white  color  means:  Yes,  this  area  meets  all  the  criteria  and  is  suitable  for             setting up a vineyard (Fig. 8).                                                                Fig.  2.  Geological  map                                                          and    its   purpose-                                                          interpreted  black-and-                                                          white image with white                                                          areas  suitable  for  the                                                          vineyard,  black  areas                                                          are not suitable.                                                          Source: own processing                                                                   Fig.  3.  Soil  map  and                                                           its purpose-interpreted                                                          black-and-white image.                                                          Source: own processing                                                     51","Fig. 4. Slope map and its                                                           purpose-interpreted                                                       black-and-white  image                                                       (the  moderate  slope  is                                                       the best one).                                                       Source: own processing                         Fig.  5.  Aspect  map  and  its  purpose-interpreted  black-and-white  image  (the           southern slope is the best one).           Source: own processing                                                              Fig. 6. Map of the areas                                                       with    the   relative                                                       elevation of 10 m above                                                       the bottom of the valley                                                       and  its  black  and  white                                                       version.                                                       Source: own processing                                               52","Fig.  7.  Land  use  map                                                          derived  from    the                                                          topographic  maps  and                                                          its  black  and  white                                                          versions        with                                                          appropriate     and                                                          inappropriate  areas  for                                                          the vineyard.                                                          Source: own processing                                 Fig.  8.  Integration  of  purpose-interpreted  thematic  maps  (black-and-white             masks) by overlayong on each on other (left) leading to the definition of the area             meeting all the criteria for setting up a vineyard (right).             Source: own processing              The demonstrated search procedure can be done in several ways:                                                      th                                                   th             a) in the form of “cutouts” for pupils of the 6 –7  classes of the elementary             school (12–13 years old pupils) in connection with the subject “art education”,                                                        th                                                     th             b) in the computer classroom for pupils of the 8 –9  (14–15 years old pupils)             in  conjunction  with  the  “basics  of  computer  science”  using  the  paint  brush             tool in MS Office,             c) in a computer room for students of high schools with the education in the             “computer science” or geoinformatics (16–20 years old studentss) using GIS             shareware or school versions of the GIS SW.             In  all  alternatives,  a  significant  co-participation  of  a  geography  teacher  is             necessary.  The teacher has to prepare all the teaching  materials,  especially             the  initial  thematic  maps  (to  collect  them  for  the  theme  the  “local             landscape”). Their purpose-interpretation into Boolean black-and-white maps             may be done in the previous class in the form of discussions with pupils or                                             53","students to teach them the interpretation of thematic maps and the process           of  purposeful  assessment  of  landscape  features.  Alternatively,  he  prepares           these intermediates by himselves and explains their content and meaning to           pupils. However, the optimal environment for the successful implementation           of  the  search  study  is  the  geographic  study  ciecle  at  the  elementary  and           secondary school.                                     5 CONCLUSION           Another  very  interesting  area  of  using  geographic  knowledge  and  skills  in           everyday  life  is  the  risk  assessment  in  the  landscape.  It  is  not  a  matter  to           professionally  determine  the  accurate  degree  of  one  or  the  other  risk  for           a normal citizen, but to avoid dangerous places if necessary. Threats can come           from  both  the  natural  and human  environments.  Already  at  schools,  pupils           and  students  can  be  prepared  for  a  purposeful  interpretation  of  available           thematic  maps  (e.g.  flood  zones  according  to  geological  and  soil  maps,           landslides,  insects,  etc.).  Another  option  is  to  raise  pupils'  and  students'           awareness  of  potential  risk  indicators  (biotic  flood,  landslide,  rock  fall,  etc.           indicators, social indicators of excluded localities, theft, terrorism, etc.). All of           these  phenomena  have  a  spatial  character,  they  are  tied  to  certain           combinations of localizing factors, and it is only about recognizing them and           using them for making the right decisions. There is a wide space opened for           geography in the sense, which other disciplines are unable to fill.            Acknowledgment:  The  research  and  development  of  multiparametric  pupils´           practices  is  part  of  the  project  “Preparation  of  Geography  and  Biology           Teachers for Outdoor Education”, Grant MUNI/A/1262/2016 supported by the           Faculty of Education, Masaryk University in Brno, Czech republic.                                      REFERENCES           KOLEJKA, J. Nauka o krajině pro studující geografie magisterských učitelských           oborů. 1. vyd., Brno: Masarykova univerzita, 2014, ISBN 978-80-210-6659-5.           SVATOŇOVÁ,  H.,  HOFMANN,  E.,  KOLEJKA,  J.,  LNĚNIČKA,  L.,  MÍSAŘOVÁ,  D.,           NAVRÁTIL,  V.,  PLUCKOVÁ,  I.,  RUDA,  A.,  RYCHNOVSKÝ,  B.,  SVOBODOVÁ,  H.,           SVOBODOVÁ,  J.  Integrovaná  přírodověda  3  -  Město  a  venkov.  Učitelův           námětovník.  1.  vyd.,  Brno:  Masarykova  univerzita  -  Muni  Press,  2012,           ISBN 978-80-210-5795-1                                         Shrnutí           Užitečnost  geografie  v odborné  komunitě  prokazuje  aplikovaná  geografie.           Aplikovaná  geografie  a  její  výsledky  pozitivně  zasahují  do  množství  odvětví           lidské  činnosti  zpravidla  tam,  kde  jde  o  řešení  prostorových           a časoprostorových úkolů. Aplikovaná geografie tam získala uznání jak dalších           disciplín  zkoumajících  Zemi,  tak  zejména  uživatelů  výzkumných  výsledků           v praxi. Podobně je zapotřebí získat pochopení geografie jako souboru znalostí           a  dovedností  použitelných  v každodenním  životě  běžného  člověka.  V této           oblasti se soudobá geografie potýká s řadou nesnází. Je zapotřebí cílevědomě           uvažovat o vhodných nástrojích propagace „užitečné geografie“ mezi nejširší                                           54","veřejností,  nejlépe  cestou  demonstrace  její  prospěšnosti  při  řešení             modelových úkolů. Nabídku vybraných řešení přináší tento příspěvek.             Geografie  s výhodou  využívá  svých  hlavnívh  metodických  nástrojů:             prostorovosti, syntézy a hierarchie. Geografie (znalosti o dovednosti) by měla             v každodenním  životě  napomáhat  správnému  prostorovému  rozhodování.             Takové člověk potřebu při svých hlavních životních aktivitách (bydlení, práci             a odpočinku) v celém jejich rozmanitém podrobném spektru. Člověk při těchto             svých  aktivitách  krajinu/území  využívá,  přetváří,  obohacuje  i  ochuzuje,             ohrožuje a sám je jí ohrožován. Z hlediska času pak rozhodování nabývá forem             rozhodování  operativního  –  okamžitého  (pro  sekundy,  minuty,  hodiny),             krátkodobého – taktického (pro dny, měsíce), střednědobého – výhledového             (pro  roky,  pětiletí)  a  dlouhodobého  –  strategického  (pro  dekády).  Činnosti             člověka  znalého  geografických  cědomostí  a  dovedností,  tedy  m.j.  učitele             geografie,  pak  zahrnují  vytváření  prostorových  dat  (geodat),  účelovou             interpretaci  existujících  geodat,  poskytování  místních  prostorových  znalostí             (územní know how) a aplikaci obecných prostorových znalostí (expertní know             how).             Je  zřejmé,  že  problematika  správného  rozhodování  je  velice  široká             a komplikovaná, a to i pro odborníky. Transformace takové problematiky do             geografického  vzdělávání  nutně  vyžaduje  náležité  zjednodušení  a  současně             přeformulování  pro  rozdílné  věkové  kategorie  žáků  či  studentů.  V ideálním             případě  lze  najít  příklady,  jak  proces  geografického  rozhodování  v území             demonstrovat v podobě hry, která bude mít jak společnou kolektivní část, tak             později formu práce v malých týmech.             V příspěvku  jsou  demonstrovány  dva  příklady  pěstování  geografického             myšlení u žáků a studentů geografie cestou výuky v učebně. Formou diskuse             lze  se  se  žáky  dohadovat,  které  místo  v údolí  je  nejvhodnější  pro  postavení             obytného domu (obr. 1). Další možností je jednoduchá vyhledávací studie. Ta             slouží  k tomu,  aby  si  studující  zeměpisu  uvědomili,  že  na  polohu,  funkci             a chování  každého  objektu  a  jevu  působí  více  faktorů,  že  se  nelze  spokojit             pouze s jediným kritériem výběru, hodnocení a tím i lokalizace aktivit člověka             v krajině. Vyhledávací  studie  spočívá v tvorbě odpovědí na posloupnost pěti             základních otázek:             Proč? : kde může být objekt/proces/jev (dům, garáž, eroze, sesuv, útěk)?             Co? : ovlivňuje výběr místa pro jeho založení?             Jak? : hodnotit ovlivňující faktory?             Kolik? : kriterií je splněno?             Kde? : jaký tvar a polohu má vhodný pozemek, linie, bod?             Příkladem  tohoto  typu  hry  je  vyhledávání  vhodné  plochy  pro  založení             vinohradu. Kritérii jsou tyto faktory: geologické podloží (obr. 2), půda (obr. 3),             sklon svahu (obr. 4), orientace svahu (obr. 5), výška nad dnem údolí (obr. 6)             a současné využití ploch (obr. 7). Stupnice je „ano“ „ne“ (vyhodnocené mapy             se změní ma černobílé booleánské obrazy). Integrace se provádí nakládáním             na sebe černo-bílých obrázků (map) území (černá barva  znamená „ne“, bílá             barva „ano“). Výsledkem nakládání obrázků na sebe je jednoduchá mapa, kde             pouze bílá barva znamená: Ano, tato plocha vyhovuje všem kritériím a hodí se             pro založení vinohradu (obr. 8).                                             55","DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND DEVELOPMENT GEOGRAPHY IN THE                               SYSTEM OF EARTH SCIENCES                                 Zdeněk Opršal, Pavel Nováček            Department of Development \& Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science, Palacký                      University Olomouc, 17. listopadu 12, 771 46 Olomouc                                  zdenek.oprsal@upol.cz            Abstract: There is an ongoing debate on the future of geography as a science.           The Earth is almost explored and therefore the space for the application of           geography is relatively narrower than in the past. At the same time, there are           fields  of  geography  such  as  Development  Studies  and  Development           Geography which bring new impetus. Development geography deals with the           study of the spatial aspects of development, or more precisely of insufficient           development  of  economically  less  advanced  countries.  Until  recently,  this           issue has not been an important part of teaching and research activities at           Czech universities, but the situation has changed in the last decade. The paper           provides  an  overview  of  recent  evolution  and  position  of  Development           Studies and Development Geography in the system of Earth Sciences, taking           into consideration the Czech context. It reviews the debate on the mission of           Development studies and development geography and considers the role of           geography in our perceptions of developing countries and their problems.           Key  words:  Development  geography,  Development  studies,  Earth  sciences,           Czech Republic               DEVELOPMENT STUDIES IN THE CONTEXT OF A CHANGING WORLD           Development studies is a relatively new branch of social sciences. Shuurman           (2002) states that the roots of the Development studies can be tracked into           the second half of the 1950s and in the first half of the 1960s, building on the           experience of the restoration of Western European economies that took place           after  the  Second  World  War.  According  to  Daněk  (2000),  the  intellectual           environment  of  the  1940s  which  was  in  favour  of  decolonization  was  also           important  and  allowed  to  create  an  interdisciplinary  field  of  development           studies.  The  aim  of  the  newly  constituted  discipline  was  to  provide  post-           colonial countries with a theoretical and methodological basis for their policy           to overcome economic and social backwardness (Daněk, 2000). Development           studies responds to external stimuli stemming from the dynamic relationships           between  the  different  actors  of  the  developed  and  developing  world.  The           discipline  also  provides  a  theoretical  basis  for  alternative  development           concepts,  strategies,  and  development  policies.  Interaction  between  the           theoretical discipline of developmental studies and the real world is two-sided           and  constant,  therefore  Development  studies  is  inherently  a  very  dynamic           discipline.           The emergence of development studies is linked to the success of the concept           of modernization. This concept, encouraged by the successful reconstruction                                           56","of Western Europe after the Second World War, is based on the idea that the             follow-up  of  “Western”  ways  of  economic  and  industrial  development  is             equally  appropriate  for  the  transformation  of  less  developed  countries.             Modernization theory gained popularity especially in the 1950s and 1960s and             in a modified  form returned in the eighties. The idea of  modernization still             affects  powerful  international  development  institutions,  in  particular  the             World  Bank  and  the  International  Monetary  Fund.  (Martinussen,  Pedersen             1999; Rapley 2007; McKay 2004).             Modernization  theories  began  to  be  criticized  in  the  1960s  from  many             different  perspectives.  The  strongest  criticism  came  from  the  “dependency             school” that has its roots in Latin America. The authors of this school pointed             out that the growth of prosperity in developed countries is possible only at             the  expense  of  the  developing  countries,  which  are  maintained  in  artificial             dependency.  (McKay  2004;  Potter  2003).  According  to  Schuurman,  various             academic centres of Third World studies were founded and influenced mainly             by leftist professors and their students (Schuurman 2002). Discussions on the             nature and impact of development aid and the roles of development policies             from the position of “dependency school” become a common topic within the             Third World studies centres. Proponents of the “dependency school” got into             criticism themselves at the end of the seventies and in the eighties because             they failed to explain the growth of newly industrialized countries in southern             and  south-east  Asia.  The  unprecedented  growth  of  so  called  Asian  tigers             (Taiwan,  South  Korea  and  others)  has  shown  that  blaming  globalization  for             poverty in the developing world cannot be fully justified. (McKay 2004).             The  1980s  were  marked  by  neo-liberalism,  embodied  by  the  Structural             Adjustments  Programmes  (SAP)  of  the  World  Bank  and  the  International             Monetary  Fund.  These  programs,  focusing  on  the  macroeconomic             stabilization  of  participating  countries,  have  become  a  prerequisite  for             providing preferential loans needed to overcome the debt crisis. However, the             negative effects of SAP became obvious already in the 1980s. Reduced state             budget expenditures of developing countries due to SAP requirements have             affected  mainly  the  social  sectors  (health,  education,  public  services).  As             a result,  poverty  has  grown  among  the  poorest  people  and,  in  many  cases             environmental  degradation  occurred.  The  contribution  of  the  Structural             Adjustments  Programmes  for  economic  growth  of  developing  countries             remains the subject of debate. Another major blow to neoliberal approaches             was  the  debt  crisis  that  hit  South  and  Southeast  Asia  in  1997.  The  model             promoted by the most influential international financial organizations failed,             and once again there were calls to re-evaluate and adjust existing approaches             (Rapley 2007).             During  the  1990s,  there  has  been  a  reflection  of  existing  development             theories  and  strategies.  The  debate  was  fuelled  by  a  disillusion  with  the             unsatisfactory  results  of  development  cooperation,  which  was  reflected  in             a decrease  in  the  volume  of  development  aid  in  early  1990s.  Under  the             impression of strong criticism, alternative concepts of developmental studies             as  well  as  practice  (grassroots  development,  empowerment,  participation,             etc.) arise or strengthen their position. (Potter 2004; Riddell 2007). One of the             main  consequences  of  the  revision  of  existing  approaches  to  development             was the rejection of universal developmental theories. A distinctive feature of             today's  development  studies  and  developmental  practice  is  the  diversity  of                                             57","approaches  where  classical  and  alternative  theories  and  strategies  coexist.           Another major feature of current situation in the field of development studies           is an increased focus on “new” issues such as migration, remittances, clime           change or tax evasions.           In the context of the inability of major developmental theories to explain the           causes of transformation and stagnation in developing countries (Martinussen           2007) and the disillusion regarding inadequate results or the failure of existing           development  strategies,  the  discussion  about  the  “development  studies           crisis”.  The  most  radical  criticism  was  raised  against  the  very  concept  of           development from post-development left-wing scholars (e.g. Escobar 1994).           The  critics  blame  the  discipline  of  development  studies  creating  artificial           distinction  between  the  “more  advanced”  North  (or  West)  and  the           “backward”  rest  of  the  world  that  has  to  develop.  Development  has  thus           become  a  tool  for  the  continuation  of  colonialism.  For  some  authors,  this           means  the  end  of  development  studies,  because  there  is  nothing  like           development, only a development discourse full of effort to colonize. Others           emphasize  the  need  to  listen  more  closely  to  those  “who  should  be  to  be           developed”, to be receptive to their needs and understanding of development           and not to impose alien ideologies or universal strategies (Daněk 2000).              DEVELOPMENT GEOGRAPHY AS A PART OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES           SDevelopmental  studies  build  on  the  tradition  of  various  more  traditional           scientific disciplines such as economics, sociology, anthropology or geography.           Development geography can be considered as part of broadly defined field of           Development  studies.  However,  Development  geography  is  specific  with  its           emphasis  on  the  time  and  space  dimension  of  economic  and  social           inequalities within developing countries and between economically advanced           economies and developing countries. The emergence of a distinctive discipline           of  Development  geography  came  later  than  that  of  development  studies.           Since  the  mid-20th  century,  geographers  have  begun  to  address  wider           development  issues,  not  just  narrowly  targeted  regional  topics.  The           development of a “new” discipline began in 1960s and 1970s, but only slowly           gained  its  shape  and  identity.  Marcus  Power  sees  as  a  forerunner  of           developmental  geography  Tropical  regional  geography  as  a  forerunner  of           Developmental geography. In his work, he is mapping the transformation of           colonial and tropical geography in Great Britain into development geography,           which has been underway since the end of the Second World War until the           1970s (Power 2004).           According to Lawson, development geography has been a latecomer to the           interdisciplinary family of development studies (Lawson 2007). Development           geography  was  inspired  by  dominant  theories  and  strategies  of  modernism           and economic development in the early stages of its formation in the 1970s           and  1980s.  In  the  1990s,  critical  approaches  within  the  development           geography gained dominance. These approaches according to Lawson (2007)           combine Marxist political and economic analyzes with alternative feminist and           postcolonial  theories  (thus  representing  one  of  the  opinion  schools  of           postcolonialism). Critical development geography emphasizes the importance           of  uniqueness,  diversity,  subjectivity,  knowledge,  and  opposes  dominant           neoliberal discourse in development. (Lawson 2007). Lawson lists the typical                                           58","features  of  development  geography.  Development  geography  has  always             been highly interdisciplinary, with distinctive elements of geographic research             methods. Development geography has not yet had a stable identity in relation             to diverse development concepts (Lawson 2007), and it is only now defining             its position among other directions of human geography.             Developing  geography  has  been  since  1990s  labelled  also  as  “postcolonial             geography”.  Livingstone  notes  that  “geography  was  an  imperialistic  science             par excellence ... [because] ... discovery, topographic and social exploration,             cartographic  imagery,  and  regional  inventory  ...  fully  served  the  needs  of             colonists”  (Livingstone  in  Potter  2004:  55).  Daněk  adds  that  (especially  in             Africa) borders were often drawn on the tables of European politicians and             geographers.  These  borders,  rather  than  the  natural  ethnic  or  natural             boundaries, served the interests of colonial powers. Illustrative examples are             the  Caprivi  Strip  in  the  Namibia  or  the borders  of  Senegal  and  the  Gambia             (Daněk 2000). Inappropriately or vaguely defined borders or incorporation of             different,  sometimes  hostile  ethnic  groups  into  one  state  unit  eventually             become the cause or pretext of armed conflicts.             The  criticism  of  negative  consequences  of  classical  colonial  (or  tropical)             geography is reflected in the works of British authors (or authors from former             British dependent territories). An important representative of postcolonialism             (or  postdevelopmentism)  is  Edward  Said,  who  introduced  the  construct  of             orientalism  into  social  theory.  Orientalism  “created”  subordinate  colonial             cultures and Western concepts of their superiority (Corbridge in Daněk 2000:             41).  Another  important  author  is  the  anthropologist  Arturo  Escobar,  who             opposed the discourse of development as such, claiming that the Third World             was  created  by  the  “development”  implemented  by  the  rich  First  World             (Escobar,  1995).  British  geographers  (for  instance  Simon  2007,  Raghurama             Madge 2006, Sidaway 2007) have been discussing postcolonial challenges for             Development studies and Development geography. The discussion focuses on             methods of development research, dissemination and impact of its findings             and lessons in less developed countries.             Postcolonial  or  critical  geography  also  pay  attention  to  the  impact  that             contemporary geography has on shaping people's awareness and imagery of             developing  countries.  In  this  context,  Power  (2003)  quotes  Holloway  and             Hubard (in Power 2003: 6), and talks about “mental maps” where geography             have significant influence. Cartographic projections used in most school maps             are tailored to the latitude of Europe and North America – this fact shapes             students'  inaccurate  ideas  about  the  real  proportions  of  most  Third  World             countries. The very term “Third World” is considered by some scholars to be             inappropriate, as it implies the superiority of the “First  World” i.e. western             industrialised  countries  despite  the  fact  that  the  original  term  Third  World             was introduced by the French demographer Alfred Sauvy as an alternative to             the First and Second Worlds during the Cold War period. After the collapse of             the  Soviet  bloc,  the  Second  World  vanished,  but  the  term  Third  World             survived and maintained a slightly pejorative meaning.                                                  59","DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND DEVELOPMENT GEOGRAPHY IN EUROPE                                AND THE CZECH REPUBLIC           Despite the criticisms of development discourse, these developmental studies           and  Developmental  geography  are  enjoying  interest  of  students  mainly  in           Western  Europe.  A  significant  number  of  institutions  focusing  on           Development  studies  or  development  research  associate  the  European           Association of Development Research and Training Institutes (EADI). A good           overview of the Development studies and study system in the UK is provided           by the Development Studies Association (DSA, 2017). Studies focusing on the           issue of developing countries have a strong presence in the Nordic countries,           because  Nordic  societies  are  supportive  towards  foreign  aid.  The  biggest           traditions  of  Development  studies  programmes  have  countries  that  were           formerly  colonial  powers  -  especially  in  Great  Britain,  the  Netherlands  and           France.           Tab.  1:  Countries  of  origin  and  number  of  the  institutional  and  associate           members (in brackets) of the EADI, in alphabetical order           Austria (6)           Hungary (2)          Romania (2)           Belgium (6)           Ireland (2)          Serbia (1)           Croatia (2)           Italy (7)            Slovenia (2           Czech Republic (3)    Luxembourg (1)       Spain (7)           Denmark (4)           Malta (2)            Sweden (4)           Finland (4)           Netherlands (15)     Switzerland (8)           France (9)            Norway (9)           Turkey (1)           Germany (20)          Poland (3)           United Kingdom (18)           Greece (2)            Portugal (2)           Source: EADI (2017)            The Development studies usually take the form of Master's degree graduate           programs.  The  specializations  of  Development  studies  at  bachelor  level           (undergraduate  programs)  are  less  frequent.  This  system  reflects  the  belief           that a development study is a specialization that extends the knowledge of           other  disciplines  (typically  economics,  international  studies,  sociology,           anthropology or geography). As a result there is also a large number of various           study  combinations  including  complementary  or  secondary  specializations.           Institutions  with  the  greatest  tradition  of  Development  studies  include  the           Institute  of  Social  Studies  (ISS)  in  the  Netherlands,  the  London  School  of           Economics  (LSE)  or  the  Institute  of  Development  Studies  (IDS)  at  the           University of Sussex in Brighton (both in the UK).           Study programs focused on Development studies are also offered within the           field  of  geography.  An  example  is  the  International  Development  Studies           Master  Program  at  the  Department  of  Social  Geography  and  Planning  at           Utrecht  University  (Netherlands),  the  Human  Geography,  Planning  and           Development (International Development Studies) Master's degree program           at the University of Amsterdam (the Netherlands) International Development           Studies  at  the  Department  of  Geography  and  International  Development           Studies  at  Roskilde  University  (Denmark),  Master  Studies  in  Development           Studies  at  the  Department  of  Geography  at  the  Norwegian  University  of           Science  and  Technology  in  Trondheim  (Norway).  In  the  UK,  Geography  and           Development  offers  the  Geography  and  Development  Department  of                                            60","Geography  to  the  already  mentioned  prestigious  University  of  Sussex.             Bachelor's Degree Program International Development Studies is offered by             the Department of Geography and Development Studies at the University of             Chester.  Study programs of  geography-based Development studies can also             be found in the United States of America, Australia, Canada and New Zealand.             Developmental  studies  in  Central  and  Eastern  Europe  have  a  significantly             shorter tradition therefore also a weaker representation in EADI compared to             Western  counterparts.  The  Table  1  reveals  that  only  12  institutional  and             associate EADI members were from post-communist countries, while western             European countries hosted 130 members in 2017. The Czech Republic belongs             among other post-communist countries to one of the most experienced and             relatively progressive donors (Opršal a kol. 2017, Harmáček a kol. 2017). As             for the Czech academic institutions, the longest tradition of studies focused             on needs and problems of developing world within the Czech Republic can be             ascribe to the Faculty of tropical agriculture (former Institute of tropics and             subtropics)  at  the  University  of  Live  Sciences  in  Prague.  The  roots  of  the             tropical  agriculture  study  programme  go  back  to  communism  and  the             programme  are  still  predominantly  based  on  education  and  research  in             agriculture.             The  first  Czech  academic  institution  specifically  focused  on  Development             studies  can  be  thus  considered  the  Department  of  Development  and             Environmental Studies at the Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc.             The Department was established in September 2007 however the history of             Development  studies  in  Olomouc  dates  back  to  2003,  when  the  study             program  International  Development  Studies  was  founded  within  the             Department  of  Geography.  The  study  program  indirectly  followed  the             tradition  of  the  Summer  schools  of  development  cooperation  which  were             organised at the Palacký University Olomouc since 1998 (Nováček 2014). The             Department of Development and Environmental Studies has bachelor, master             and  doctoral  study  programmes  in  International  Development  Studies,             bachelor  programme  Environmental  Studies  and  Sustainable  Development             and  master  programme  Foresight  for  Environment  and  Development.  All             study  programs  are  accredited  within  the  program  of  Geography  and  the             study plans mirror the competence of geographic sciences.             In  the  course  of  time,  development-oriented  courses  and  programs  have             found  their  way  to  other  Czech  universities.  Mendel  University  in  Brno,             Faculty  of  Regional  Development  and  International  Studies  offers  bachelor             and since 2011 also master programme International Territorial Studies. Most             recently the Global Migration and Development Studies programme started at             Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, building on the long-standing             tradition of migration and geographic research and education. The list should             also  include  the  secondary  specialization  Development  Studies  at  the             University  of  Economics  in  Prague.  Finally  growing  number  of  individual             development-oriented  courses  can  be  found  at  Czech  universities.  These             include  Department  of  Social  Geography  and  Regional  Development  at             University  of  Ostrava,  Department  of  Geography  at  Faculty  of  Economic,             University  of  West  Bohemia  or  Department  of  Geography  at  Masaryk             University in Brno. Enhanced tertiary education in international development-             related  issues  is  important  for  the  Czech  Republic's  ability  to  cope  with             developmental and other global challenges as defined by Agenda 2030 in the                                             61","form  of  Sustainable  Development  Goals  (Lebeda  2015).  It  is  positive  that           geographers across the Czech Republic are actively involved in this education.                                      REFERENCES           DANĚK,  Petr.  Nerovnoměrný  rozvoj  světa:  kolonialismus,  neokolonialismus           a diskurz rozvoje. In: JEHLIČKA, Petr, TOMEŠ, Jiří a DANĚK, Petr. Stát, prostor,           politika.  Vybrané  otázky  politické  geografie.  Praha:  Univerzita  Karlova,           Přírodovědecká fakulta, 2000, s. 49‑64. ISBN 80-238-5566-2.           Development  Studies  Association.  [online].  DSA  [Cit.  27.10.1017].           https://www.devstud.org.uk/conferences/2017/index.shtml           ESCOBAR, Arturo. Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of           the Third World. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994. 320 s. ISBN 978-           0691150451.           HARMÁČEK,  Jaromír,  SYROVÁTKA,  Miroslav  a  OPRŠAL,  Zdeněk.  Analýza           faktorů selekce a alokace české rozvojové pomoci s využitím panelových dat a           metod  Probit  a  Tobit.  Politická  ekonomie.  2017.  65(2),  179-197.  ISSN  0032-           3233.           LAWSON, Victoria. Making Development Geography. London: Hodder Arnold,           2007. 256 s. ISBN 978-0340809648.           LEBEDA,  Petr.  MDGs,  SDGs  and  the  Change  of  Paradigm.  Development,           Environment and Foresight, 2015, (1)2, 73-76, ISSN: 2336-6621.           List of EADI Members by Country. [online]. EADI [Cit. 20.10.1017]. Dostupné           z: https://www.eadi.org/members/_netherlands           MARTINUSSEN, John Degnbol a    PEDERSEN,   Poul   Engberg.   Aid.           Understanding  International  Development  Cooperation,  1999.  London,  New           York:  Zed Books, 350 s. ISBN 978-1842770399.           MARTINUSSEN,  John.  Society,  State  and  Market:  A  Guide  to  Competing           Theories of Development. London, New York:  Zet Books, 1997. 400 s. ISBN           978-1856494427.           McKEY, John. Reassessing Development Theory: “Modernisation” and Beyond.           In:  KINGSBURY,  Damien,  REMENYI,  Joe,  MCKAY,  John,  a  HUNT,  Janet:  Key           Issues  in  Development.  2004.  Basingstoke,  New  York:  Palgrave  Macmillian,           2004, s. 45-67. ISBN ISBN 1-4039-0045-0.           NOVÁČEK, Pavel. Úvod. In NOVÁČEK, Pavel. (ed.) Rozvojová studia – vybrané           kapitoly. Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci, Přírodovědecká fakulta,           2014, s. 11‑13. ISBN: 978-80-244-3958-7.           OPRŠAL, Zdeněk, HARMÁČEK, Jaromír a SYROVÁTKA, Miroslav. Geography of           Czech aid: Where and why Czechia promotes development? Geografie. 2017.           122(2), 169-189. ISSN 1213-1075.           POTTER, Robert, BINNS, Tony, ELLIOTT, Jennifer a SMITH, David. Geographies           of  Development.  Second  edition,  2004.  Harlow:  Prentice  Hall:  Pearson           Education. 509 s. ISBN 978-0130605696.           POWER,  Marcus.  Rethinking  Development  Geographies.  London,  New  York:           Routledge, 2003. 273 s. ISBN 978-0415250795.                                           62","POWER,  Marcus.  Rethinking  Development  Geographies.  Routledge,  2003.             London, New York: Routledge, 273 s. ISBN 978-0415250795.             RAGHURAM,  Parwati  a  MADGE,  Clare.  Towards  a  method  for  postcolonial             development  geography?  Possibilities  and  challenges.  Singapore  Journal  of             Tropical Geography. 2006, 27(3), 270-288. ISSN 1467-9493.             RAPLEY, John. Understanding Development. Theory and Practice in the Third             World. Third Edition, 2007. Boulder, London: Linne Rienner, 265 s. ISBN 978-             1588265388.             RIDDELL,  Roger.  Does  Foreign  Aid  Really  Work?  Oxford,  New  York:  Oxford             University Press, 2007. 505 s. ISBN 978-0199544462.             SCHUURMAN,  Frans.  The  impasse  in  development  studies.  In:  DESAI,             Vandana,  POTTER,  Robert,  (eds.)  The  Companion  to  Development  Studies.             London: Hodder Arnold, 2002, s. 12‑15. ISBN 978-0340760512.             SIDAWAY, James. Spaces of postdevelopment. Progress in Human Geography.             2007. 31(3), 345-361. ISSN 0309-1325.             SIMON, David. Beyond antidevelopment: Discourses, convergences, practices.             Singapore  Journal  of  Tropical  Geography.  2007,  28(2),  205‑218.  ISSN  1467-             9493.                                           Shrnutí             V současné  době  se  setkáváme  s různými  názory  na  budoucnost  geografie             jako vědní disciplíny. Země je již téměř prozkoumána, a proto se prostor pro             uplatnění geografie relativně zužuje. Zároveň  se  v geografii objevují  směry,             které  přinášejí  nové  podněty.  Jedním  z těchto  směrů  je  také  rozvojová             geografie (Development Geography). Rozvojová geografie je jedním z proudů             Rozvojových  studií  (Development  Studies),  který  se  soustředí  na             časoprostorovou  dimenzi  ekonomických  a  sociálních  nerovností  a  vztahů             v rámci  rozvojových  regionů  a  mezi  hospodářsky  vyspělými  zeměmi  (tzv.             globálního  Severu)  a  rozvojovými  zeměmi  (tzv.  globálního  Jihu).    Disciplína             rozvojové  geografie  se  tak  začíná  utvářet  v šedesátých  a  sedmdesátých             letech,  ale  jen  pomalu  získávala  svou  jednotnou  podobu a  vlastní  identitu.             Marcus  Power  (2003)  vidí  jako  předchůdce  rozvojových  směrů  v geografii             tropickou  geografii.  Rozvojová  geografie  v 70.  letech  se  stala  poměrně             pozdním  příchozím  do  interdisciplinární  rodiny  rozvojových  studií  (Lawson             2007). V devadesátých letech se vyvíjí kritické přístupy k rozvojové geografii.             Tyto   přístupy   spojují   marxistické   politicko-ekonomické   analýzy             s alternativními  feministickými  a  postmodernistickými  teoriemi.  Kritická             rozvojová  geografie  zdůrazňuje  význam  jedinečnosti,  různorodosti,             subjektivity a staví se proti dominantním neoliberálním diskurzům v rozvoji             (Lawson 2007).             Významné  množství  institucí,  které  se  orientují  na  rozvojová  studia  nebo             rozvojový výzkum, sdružuje European Association of Development Research             and  Training  Institutes  (EADI).  Dobrý  přehled  o  rozvojových  studiích             a systému  studia  ve  Velké  Británii  dává  platforma  Development  Studies             Association (DSA). Studia orientovaná na problematiku rozvojových zemí mají             velké  zastoupení  v  severských  zemích,  ve  kterých  je  společnost  tradičně             příznivě nakloněna řešení globálních problémů včetně chudoby a nerovností.                                             63","Největší  tradici  mají  rozvojová  studia  v  zemích,  které  byly  v  minulosti           koloniálními  mocnosti  –  zejména  ve  Velké  Británii,  Nizozemí  a  Francii.           Rozvojová  studia  realizovaná  na  geografických  pracovištích  lze  nalézt  na           Utrecht  University  a  University  of  Amsterdam  v Nizozemsku,  Roskilde           University  v Dánsku,  Norwegian  University  of  Science  and  Technology           (v norském  Trondheimu),  University  of  Sussex  a  University  of  Chester  ve           Velké Británii. Rozvojová studia a rozvojová geografie ve střední a východní           Evropě výrazně kratší tradici, a proto i slabší zastoupení v EADI ve srovnání se           západními  protějšky.  Pouze  12  institucionálních  a  přidružených  členů  EADI           pocházelo  v roce  2017  z  postkomunistických  zemí,  zatímco  na           západoevropské země připadalo 130 EADI členů.           Největší  tradici  v České  republice  má  Česká  zemědělská  univerzita  v Praze           (Institut  tropů  a  subtropů,  dnes  Fakulta  subtropického  zemědělství),  ta  se           však převážně zaměřuje na zemědělský sektor v rozvojových zemích. Za první           českou akademické pracoviště specificky zaměřené na rozvojová studia, resp.           rozvojovou  geografii,  může  být  proto  považována  Katedra  rozvojových           a environmentálních  studií,  která  je  součástí  Přírodovědecké  fakulty           Univerzity  Palackého  v Olomouci.  Historie  rozvojových  studií  v Olomouci  se           datuje  do  roku  2003,  kdy  vznikl  samostatný  obor  Mezinárodní  rozvojová           studia.  Rozvojová  studia  si  později  našly  cestu  na  další  české  akademické           pracoviště  –  Mendlovu  zemědělskou  Univerzitu  v Brně  v podobě  oboru           Mezinárodní  teritoriální  studia  a  Univerzitu  Karlovu  v Praze  ve  formě           Globálních migračních a rozvojových studí. Druhý jmenovaný obor staví na           dlouhodobé  tradici  výzkumu  migrace  pražskými  geografy.  Mimo           akreditované  obory  v oblasti  rozvojových  studií  lze  na  geografických           pracovištích  českých  vysokých  škol  nalézt  řadu  individuálních  předmětů           zaměřených plně nebo dílčím způsobem na problematiku rozvojových zemí           a mezinárodního  rozvoje.  Zahrnutí  problematiky  mezinárodního  rozvoje  do           terciálního  vzdělávání  je  důležitým  pro  posílení  schopnosti  České  republiky           vyrovnat  se  s  rozvojovými  a  dalšími  globálními  výzvami,  jak  je  definuje           Agenda 2030 ve formě Cílů udržitelného rozvoje (Lebeda 2015). Je pozitivní,           že se geografická pracoviště v celé České republice aktivně zapojují do tohoto           vzdělávání.                                                              64","EUROPEAN UNION IN THE PRACTICAL LIFE OF PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS                              ND                     (AT THE 2  LEVEL OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN SLOVAKIA)                                        Iveta Rakytová               Catholic University, Faculty of Education, Department of Geography, Ružomberok,                                          Slovakia                                     iveta.rakytova@ku.sk              Abstract:  Geography  is  one  of  the  school  subjects,  which  gives  space  for             shaping the relationship of pupils to the larger space than their home country             -  the  Slovak  Republic.  It  enables  students  to  understand  the  functioning  of             Slovakia within the larger region – in our case within the European continent.             The Slovak Republic is a member of several international groupings, but it is             influenced  by  membership  in  the  European  Union.  Geography  is  uniquely             predisposed to join patriotism on one side, and the feeling of being part of             a larger grouping on the other. For this to work, it is necessary that students             have sufficient knowledge of not only the country where they live, but also             the community of states they are part of. The aim of the paper is to find a way             how  to  transform  the  theoretical  knowledge  acquired  by  pupils  about  the             European  Union  into  the  subject  of  Geography  at  the  2nd  level  of  primary             schools in the Slovak Republic into practical life.             Keywords: European Union, primary school, geography                                       1 INTRODUCTION             Lately, the European Union is a subject to different pressures and discussions             about its need and importance. The negative views came mostly to light after             the referendum of Great Britain citizens about leaving the Union. Therefore, it             would  be  appropriate  to  look  for  an  answer  to  the  question:  How  to             strengthen the pro-European thinking amongst young generation?             The Slovak Republic chaired the European Union in the second half of the year             2016. An interest in this aspect as well as the fact that the Slovak Republic is a             part of the European Union is very low amongst young people. To find the             answer to the question why it is so is not as straight forward. The generation             of these days commonly uses phrases such as: “Why do I need it?” “What’s in             it  for  me?”  Beside  this  a  question  arises:  “Is  it  better  to  be  a  European  or             a Slovak?  Or is it possible to be both?”  To nurture and form a positive but             truthful view towards the European Union, as the community of the states of             Europe, to feel as its citizen  and to be its part, brings about the subject of             Geography.  To  be  the  European  does  not  mean  not  to  be  Slovak,  and  vice             versa.             As  evidenced  by  surveys  of  the  Eurobarometer  in  the  year  2013  and  2014,             65%  of  European  citizens  feel  as  Europeans  (2013),  and  51%  expressed  in             2014 that they foresee themselves, in the future, as a member of their own             country first and only then as a European citizen. (figure 1).                                             65","Fig. 1. Do the citizens of the EU feel like the EU citizens?           Source: edited by:           http://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/archives/eb/eb82/eb82_first_en.pdf           [cit.2017-09-19]           http://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/archives/eb/eb79/eb79_publ_en.pdf           [cit.2017-09-19]            In Slovakia, the results of the Eurobarometer 84 (2016) revealed that only 46%           of Slovak citizens feel to be connected to the European Union. However, many           more than that consider themselves to be the EU citizen, approximately two           thirds (69%). Whereas, it is more young people and people with the higher           education that feel to be the EU citizens. Almost 81% of young people in the           age of 15–24 feel to be the EU citizens. It is, however, only some half of the           Slovaks  (52%),  that  are  familiar  with  their  rights  as  a  EU  citizen.           (http://www.tns-           global.sk/sites/default/files/files/ts1609_eurobarometer_standard.pdf           [cit.2017-09-19])           The  basis  for  this  review  preparation  came  to  us,  beside  others,  mostly           through  the  works  of  Mentza,  O.  (2006a,  2006b,  2007a,  2007b).  In  one  of           which he is asking an interesting question (2007), what do we really consider           to  be  Europe?  According  to  him  Europe  can  be  understood  in  several           dimensions: (Fig. 2)                                                        66","Fig. 2. Different definitions of EUROPE.             Sources: http://www.infoglobe.sk/stat/?fm=1[cit.2017-09-20],             http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-13194723[cit.2017-09-20],             https://www.ebu.ch/about[cit.2017-09-20],             https://ec.europa.eu/slovakia/node/421_sk[cit.2017-09-20]                    as a continent which spreads from the Atlantic Ocean to the Ural,                   or smaller parts of Europe for example such as:                    •  Europe  of  The  Schengen  Area,  which  represents  countries  that                       participate in the Schengen Agreement (www.schengenvisa.cc),                    •  or  so  called  “Euro-Land”,  countries  that  share  the  same  “Euro”                       currency,                    •  or it is Europe in borders that are defined in much larger scope                       that  the  official  borders  of  “Europe”,  like  the  Europe  of  the                       European Broadcasting Union (www.ebu.ch) with its 74 members                       in  54  countries  of  Europe,  North  Africa  and  the  Middle  East                       (Foucher, 1993),                   or  at  last,  it  is  Europe  as  defined  by  the  borders  of  the  European                     Union.             In the education of Geography in the Slovak Republic, Europe is understood as             a  continent  and  the  European  Union  as  a  union  of  the  European  countries             operating  on  the  basis  of  the  common  market  space,  common  policy  and             a united voice at the international forums.             Should pupils develop a relationship towards the European Union to learn to             think on pro-European terms and get to know their rights of a EU citizen, it is                                               67","necessary for them to have at least a basic understanding about the Union, of           course appropriately to the age of pupils.           Our focus was on the secondary level of the elementary school, the 8th grade,           where the pupils are presented with the facts on Europe as a continent. From           the above mentioned brief list of how to understand the European borders, to           separate  the  facts  about  Europe  from  those  about  the  European  Union  is           practically impossible, they are closely intertwined.           The  goal  of  the  presented  review  is  to  analyse  the  standpoint  of  the           curriculum on Europe and the European Union in the subject of Geography at           the secondary level of the elementary school in the Slovak Republic. Through           the survey amongst pupils in the form of a didactic, test to verify the basic           knowledge  of  pupils  about  the  European  Union.  Consequently,  to  propose           a scheme appropriate to the age of pupils, whereby the pupils would come to           understand the meaning or actual benefits of their country being a member of           the EU.              2 A POSITION OF THE CURRICULUM CONTENT ABOUT THE EUROPEAN                   UNION IN THE ISCED 2 IN THE SUBJECT OF GEOGRAPHY                    2.1 The Geography Education in the Slovak Republic           The education in the Slovak Republic is carried out through the Government           Educational Scheme (ŠVP). For the compilation of the ŠVP and the content of           the education based on particular educational level, the Slovak Republic also           joined  the  ISCED  classification  (International  Standard  Classification  of           Education), according to which the process is performed in Europe, and is also           accepted by other international organisations (UNESCO, OECD).           In the article we are focused on the ISCED 2—the lower secondary education,           which in Slovak terms means the secondary level of the elementary school—           the 5th and the 9th grade.           The State Educational Scheme is the starting document for the preparation of           schools’  educational  programs  that  represent  second  level  of  a  two-tier           education model. Through the use of elective lessons, a two-tier  education           model  gives  each  school  an  opportunity  to  reflect  specific  regional  or  local           conditions and requirements of pupils or parents in their school’s curriculum.           By  means  of  educational  areas  and  cross-cutting  topics,  in  the  teaching           process,  the  interdisciplinary  approach  is  preferred,  that  is  a  co-operation           within  individual  learning  subjects  in  the  given  educational  area  as  well  as           between different areas.           http://www.statpedu.sk/sites/default/files/dokumenty/inovovany-statny-           vzdelavaci-program/svp_nsv_6_2_2015.pdf[cit.2017-09-19]           The State Educational Scheme designates compulsory teaching subjects that           are integrated into the individual learning areas. The subject of Geography is           included in the Man and the Society area together with the history and the           social  studies.  The  main  purpose  of  this  educational  area  is  to  introduce           students  to  the  evolution  of  human  society  with  the  most  important  social           phenomena and processes, which are reflected into the everyday life, and to           perceive the world integrally in the mutual relationship between a man and           the society in a given geographical area.                                           68","Knowing the past of its own nation as well as of the nations of Europe and the             world, getting familiar with geographical characteristics of its own homeland             and regions of the world, and forming positive civil attitudes, is a prerequisite             for gaining the civil competences that belong to the key ones in the process of             education.  At  the  same  time  this  knowledge  develops  and  strengthens  an             awareness of belonging to the European civilisation and cultural environment.                                2.2 The school subject Geography             The main task of the school subject Geography, in the educational scheme of             the Slovak Republic, is to develop in pupils the knowing of the excellence and             uniqueness of planet Earth.             The Geography allows students:               •  to get to know a country in its all complexity,               •  to develop basic geographical skill - work with map documents, which                  forms the basis of the geographical thinking and education,               •  to get to understand that every place on Earth is unique. It differs from                  other  places  by  its  typical  climate,  flora  and  fauna;  but  also  by  its                  inhabitants  with  its  own  language,  culture  and  the  way  of  life,  which                  allows to understand a nature of the causes of diversity and multiformity                  of the individual countries,               •  to  nurture  a  respect  towards  principals  of  democracy  and  the  civil                  freedom,  which  if  violated  can  cause  war  conflicts  and  global                  catastrophes.             The Geography forms personality of a young man by drawing his attention to             the similarities but also peculiarities of described regions in comparison with             the Slovak Republic, while noting its uniqueness in the context of Europe or             the world.             At present, pupils in Slovakia gather their knowledge about Europe and the             European Union in the 8th grade of the elementary school. There are only two             requirements  for pupils' knowledge and skills on the topic of the European             Union. Essentially, those requirements are very neutral on the part of their             knowledge and skills on this subject, and it is up to the teacher to pass on the             information to pupils as considered appropriate. A pupil in the end of the 8th             grade knows / or is capable of:                   to explain the importance of the EU on specific examples,                   to take a stand on two major European challenges.             Source:           http://www.statpedu.sk/files/articles/dokumenty/inovovany-statny-             vzdelavaciprogram/geografia_nsv_2014.pdf [cit.2017-09-19]               2.2.1 The European Union in the Geography textbook for the 8th grade                                  of the elementary school             The European Union is a content of the 8th grade textbook for elementary             schools.  The  curriculum  is  in  the  scope  of  five  pages  put  into  the  thematic             section “Nature and man-made specifics of Europe” under the topic of “The             Unification of Europe”.                                             69","The  important  terms  are  found  in  the  main  part  of  the  textbook,  which           represent the minimal knowledge that a pupil should learn:              Which associations have  sought to simplify trade and  cooperation, for               example  the  European  Coal  and  Steel  Association  and  the  European               Economic Community.              There were 6 countries at the start of the process of Europe unification:               France,  Italy,  The  Netherlands,  Belgium,  Luxembourg  and  the  former               West Germany (NSR).              The  founding  agreements  were  first  signed  by  the  representatives  of               individual states in Paris and later in Rome. An author of the European               Unification Project was the Prime and the Foreign Minister of France.              Who was Robert Schuman?              Main EU institutions - the EU Council, the European Commission and the               European Parliament and its headquarters, as well as the headquarters               of the European Central Bank and the European Court of Justice.           To make it easier to remember, the text also includes a map of all the member           states of the European Union along with the year of their accede to the Union.           Only one of the symbols of the European Union – the pledge – is displayed in           the text.           A separate section of the chapter on the European Union focuses on current           challenges within the European Union. Textbook authors chose the following:             Ensuring  the  compliance  with  the  member  states'  budgeting  rules.               A disproportionate  indebtedness  of  some  states  (especially  Greece  and               Portugal,  but  also  others),  and  the  large  resources  needed  for  “the               rescue”  of  these  countries,  which  jeopardises  the  common  currency  of               the  most  EU  countries  -  the  Euro  currency.  It  is  up  to  the  teacher  to               explain how they jeopardise the common currency, appropriate the age               of pupils.             The gradual offset of differences between member states of the Union               and between their regions. Various projects have been formed to aid this               purpose,  which  are  financed  by  the  European  Union.  What  is  missing,               however, is the explanation of the Euro-Fonds as such.             The reform of member states' pension systems. In its scope, the age of               retirement should change, although its full unification is unlikely. It would               be advisable to explain why the retirement age is increasing!             The  largest  part  of  the  budget  resources  of  the  European  Union  is               expended in the agriculture. There is an interest in agricultural land to be               cultivated so the country is maintained in a cultured state. Therefore, the               Union provides substantial subsidies for the agriculture. The question is               whether this is really one of the main problems of the EU and whether it               is a topic about which the pupils should discuss.           The conclusion of the chapter on the EU is dedicated to the presentation of           the Euro currency and the explanation of the Schengen Area.                                              70","3 THE THEORY KNOWLEDGE OF PUPILS OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL ON                                       THE EU TOPIC             The pedagogical survey aimed at assessing theoretical geographic knowledge             of pupils of the 8th grade of elementary schools on the European Union topic.             The reason for the performance of this survey in this grade was the fact, that             in this year pupils receive the information about this Union of states. By this             survey we have attempted to identify and verify, through a non-standardised             didactic  exam,  the  level  of  the  theoretical  knowledge  of  elementary  school             pupils about the European Union, and to point out that pupils lack knowledge             on the European Union and the importance of our country's membership in it.             The exam contained 10 tasks. We have evaluated the answers in the exam by             the three-grade scale: correct answer 100%; partially correct answer - interval             (30–100%); incorrect answer - interval (0–30%).                                      Fig. 3. Test questions.              The  exam  was  performed  by  661  pupils  of  the  8th  grade  of  elementary             schools (out of 25 elementary schools) from different parts of Slovakia.                                                          71","100%            90            80            70            60            50            40            30            20            10             0                  1     2     3     4     5     6     7     8     9    10                 correct answer  particulary correct answer  uncorrect answer           Fig. 4. The ratio of correct, incorrect and partially correct answers.            The pupils achieved the best results in question 5 about the flag of the EU.           Questions  1,  4,  and  6  also  had  over  80%  of  correct  answers.  The  most           common incorrect answer to question 1 was “a group of the most developed           countries of Europe”. The most common incorrect answer to question 4 about           the de facto capital of the EU was Berlin. For question 6 about the founding           members of the EU, the most frequent mistake was to include the USA. 76.7%           of pupils understand the concept of the Schengen area (question 2). The most           common wrong answer to this question was “the agreement on the use of a           common currency among EU countries”. More than two thirds of the students           knew  the  year  in  which  the  Slovak  Republic  became  a  member  of  the           European Union.           The  pupils  reached  over  60%  of  correct  answers  in  questions  7  and  8.  In           question  7,  the  most  frequent  mistake  was  that  the  main  seat  of  the           Parliament  is  located  in  Germany.  There  were  also  some  mistakes  in           determining the date of Slovakia joining the EUin question 8.           Questions with multiple answers caused the most problems for the students.           When  asked  about  the  three  predecessors  of  the  EU  (question  number  3),           very  few  answers  were  correct  –  only  4.2%.  For  question  9,  most  of  the           incorrect answers reported Ukraine as a non-European country which would           like to join the EU. On the contrary, nearly 90% of the pupils were informed           about Brexit.  For the last question about the bodies of the EU, nearly 50%           could not list even one. Partially correct answers were dominated by 93% of           the responses listing the European Parliament.           As shown by the analysis of the textbooks and the results of the didactic test,           we can conclude that:           •   The information provided to the students on the subject of the European               Union is predominantly factual.           •   Only  the  basic  information  is  provided  about  the  foundation  and  the               operation  of  the  European  Union  and  about  the  fact  that  the  Slovak                                           72","Republic is a part of this grouping. Some of the topics are, to our opinion,                 for students boring and harder to comprehend - eg. is it really necessary                 to  inform  about  the  pension  system  reform  or  about  the  extensive                 expenditures for the agriculture?             •   Missing is the introduction of the transfer of information into the pupils’                 everyday life.                 4 WHAT SHOULD A PUPIL KNOW ABOUT THE EUROPEAN UNION –                  A PROPOSAL OF THE NEW STRUCTURE FOR THE CURRICULUM                   PRESENTATION ON THE SUBJECT OF THE EUROPEAN UNION             Based on the above listed analysis, both the knowledge of pupils about the EU             in the ISCED2 in Geography and in the Geography textbook, we have arrived             at the decision to propose a new structure for the curriculum presentation on             the subject of the European Union.             This should give an answer to the question “Why is it necessary to include the             European Union into the educational system, in our case into the subject of             Geography, and how to transfer it into the practical life of pupils?”             Answers to this question, as well as proposals and activities on “how to do it”,             we have attempted to summarise into the following ideas that could be the             backbone of the new chapter about the EU in the textbook of Geography:             1. We live in the European Union. It is all around us every day, and therefore             it is necessary to know where we live, what surrounds us, comprehend the             world in which we live. It is not enough to solely know my home, my region or             my nation, but it is also important to possess a deeper knowledge on Europe             as a whole, more precisely the European Union, about the countries that form             it.             We  should  explain  to  pupils  that,  as  pupils,  they  belong  to  many  different             groups  at  once.  We  can  ask  pupils  to  list  organisations  of  which  they  are             members of (for example a sports team, a dance group). Being a member of             one group does not diminish their membership in another. The same is true of             political  memberships.  As  citizens  of  their  town,  district,  state,  and  nation,             pupils hold multiple political loyalties. Being a good, for example, Bratislava             citizen makes one no less of a good Slovak or a good citizen of the EU. People’s             loyalties were to their city, their region and their nation. Today, these diverse             people are also learning to develop a political loyalty to Europe as a whole. In             an effort to help this process and to assist with the transition, the European             Union  adopted  symbols  for  a  unified  Europe.  We  could  ask  pupils  to  try  to             design  some  symbols  that  would  identify  the  EU  entity  (for  example  a  flag,             national anthem, a motto, national holiday, etc.).             2.  We  are  citizens  of  the  European  Union  that  gives  us  certain  rights  as             a citizen of this institution. The European Union is the fastest growing political             system in the world. In years 1985 to 2017 the European Union has grown             from  12  to  today’s  28  countries  with  an  area  of  4  382  217  km²  taking  7th             place in the world with approximately 508 mil. of its citizens ranking at the 3rd             place in the world. (geohive.com).                                               73","Activity: Match a picture with an answer:                      Countries which:               1.  want to join,               2.  form contemporary European Union,               3.  do not want to become members of the EU or the countries that do                  not meet criteria for joining.            I am the EU citizen, what are my rights?            •  the right to study in the other member state,            •  the right to have a residence in the other member state,            •  the right to equality of treatment irrespective of nationality,            •  the right to travel freely across the EU,            •  the right to diplomatic and consular protection–and if I am outside the               EU, where my country does not have its own diplomatic representation,               help or protection can provide an embassy or consulate of another EU               country,            •  the right to communicate with any EU institution or body in any one of               the official languages of the EU and to obtain an answer in this language,            •  the right to information.            3.  The  European  Union–it  is  a  union  of  various  types  of  countries.  It  is           necessary  to  understand  the  physiographic  but  also  the  socio-economic           characteristics, which allows the explanation of different phenomena.           Activity:           Fill in:                          Fill in:           the highest peak of the EU       landlocked countries of the EU                                            Which  countries  of  the  EU  are  a           the vastest lowland of the EU    monarchy?                                            Write down three countries of the EU                                            with  the  largest  number  of  the           the longest river of the EU      citizens!                                            74","Fill in:                          Fill in:                                              Write down three counties of the EU                                              with  the  lowest  number  of  the             the largest lake of the EU       citizens!             the largest state of the EU      5 largest cities of the EU             the smallest state of the EU     5 smallest cities of the EU              4. The  European Union and  its economy.  The  economy  plays an important             role  in  the  lives  of  people  and  therefore  it  requires  our  attention.  Pupils             should  therefore  possess  a  basic  knowledge  about  the  functioning  of  the             economy,  what  is  The  Schengen  Area,  the  Euro  currency,  where  and  why             firms open up their companies and branches, why do they move (eg. from the             West to the East) etc., what does it mean a cheap labor or a common market             space.             They should know the benefits of the membership in the Schengen area and             whether the use the Euro as a currency. (figure 5)             Activity: You have won a trip across Europe during the holiday. You will visit             Vienna,  Munich,  Geneva,  Brussels,  Paris,  Madrid,  London,  Copenhagen,             Prague, and Zagreb. How many different currencies will you need to obtain in             order to be able to travel:                 •  in the year 1998,                 •  at present.             (a tool - the Exchange Rate dated the 1.10. 1998, before the Euro currency             available  at:  https://www.nbs.sk/sk/statisticke-udaje/kurzovy-listok/kurzovy-             listok/denny-kurzovy-listok-nbs[cit.2017-09-30])              5. The European Union and its politics - decisions taken in Brussels have an             immediate or indirect impact on our lives. Therefore, the pupils should know             who decides about them: the EU Council, the European Parliament, the EU             Commission, the Court of Justice, etc.             6.  The  European  Union  is  multicultural.  Implementation  of  the  European             dimension  is  only  possible  if  we  try  to  understand  the  continent's             multiculturalism  and  the  respect  for  races,  nations  and  nationalities  or             ethnicities. The European Union is multilingual - every language of a member             state  is  an  official  EU  language.  At  present,  there  are  24  official  languages             and, in addition, there are  more than 60 native or non-native languages in             each  of  the  regions  of  the  Union.  The  regional  or  minority  languages  are             spoken  by  about  50  million  people  of  the  European  Union.             http://www.europskaunia.sk/jazyky_eu[cit.2017-09-30]             Activity  1:  Determine  languages  based  on  listening.  Recordings  can  be             obtained  on  the  web  page:      https://europa.eu/european-union/about-             eu/figures/administration_sk#jazyky[cit.2017-09-30]             Activity 2: Find a sentence “Hello, my name is …” in all official languages of             the EU.                                              75","7. The European Union is a global player, willing to promote its programme           independently from the other partners - in an interest to achieve only the best           for  its  members,  without  an  interference  to  relationships  with  the  other           countries, groupings or communities.           The  economic,  political  and  democratic  processes  in  the  European  Union           became  a  role  model  for  a  lot  of  different  regions  of  the  world,  eg.  the           Caribbean Community, the Association of South East Asian Nations or for the           African Union. These regions have tried to imitate its successes and attempted           to bring through the political and the economic integration that the European           Union has accomplished.           Activity: Compare the EU with Russia, USA, China, Australia and the Unions           such as ASEAN, CARICOM and the AU, according to the area, its population           and the density.                            land area   population  population density               Compare!         2                             (km )     (mil. )  (people per km2)           European Union    4479768  516195432        115,23           Russia            17098242  142257519         8,32           United States     9883517  326625791         33,05           China             9596960 1379302771        143,72           Australia         7741220   23232413          3,00           ASEAN*            4435618  625000000         140,9           CARICOM**          458480   17775192         38,77           African Union***  29922059 1225080510        40,94               ASEAN - Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapur,           *   Thailand, Brunei, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam               CARICOM - Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados,               Belize, Dominica, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat,               Surinam, Saint Lucia, St Kitts and Nevis, St Vincent and           ** the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago               The African Union (AU) - is a continental               union consisting of all 55 countries on           *** the African continent           An  implementation  of  the  European  dimension  allows  for  pupils  to           comprehend an influence           of the European Union on the world and vice versa, what is the impact of the           world on the functioning of the EU.           All these statements have led us to produce a wall poster that would clearly           point out the connection and the importance of the EU for our country and           for the pupil himself. (figure 5)           To reinforce the curriculum, we have designed the, where through the correct           answers pupils come to the finish line. Pupils mark or colour a window with           the correct answer and through that they find the right path from the start to           the finish. (figure 6)                                           76","Fig. 5. Design of the wall poster about European Union for elementary school.             Autor: Iveta Rakytová                                        CONCLUSION             In the presented review we have tried to propose a new view on the teaching             process of the curriculum about the European Union at the secondary level of             the elementary school. It is our believe that at present times it is necessary to             change the theory based approach to teaching of the relevant topic and focus             more  on  the  practical  meaning,  which  is  that  we  are  a  member  of  this             grouping. Contemporary generation of young people is practical, they do not             want to learn about things they consider useless and what they cannot use in             their future lives.                                                77","Robert                     Schuman    The EU   The EU flag   Euro   The official   In the EU                                       =                    the main                        language of             START   holder of   anthem   15 yellow   currency is   the EU is   lives less   The SR uses                    the idea of   “Ode to   stars on the   used by all   English   than 100   4 Euro coins                              Joy”                                      blue                                                               mil                                             EU states                     the EU                          Language                    foundation      background              inhabitants           Jean Monet       Number of        The SR   The Euro       An author            the main   The EU   the EU   The EU Day   started   currency is   The EU has   of the EU            holder of   anthem   member   is 1st   using Euro   used by the   24 official   anthem is            the idea of   “Ode to   states in   January   currency in   19 member   languages   Janko             the EU   Joy”   2016 = 6       year 2009   states       Matuška           foundation        states                                    Basis for the                                      EU             Great   Number of      formation                Number of             Britain   the EU   Travelling   was     Turkey is   inhabitants   Ukraine is             the    states in   with   brought   The EU Day   the EU   of the EU is   the EU            founding   year 2016 =   Passport   about by so   is 9th May   member   approximat  member           state of the   28 states   control   called   state   ely 504 mil.    state              EU                    Maastricht                                     Treaty                                            Basis for the                    Travelling                EU     Turkey                     with no        The EU flag   formation                             The SR                                                              Turkey                                                                       The           The EEC was   control   joined the   has 12   was   cannot be   would like   headquarte                                                      the EU            founded in   within   EU in year   golden stars   brought   member   to join the   rs of the EU            year 1967   internal   2004   on the blue   about by so   because it is   EU   is in Vienna                    borders of      background   called   in Asia                     the EU                  Brussels                                            Agreement                                                                     Founding                                    Citizens of                      member                                                    The Motto                    The EU flag    Symbol of   Germany   The   of the EU is   As a capital   states:                    15 yellow   the EU   decided to   youngest of   of the EU is   Belgium,                                                       :                   stars on the   currency    leave the   the EU   “Different   de facto   France,                     blue            EU in the   states is   considered   Spain,                   background   ∃   referendum   Bulgaria   and yet the   Brussels   Luxemburg,                                    in year 2016      same”          Germany,                                                                      Greece                                                             Founding                            Citizens of                      member    The                                                      The                                                              states:           The EU flag   Symbol of   Great   The    predecessor   Belgium,   predecessor              =      the EU   Britain       The Motto                of the EU            12 blue   currency   decided to   youngest   of the EU is:   of the EU   France,    was the                                                              The                                                     was the           stars on the     leave the   member of   “United in   European   Netherlands  Council for                                     the EU is             yellow         EU in the        diversity”               Mutual           background       referendum   Croatia     Economic   ,    Economic                            in year 2016            Community.   Luxemburg,   Assistance                                                             Germany,                                                              Italy                                    Citizens of   The         The             FINISH   The EU flag    Ireland   youngest   The Motto   predecessor                    12 yellow       decided to      of the EU is:   of the EU                   stars on the     leave the   member   “The   was the                     blue            EU in the   state of the   strength lies   European                                              EU is                    background      referendum   Romania    in unity”   Agricultural                                    in year 2016            Community           Fig. 5. Game - Geographical Labyrinth about the European Union.           Source: Autor            The right way from start to finish                                               78","REFERENCES             ANDERSON,  Lorin  –  KRATHWOHL,  David.  2001.  A  taxonomy  for  learning,             teaching,  and  assessing.  A  revision  of  Bloom’s  taxonomy  of  educational             objectives. New York, ISBN 0-8013-1903-X. [online]. [cit.2015-05-17] Dostupné             na internete http://www.kurwongbss.eq.edu.au/thinking/Bloom/blooms.htm             BROWN,  John  Seely,  DOUGLAS,  Thomas.  2011.  A  new  culture  of  learning:             cultivating the imagination for a world of constant change. CA: Create Space             Independent Publishing Platform, 2011. 140 p. ISBN 10 1456458884             FERENCES  BOURN,  Doug.  2008.  Education  for  sustainable  development  and             global  citizenship.  Theory  and  Research  in  Education,  6  (2),  p.  193–206.             http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1477878508091112             MENTZ,  Olivier  (2006a).  Sprechen  Sie  europäisch?  oder:  Überlegungen  zur             Leistungsbeurteilung  vor  dem  Hintergrund  des  Gemeinsamen  europäischen             Referenzrahmens für Sprachen. Synergies Europe 1, 47-55.             MENTZ,  Olivier.  (2006b).  Sprechen  Sie  europäisch?  oder:  Überlegungen  zur             Leistungsbeurteilung  vor  dem  Hintergrund  des  Gemeinsamen  europäischen             Referenzrahmens für Sprachen. Synergies Europe 1, 47-55.             MENTZ, Olivier (2007a). Europe Matters! 10 Reasons why school Geography             should  teach  a  European  Dimension.  In  K.  DONERT,  P.  CHARZYŃSKI             \& Z. PODGÓRSKI  (eds.), Teaching  in  and  about  Europe. Toruń  (Geography  in             European higher education, vol. 4), 25-35.             MENTZ,  Olivier  (2007b).  Europalehramt  –  teacher  training  for  a  European             future. In K. DONERT, P. CHARZYŃSKI \& Z. PODGÓRSKI (eds.), Teaching in and             about Europe. Toruń (Geography in European higher education, vol. 4), 20-24.             RUŽEK,  Ivan.,  LIKAVSKÝ  Peter.  Geografia  pre  8.  ročník  základných  škôl  a  3.             ročník gymnázií s osemročným štúdiom. VKU Harmanec, učebnica. 2012             TUREK, Ivan. Učiteľ a didaktické testy. Metodické centrum, Bratislava, 1996 p.             78.              Internet sources:             State education program for upper primary school to the subject of geography             ISCED2. [online] http://www.statpedu.sk/files/articles/dokumenty/inovovany-             statny-vzdelavaci-program/geografia_nsv_2014.pdf [cit. 2017-09-19]             Standards for Geography at the second level of primary schools 2016. [online]             [cit. 2016-11-10]. Available at: https://www.minedu.sk/data/att/7530.pdf             http://www.tns-             global.sk/sites/default/files/files/ts1609_eurobarometer_standard.pdf[cit.201             7-09-19]             http://www.euintheus.org/resources-learning/academic-resources/eu-lesson-             plans-and-teaching-material/ [cit. 2017-09-20]             http://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/archives/eb/eb82/eb82_             first_en.pdf [cit. 2017-09-19]             http://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/archives/eb/eb79/eb79_             publ_en.pdf [cit. 2017-09-19]                                             79","http://www.infoglobe.sk/stat/?fm=1 [cit. 2017-09-20]           http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-13194723 [cit. 2017-09-20]           https://www.ebu.ch/about [cit. 2017-09-20]            https://ec.europa.eu/slovakia/node/421_sk [cit. 2017-09-20]           http://lazikovaz.webnode.sk/regionalna-geografia-sveta/europska-unia/           [cit. 2017-09-20]           http://www.minv.sk/?tlacove-spravy\&sprava=pripravy-suvisiace-s-           predsednictvom-sr-v-rade-eu [cit. 2017-09-20]           https://europa.eu/european-union/about-           eu/figures/administration_sk#jazyky [cit. 2017-09-30]                                         Shrnutí           Predložený  príspevok  sa  zaoberá  postavením  učiva  o  Európskej  únii  v  učive           geografie  na  druhom  stupni  základných  škôl  vo  Slovenskom  republike.  Na           základe  analýzy  štátneho  vzdelávacieho  programu  ISCED  2  pre  geografii,           analýzy  učebnica  pre  8.  ročník  ZŠ,  kde  je  Európska  únia  zaradená           v tematickom celku Európa, sme dospeli k záveru, že žiaci získavajú prevažne           teoretické  vedomosti  o  EÚ  bez  bližšieho  prenesenie  do  praktického  života           žiakov.  Tento  fakt  nám  potvrdil  aj  prieskum  medzi  žiakmi  8.  ročníkov           základných  škôl  z  rôznych  častí  Slovenska.  Z  tohto  dôvodu  je  konečným           výsledkom príspevku návrh plagátu   - postra o Európskej únii prispôsobeného           veku žiakov a návrh obsahu kapitoly o Európskej únii v učebnici geografia. Oba           návrhy sú koncipované tak, aby nútili žiakov kriticky premýšľať o výhodách –           nevýhodách členstva v tomto spoločenstve krajín. Mali by dať odpovede na           otázku: „Prečo je nevyhnutné zahrnúť Európsku úniu do školského vzdelávania,           v našom prípade do predmetu geografia a ako ju viesť do praktického života           žiakov?“ Odpovede na túto otázku ako aj návrhy a aktivity „ako na to“ sme sa           pokúsili zhrnúť do nasledovných bodov:           Žijeme  v Európskej  únii.  Je  všade  okolo  nás,  každý  deň,  a preto  je  dôležité           vedieť, kde žijeme, čo je okolo nás, pochopiť svet, v ktorom žijeme. Nestačí len           poznať  môj  domov,  môj  región  alebo  môj  národ  ale  je  dôležité  mať  hlbšie           znalosti  o Európe  ako  celku,  respektíve  Európskej  únii,  o krajinách  ktoré  ju           tvoria.           Sme  občania  Európskej  únie,  to  nám  dáva  určitá  práva  ako  občana  tejto           inštitúcie. Európska únia je to najrýchlejší rastúci politický systém na svete.           Európska  únia  –  to  sú  rôzne  typy  krajín.  Je  nevyhnutné  poznať           fyzickogeografickú ale  aj  socioekonomickú  charakteristiku,  čo  umožňuje           vysvetlenie rôznych javov.           Európska únia a jej ekonomika. Ekonomika zohráva dôležitú úlohu v životoch           ľudí,  preto  si  vyžaduje  našu  pozornosť.  Žiaci  by  preto  mali  mať  základné           vedomosti o tom, ako ekonomika funguje, čo je schengenský priestor, euro           mena, kde a prečo firmy budujú svoje podniky a pobočky, prečo sa sťahujú           (napr.  zo západu  smerom  na  východ)  apod.,  čo  je  lacná  pracovná  sila  či           spoločný trh.                                             80","Politika  Európskej  únie  –  rozhodnutia  prijaté  v Bruseli  majú  okamžitý  ale  aj             nepriamy vplyv na naše životy. Preto by som mal poznať kto o mne rozhoduje:             Rada EÚ, Európsky parlament, Komisia EÚ, Súdny dvor apod.             Európska únia je multikultúrna. Zavádzanie európskeho rozmeru je možné len             vtedy,  ak  sa  budeme  snažiť  pochopiť  multikulturalitu  kontinentu             a rešpektovanie rás, národov, národností či etník. Európska únia je viacjazyčná             – každý jazyk členského štátu je oficiálnym jazykom EÚ.             Európska  únia  je  globálnym  hráčom,  ochotným  presadzovať  svoj  program             nezávisle od ďalších partnerov – v záujme dosiahnutia toho najlepšieho pre             svojich členov, bez toho, aby zničila vzťahy s inými krajinami, zoskupeniami či             komunitami. Krajiny na celom svete sa čoraz viac orientujú na EÚ ako celok.             Zavádzanie  európskej  dimenzie  umožňuje  žiakom  pochopiť  vplyv  Európskej             únie na svet a naopak, ako svet vplýva fungovanie EÚ.                                                                                         81","THE EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF OUTDOOR                  EDUCATION – TEACHER’S VERSUS PUPIL’S POINT OF VIEW                   Hana Svobodová, Darina Mísařová, Radek Durna, Eduard Hofmann                 Department of Geography, Faculty of Education, Masaryk University                             Poříčí 7, 603 00 Brno, Czech Republic                67632@mail.muni.cz, misarova@ped.muni.cz, 323463@mail.muni.cz,                                  evhofmann@seznam.cz            Abstract:  The  outdoor  education  (learning)  is  a  natural  part  of  school           educational  process  mostly  among  nature  sciences.  The  effectiveness  of           outdoor  education  is  abroad  supported  by  professional  literature  (Nundy,           1999; Foskett, 1997, Rickinson et al., 2004…). There is also another important           benefit while students work in the field (outdoor) – the physical activity in the           fresh  air.  During  the  16-00695S  projects  we  analyse  the  contributions  of           outdoor education for teaching geography and advance in physical abilities of           pupils on elementary school.           The aim of this paper is to introduce and to interpret teachers’ and pupils’           opinions  on  outdoor  education  benefits.  The  researches  have  used  semi           structured  interviews  with  19  teachers,  teaching  at  primary  and  lower-                                                     th                                                            th                                                  th                                              th           secondary  model  schools.  The pupils of  5 ,  6 , 8  and 9  grade of one of           these  model  schools  were  subjected  to  a questionnaire  survey,  which  was           conducted  to  compare  pupils’  abilities  to  solve  the  problem  tasks  in  field           (outdoor)  and  in  class  (indoor).  The  pupils’  attitudes  to  outdoor  education           were also monitored in the survey.           Key words: outdoor education, physical activity, elementary school, teacher,           pupil                                     INTRODUCTION           Outdoor education can be understood firstly as one of the organizing forms of           education (see e. g. Průcha, Walterová, Mareš, 2013, p. 183) and secondly as           strong educational strategy (e. g. Balderstone, Lambert, 2012), which helps to           understand  a  real  world  in  a  more  complex  way.  Terms  outdoor           education/learning or fieldwork are used in professional literature written in           English to express summarising naming for Czech “terénní vyúka” (see e. g.           Balderstone,  Lambert,  2012;  Biddulph,  Balderstone,  Lambert,  2015;  Kent,           Gilbertson, Hunt, 1997; Lambert, Reiss, 2014; Ofsted, 2011; Oost, De  Vries,           Van  der  Schee,  2011  or  Rickinson  et  al.,  2004).  Outdoor  education  can  be           considered in a “real world” as the absolutely basic part of science education,           because it develops abilities which are necessary for understanding the very           essence of this field of human/pupils research. Rickinson et al. (2004) say that           outdoor education is not only very effective, but it is also a pleasant form of           education for all participants of the educational process. However, Rickinson           et al. (2004) point out that only thoughtful and meaningfully done outdoor                                            82","education,  classified  as  a  follow-up  to  previous  (respectively  following)             curriculum, provides pupils with new opportunities for developing knowledge             and skills and adds added value to their daily learning experience.             Despite  all  the  benefits  of  outdoor  education  already  mentioned  and  also             despite  its  clear  inclusion  in  The  Framework  Educational  Programme  for             Primary Education (RVP ZV),  the potential of outdoor education is not  fully             utilized in Czech schools. However, in the Czech Republic there has not been             done any complex research in the area of outdoor education, which would             justify  and  support  its  inclusion  into  classes.  A  project  GAČR  16-00695S             Outdoor  education  as  a  strong  educational  strategy  tries  to  overcome  this             gap.  One  of  the  partial  goals  of  the  project  is  to  find  out  how  outdoor             education helps to develop a problem-solving competence, it means whether             a pupil deals with the task better outdoor than in a classroom and at the same             time whether the pupil gains deeper knowledge of the solved topic.                                     AIMS AND METHODS             The aim of this contribution is in agreement with the aims of GAČR project: 1)             to present the opinions of teachers of primary and lower-secondary schools             on development of key competences in outdoor education and 2) to analyse             pupils’ views on the benefits of outdoor education and their attitudes towards             it.             The  research  methods  have  been  chosen  appropriately  to  the  given  goals.             Semi  structured  interviews  were  carried  out  with  19  teachers,  teaching  at             primary and lower-secondary model schools. The choice of the schools was             based on previous content analysis of ŠVP and a finding that a given school             realizes an outdoor education in any form (see e. g. Svobodová et al. 2016). In             total the record sheet contained 5 comprehensive parts for interview, but the             contribution  pays  attention  to  part  E  “Evaluation  of  the  outdoor  education             and the feedback”.                                                                     th                                                                        th                                                                  th             Afterwards, the questionnaire survey was done with pupils of 5 , 6 , 8  and              th             9  grade of the model school, which was chosen thanks to regular realization             of outdoor education. The partial goal of this research was to compare pupils’             ability  in  problem  solving  outdoor  and  indoor  and  also  to  find  out  pupils’             attitudes  to  the  outdoor  education.  The  part  of  the  survey  related  to  the             pupils’  attitude  to  the  outdoor  education  was  the  same  for  all  mentioned             grades. In this contribution there are analysed answers on 5 chosen questions.                                          RESULTS                           Outdoor Learning by the View of Teachers             Nine  teachers  at  the  primary  school  and  10  teachers  at  lower-secondary             school  were  asked  “What  do  you  think  the  biggest  benefit  of  outdoor             education  is?”  The  teachers  were  interviewed  on  single  categories  and             whether there is some pupils’ development in the field of knowledge, skills,             attitudes, interpersonal relationships or other fields. The evaluation was done             on point scale from 1 to 5, where 1 is the minimum and 5 is the maximum.             9  teachers  (out  of  nineteen)  evaluated  all  partial  goals.  In  other  cases  the             teachers commented just on some of the categories or sometimes they did                                             83","not answer by point but by a verbal comment. The question was evaluated           (see  tab.  1)  by  weighted  arithmetic  mean  which  was  calculated  to  single           categories from the total number of answers on given category according to           following formula:             where  there  are  single  values  marked  as  x 1 ,  x 2   to  x k ,  k  is  the  number  of           different viriants of symbols values and a frequency of appearance of single           values (weights) are marked as n 1 , n 2  to n k .           Teachers at primary school see the benefits of outdoor education as follows.           According to their opinion the biggest development of pupils is in the field of           skills (4.60 points from maximal 5.00 points), after that field of interpersonal           relationships  (4.33  points),  knowledge  (4.00  points)  and  attitudes           (3.67 points). Teachers at lower-secondary school again attribute the greatest           importance  to  development  of  skills  (3.83  points)  and  knowledge  (3.75),           development  in  the  field  of  attitudes  (3.67  points)  and  interpersonal           relationships (3.66 points) follows.           As a final category teachers could add their own field of development, there           occurred categories such as physical activity (3 times), then individually rising           of interest, relaxation, change and health.           Tab. 1: What do you think the greatest benefit of outdoor education is?                                                 Weighted arithmetic mean                                                         lower-                                             primary   secondary    TOTAL                                              school                                                         school           Pupils'  development  in  the  field  of   4.00   3.75    3.89           knowledge           Pupils'  development  in  the  field  of   4.60   3.83    4.21           skills           Pupils'  development  in  the  field  of   3.67   3.67    3.67           attitudes (to nature/region/subject…)           Pupils'  development  in  the  field  of           interpersonal  relationships  (pupil-  4.33    3.66       3.99           pupil, pupil-teacher…)           Average  value  of  the  benefits  of   4.15   3.73       3.94           outdoor education           Source: interview with 19 elementary school teachers            There  is  quite  an  important  difference  between  teachers  at  primary  and           lower-secondary school in perception of benefits of an outdoor education in           single  categories.  Teachers  at  primary  school  perceive  benefits  of  outdoor           education in all fields much more than teachers at lower-secondary school.           The reason arises from other parts of the realized interviews – at the primary           school there is only one teacher who teaches his or her class so there is much           bigger time possibilities for realization of outdoor education – the teacher can                                           84","spend a whole day outside and combine the curriculum into one single block.             A fatal barrier at lower-secondary school is a lack of time for realization of             outdoor  education  during  a  school  year.  Rapid  changing  of  short  teaching             units allows conceiving of short and medium-term forms of outdoor education             just and only if a lot of difficult conditions are  fulfilled (changing of classes             with colleagues, exchanging of supervisions with colleagues, administration of             these  changes,  resistance  of  the  head,  opinion  conflicts  with  parents,  etc.).             The  great  deal  is  a  frequent  “inability  to  settle”  of  outdoor  education  in             documenting  of  teachers’  work.  Some  teachers  confided  that  there  is             a problem  with  accepting  of  outdoor  education  as  a  fully-fledged  form  of             teaching and so they have to replace the hours which they spent outside by             an  unpaid  substitution.  This  attitude  is  strongly  demotivating  and  it  has             negative  impacts  on  development  of  an  outdoor  education.  Teachers  at             primary school praise their freedom in teaching, where they are their “own             masters”.  The  education  itself  can  be  appropriately  organized  according  to             their ideas and the teachers can flexibly use for instance seasonal phenomena             or good weather.                             Outdoor Learning by the View of Pupils                                                   th                                                th                                                             th                                                       th             Subsequently, the pupils’ opinions from 5 , 6 , 8  and 9  grade of a model             school on outdoor education and its benefits were examined. The choice of                                      th             the years  was  intentional –  5  year is the  final year of the primary school,             where the education is done only by one teacher. Especially the difference                                                        th                      th                            th             between 5  and 6  grade is being looked into; in 6  grade the pupils start to             study  at  lower-secondary  school  where  the  system  of  education  is  quite             different, different subjects are taught by different teachers.  The intentional             choice  of  the  years  was  also  connected  with  realized  half-day  outdoor                                                                            th             education, known as “The Expedition”; which was attended by pupils from 5                  th             and  8   grade  immediately  before  a  questionnaire  survey  was  carried  out,                               th                                      th             however  pupils  of  6   and  9   grade  of  elementary  school  had  a  year  gap                                                            th             between  The  Expedition  and  questionnaire  survey.  9   grade  was  tested             because  it  is  the  final  year  of  elementary  school  which  is  characterized  by             realization  of  intensive  outdoor  education  throughout  the  nine-year             schooling.                                th             The Expedition in the 5  grade was complexly focused on getting to know the             pupils‘ neighbourhood of residence with a focus on the following aspects of             the  landscape:  a)  natural  -  pupils  assessed  different  types  of  landscapes  in             which they moved and explained the differences between them (coniferous             forest, broad-leaved forest, highlands, floodplain etc.); b) cultural – the pupils             described the use of different types of landscape by man and solved how to             behave  properly  in  the  given  area;  c)  historical  -  pupils  compared  the             settlement of the country by a human being before and today. The Expedition                    th             in  the  8   grade  of  elementary  school  was  focused  on  working  with  GPS,             orientation in the field and observation of karst phenomena.             The  first  question  evaluated  below  was  trying  to  find  out  how  the  pupils             perceive an education which takes place outside – “The Expedition”. It was a             semi-closed  question  which  gave  pupils  4  possibilities  (answers),  in  the  last             one; the pupils had a space for a free expressing. It was possible to choose             more than one answer; this possibility was used by 22 pupils out of total 61 so                                            85","the total number of answers was 88. The difference in perception of outdoor           education is quite significant within the grades.           40 pupils (45.5% of all the answers) stated the possibility “An opportunity to           learn  something  new  (orientation  with  GPS,  information  from  educational                                                                    th           boards  etc.)”  this  possibility  was  most  often  chosen  by  pupils  of  5   grade                                                                          th                                               th           (54.5%) and the fewest times by pupils of 8  grade. (33.3%). For pupils of 8           grade  The  Expedition  was  most  often  “a  few  hours  I  spent  outside”.  This                                                         th           answer  was  chosen  by  42.9%  of  pupils.  Pupils  of  8   grade’s  replies  are           substantially the  same as the part of teachers’ statements identified  in the           interviews, namely that outdoor education is understood as a “non-learning           day” without educational content. 22 pupils (25.0%) say that they understand           outdoor  education  as  a  “Supplementing  of  teaching  when  I  practice  what           I learned at school (working with a map etc.)”. In comparison of single classes                                                       th                                                              th           this  answer  was  most  often  chosen  by  pupils  of  6   and  9   grade.  Other           answer was given by 6 pupils who made the following statements: “to be with           friends, feel freely”, as an “entertaining form of teaching”, “fun with friends”,           “more like a trip where we learned”, “do not waste our time at school and go           out”.                         I perceive outdoor education as                %                                       0,0  10,0  20,0  30,0  40,0  50,0  60,0                         a few hours I spent outside             supplementing of teaching when I practice what             I learned at school (working with a map etc.)                 an opportunity to learn something new                (orientation with GPS, information from                     educational boards etc.)                                other answer                            Grade 5  Grade 6  Grade 8  Grade 9  Suma            Fig. 1. I perceive outdoor education as…           Source: questionnaire survey with pupils                                                                         th           Pupils‘ attitudes to the outdoor education of model elementary school in 5 ,            th                      th               th           6 , 8  and 9  grade were recorded by a four point scale (4 yes, 3 rather yes,           2 rather no, 1 no). From single evaluations the weighted arithmetic mean was           calculated, as in the teachers’ case. The overview of other pupils’ opinions on           outdoor education is summarized in Tab. 2.                                               86","th                                              th                                   th                                       th             Tab.  2:  Attitudes  of  5 ,  6 ,  8   and  9   grade  pupils  of  model  elementary             school to the realization of outdoor education                                      An   outdoor                                      education   is   During   the   I  want  outdoor                          I   enjoy   the                          outdoor     more         expedition  I  have   education  more                                      interesting                                                                 times  during  the                                                   learnt  more  than                          education                                      that  education   in the classes   school year                                      at school             Grade 5      3.8         3.6          3.3           3.6             Grade 6      3.6         3.8          3.4           3.8             Grade 8      3.5         3.7          2.6           3.4             Grade 9      3.6         3.6          2.7           3.4             Total        3.6         3.7          3.0           3.6             Source: questionnaire survey with pupils              It looks that the education outside the classroom was enjoyed by all pupils of                                           th             all years apart from one pupil from 9  grade. 67.2% of pupils is for the variant             “yes”,  31.1%  of  pupils  is  for  “rather  yes”.  Weighted  arithmetic  mean  of  all             answers of pupils of all years reaches the value of 3.6 from maximal 4.0. The                                                                 th             highest value of weighted arithmetic mean was calculated for 5  grade, it was             3.8.             The  pupils  stated  similar  numbers  /  shares  as  in  the  previous  question  in             question  if  the  outdoor  education,  classes  outside  the  school,  is  more                                                                  th             interesting than teaching inside the school. Only one pupil of 5  grade gave             a negative answer, another two pupils of the same year stated “rather not”.                                                      th             This  answer  was  also  chosen  by  one  pupil  of  9   grade.  However,  in  total             pupils’  relationship  to  the  outdoor  education  is  rather  positive  –  72.1%  of             pupils proclaimed “yes” and the weighted arithmetic mean of answers of all             pupils reached value of 3.7.             Pupils also feel that during outdoor education, outside the school class, they                                                                            th             learn  more  than  at  school  classes.  This  view  prevails  with  pupils  of  the  6                                                           th             grade (100% of pupils say yes or rather yes), pupils of 5  grade have a similar             feeling – 73.9% of pupils is for these two possibilities already mentioned. On                                  th             the  contrary,  for  the  8   grade  pupils,  who  participated  in  the  outdoor             education – “The Expedition” few days before testing, the positive opinion is             represented less (64.3%; cold and windy weather could also play its role). The                                                           th             positive opinion is even less represented by pupils of 9  grade who have not             participated in The Expedition before the testing (56.3%). Overall, however, in             all years, there is a predominant view that pupils learn more outside than they             do at school - out of 61 questioned pupils 22 (36.1%) answered “yes” and 21             (34.4%) answered “rather yes”. Overall,  43 pupils out of  61 (70.5%) have a             positive  attitude  towards  teaching  outside  the  classroom.  The  weighted             arithmetic mean of answers of all pupils has reached only the value of 3.0.             Pupils  had  a  positive  attitude  when  they  have  been  asked  if  they  want             outdoor  education,  education  outside  the  classroom,  to  take  place  several             times  during  the  school  year,  even  though  some  pupils  answered  in  the             previous question that they do not learn more than in the classroom. In the             outdoor  education  they  see  the  opportunity  not  to  sit  in  the  classroom  as             usually during classic (often frontal) form of teaching. The answer “rather no”                                                             th                                                 th             was answered only by 6 pupils, one of the 5  and one of 6  grade, and two of                                            87","th                     th           the 8  and 9  grade. The answer “no” did not occur in any case. The weighted           arithmetic mean of all answers reached the value of 3.6.                                      CONCLUSION           It  is  possible  to  ascertain  two  possible  conclusions  from  the  results  of           semistructured interviews with teachers and questionnaire survey which was           filled in by pupils.                                    th           1) Even though the pupils of 8  grade most often consider outdoor education           to be just a few hours, which they spent outside (pic. 1), their attitudes to           outdoor education (tab. 1; they enjoy it, they want outdoor education more           often)  reach  average  value  in  comparison  with  pupils  of  other  grades.  The           under-average value is for the question “During the expedition I have learnt           more  than  in  the  classes”  which  correlates  witch  the  answer  for  question           “I perceive  outdoor  education  as…”.  It  can  therefore  be  said  that  pupils           consider  outdoor  education  to  be  more  fun  and  time  spent  outside  the           classroom than a process of education.           The lower perceived benefit of outdoor education for pupils’ development           in the field of knowledge is shown by the values which were detected from           teachers’ answers. Teachers at primary school order the importance of this           field to the third place out of four; teachers at lower-secondary school order           the importance to the second place out of four. Teachers at both, primary and           lower-secondary  schools  see  the  biggest  benefit  of  outdoor  education  in           pupils’ development in the field of skills. At primary schools the second place           is  taken  by  field  of  interpersonal  relationships  (pupil-pupil,  pupil-teacher…)           followed by development of pupils’ knowledge.           2)  The  second  key  finding  is  that  the  attitudes  of  pupils  to  the  outdoor                                             th                                       th           education are more positive in 5  and 6  grade than in 8th and 9th grade.           The attitudes of teachers of the model school are more positive at primary           school  than  at  lower-secondary  school.  Both  is  probably  connected  with           possibilities of realization of outdoor education, its connection and continuity           of  the  curriculum.  To  arrange  all  the  mentioned  above  from  the  point  of           organisation of an outdoor education is much easier for teachers at primary           school than for teachers at lower-secondary school.           The  results  of  pupils’  attitudes  to  the  outdoor  education  found  out  by  the           questionnaire  survey  relate  to  pupils  of  model  school  where  the  outdoor           education  is  quite  intensive  within  the  whole  school  year  in  comparison  to           other elementary schools which was proved by analysis of ŠVP and interviews           with the teachers. Elementary schools where the outdoor education is not so           intensive  can expect that the difference in positive attitude to the outdoor           education will be higher for lower grades than for the pupils of final grades.           The results show that the benefit of followed form of outdoor education is not           only in the cognitive area, but can also be important for the affective aspect of           education  and  schooling  and  supports  mutual  communication  and           interpersonal relationships between pupils and teachers (to each other).            Acknowledgement: This work was supported by the Czech Science Foundation           grant 16-00695S Fieldwork as a Powerful Learning Strategy.                                           88","REFERENCES             BIDDULPH,  Mary;  LAMBERT,  David;  BALDERSTONE,  David. Learning  to  teach             geography  in  the  secondary  school:  A  companion  to  school  experience.             Routledge, 2015.             FOSKETT,  Nick.  Teaching  and  learning  through  fieldwork. Teaching  and             learning geography, 1997, 189-201.             KENT, Martin; GILBERTSON, David D.; HUNT, Chris O. Fieldwork in geography             teaching:  A  critical  review  of  the  literature  and  approaches. Journal  of             Geography    in    Higher   Education,   1997,   21.3:   313-332.             http://doi.org/10.1080/03098269708725439             LAMBERT,  David;  BALDERSTONE,  David. Learning  to  teach  geography  in  the             secondary school: a companion to school experience. Routledge, 2012.             LAMBERT,  David;  REISS,  Michael.  The  place  of  fieldwork  in  geography  and             science qualifications. (1st ed.). London: Institute of Education, University of             London, 2014.             NUNDY, Stuart. The fieldwork effect: the role and impact of fieldwork in the             upper  primary  school. International  Research  in  Geographical  and             Environmental Education, 1999, 8.2: 190-198.             OFSTED. Geography: Learning to make a world of difference. 2011. Available             online  at  www.ofsted.gov.uk/resources/geography-learningmake-world-of-             difference.             OOST,  Katie;  DE  VRIES,  Bregje;  VAN  DER  SCHEE,  Joop  A.  Enquiry-driven             fieldwork  as  a  rich  and  powerful  teaching  stratégy  –  school  practices  in             secondary geography education in the Netherlands. International Research in             Geographical  and  Environmental  Education,  2011,  20.4:  309-325.  Available             online                                                        at             http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10382046.2011.619808#.VCpv             hRawSEg             PRŮCHA, Jan, WALTEROVÁ, Eliška, MAREŠ, Jiří. Pedagogický slovník (7. vyd.).             Praha: Portál, 2013.             RICKINSON,  M.  at  al.  A  review  of  Research  Outdoor  Learning.  National             Foundantion  for  Educational  Research  and  King´s  College  London,  March             2004.             SVOBODOVÁ, Hana, MÍSAŘOVÁ, Darina, HOFMANN, Eduard. Analýza školních             vzdělávacích  programů  ve  vztahu  k  terénní  výuce.  In  Aleš  Nováček             (ed.). Sborník  příspěvků  Výroční  konference  České  geografické  společnosti             Geografické  myšlení  jako  aktuální  společenská  výzva.  1.  vyd.  České             Budějovice:  Jihočeská  univerzita  v  Českých  Budějovicích,  2016.  s. 292–302,             11 s.                                          Shrnutí             Terénní  výuku  můžeme  považovat  za  silnou  výukovou  strategii,  která  je             nedílnou   součástí   přírodovědného   vzdělávání.  Rozhovory   s učiteli             1. a 2. stupně  základních  škol,  kde  na  základě  zjištění  z  analýzy  školních             vzdělávacích  programů  probíhá  ve  větší  míře  výuka  v terénu,  ukázaly,  že             největší přínos učitelé spatřují v rozvoji oblasti dovedností. Na prvním stupni                                             89","učitelé přisuzují větší význam také v rozvoji mezilidských vztahů (žák-žák, žák-           učitel), na druhém stupni pak učitelé poukazují na vyšší přínos v rozvoji oblasti           znalostí. Učitelé také zdůrazňují přínos terénní výuky v pohybové aktivitě žáků.           Učitelé prvního stupně obecně přisuzují vyšší přínosy terénní výuky ve všech           oblastech než učitelé druhého stupně.           Žáci shledávají největší přínos terénní výuky v možnosti naučit se něco nového           (orientace s GPS, práce s mapou apod.). Postoj k terénní výuce je pozitivnější           u žáků 5. a 6. třídy než u žáků 8. a 9. třídy. U starších žáků (8. třída) převažuje           názor,  že  terénní  výuka  znamená  „pár  hodin,  co  strávili  venku“.  Výzkum           realizovaný na modelové základní škole v Jihomoravském kraji dále odhaluje           následující: a) obecně žáci hodnotí terénní výuku jako zajímavější než výuku ve           třídě; b) tito žáci se domnívají, že se při terénní výuce mohou naučit více; z b)           také  plyne,  že  c)  by  si  tito  žáci  přáli  absolvovat terénní  výuku  v  průběhu           školního roku častěji.                                                                                      90","EXPERIENCE-BASED LEARNING IN TEACHING OF THE LOCAL LANDSCAPE                                         Ivana Tomčíková                Dept. of Geography, Faculty of Education, Catholic University in Ružomberok                        Hrabovská cesta 1, 034 01 Ružomberok, Slovak republic                                    ivana.tomcikova@ku.sk              Abstract: The aim of teaching at Slovak schools is to develop the knowledge,             skills and competencies of pupils useful not only in school but also in everyday             life.  The  teacher´s  are  challenged  in  how  they  disclose  the  content  of  the             curriculum  to  pupils  so  that  they  are  offered  the  opportunity  to  be  active             participants in the teaching process. One of the possibilities of such learning is             experience-based learning. The experience arises in the active solving of real             or model tasks.             In  geography,  the  local  landscape  offers  space  for  the  development  of             imagination, which the teacher can foster in the teaching process of personal             experiences and pupils' experiences. A deeper knowledge of the geography of             the  local  landscape  is  thus  not  only  an  objective  but  also  a  means  of             geographic education. Specific geographic phenomena and their relationships             in  the  local  country  serve  as  a  model  for  understanding  the  generally             applicable contexts and regularities. They enable pupils to better understand             and consistently acquire the natural environment, as well as the peculiarities             and relationships between humans and the country.             The aim of this paper is to describe the purpose and methods of experience-             based  learning,  to  give  thoughts  on  how  to  implement  it  in  the  teaching             process  methods  and  supporting  active  pupil  learning.  The  learner's  own             active approach to learning is based on activities they perform, either through             direct observation of geographic walks or excursions in the local country, or             mediated in the classroom by solving various problems and project tasks.             Keywords:  local  country,  experience-based  learning,  walks  and  excursions,             project teaching, problem teaching                                       INTRODUCTION             Learning is a necessary condition for the human existence and it requires a lot             of time, systematic approach, responsibility and patience. The joy and need             for  learning  can  be  brought  to  pupils  spontaneously,  but  also  through  a             planned  activity,  in  which  a  pupil  can  enjoy  from  discovering  the  new  and             unknown.  Pupils  have  to  learn  to  think,  create,  consider,  evaluate  and  be             responsible  for  the  results  of  their  work.  Therefore,  teachers  attempt  to             substitute a traditional, educational model, based on memorisation of a lot of             information with one that focuses on the independent and creative work of             pupils in their lessons.             The  subject  of  Geography  teaches  pupils  to  think  about the  phenomena  of             nature  and  the  society  since  these  two  are  mutually  interconnected.  It  is             supposed to motivate pupils to yearn to discover and protect natural beauty,                                             91","and  help  them  to  shape  the  world  around  them.  A  local  country  offers  an           environment  for  the  development  of  the  imagination,  which  a  teacher  can           support during the teaching process through the pupils’ personal experiences.           Getting  to  know  the  world  as  a  pupil  and  learning  through  their  own  life           experiences with new information, which can be taught by the teacher and           extracted from the surroundings so these experiences become a part of the           pupil’s mental portfolio.           The goal of this paper is to describe the core of Experiential Learning and to           propose suggestions for the implementation of Experiential Learning into the           teaching of Geography of the local country.                       BACKGROUND OF EXPERIENCE-BASED LEARNING           According  to  Brestenská  et  al.  (2010),  under  the  term  of  ‘Experiential           Learning’ we understand the way of leaning by which experiences are utilised           to learn. With this type of learning it is not the teacher that passes on new           knowledge, but the pupil that is capable, through their own senses, initiative,           and personal activity, which helps them form their own thoughts and gather           new information.           Experiential  Learning  arises  from  similar  principals  that  D.  A.  Kolb  in  the           1970s’  named  the  Experience  Based  Learning  of  the  teaching  process.  It  is           derived from the specific experience (through ones own experience), followed           by very important observation and the reflection of that  experience,  which           brings about the need to learn from new experiences (formation of abstract           concepts based upon the reflection) and its application in life (testing the new           concept), which induces new experiences.                           Fig. 1. A diagram of Kolb's cycle of experiential learning.           Source: https://serc.carleton.edu/introgeo/enviroprojects/what.html            We can instigate an experience, according to Gašparová (2012), in two ways:               Through  Perception  -  through  observation  of  the  certain  phenomena               and  its  influence  on  a  pupil,  by  which  they  gather  a  new  experience,               subsequently they understand and masters the new experience arising               out of this situation;                                            92","  Through  Interpretation  -  through  ones  own  active  approach,  which                  teaches a pupil in the given reality setting new skills and behaviours.                 Andresen,  Boud,  Cohen  (2000)  state  that  for  a  project  to  be  truly                  experiential, the following attributes are necessary in some combination:                 The  goal  of  experience-based  learning  involves  something  personally                  significant or meaningful to the students.                 Students should be personally engaged.                 Reflective  thought  and  opportunities  for  students  to  write  or  discuss                  their experiences should be ongoing throughout the process.                 The whole person is involved, meaning not just their intellect but also                  their senses, their feelings and their personalities.                 Students  should  be  recognized  for  prior  learning  they  bring  into  the                  process.                 Teachers  need  to  establish  a  sense  of  trust,  respect,  openness,  and                  concern for the well-being of the students.             Pupils are getting to know natural, social and industrial environments of their             surroundings,  which  provides  new  experiences,  they  are  broadening  their             views relevant to the given phenomena. They are gathering new information             about  the  country;  they  are  gathering  correct  geographical  ideas.  It  is             important to realise that knowing the facts is in itself useless without being             supported by a capability to synthesise, integrate and evaluate (with factual             questions it only allowes one to briefly acknowledge the content). The local             country  is  familiar  to  pupils  because  they  live  in  it,  specific  geographical             phenomena and their relationships in the local country serve as a model for             gaining  the  understanding  of  generally  applicable  contexts  and  regularities.             Particular geographical phenomena are seen by the pupils of the country in             the context, they learn to understand that context, relationships and patterns             of the development of the geographical terrain.                                   EXPERIENTIAL METHODS             Experiential  Methods  assume  formation  of  an  experience,  emotional             experiencing  of  the  real  situation  intimately  connects  with  an  emotional             investment  (being  absorbed  in  the  situation,  real  experiencing  of  the             situation)  and  with  the  conscious  cognitive  processing  of  an  event.  These             methods  come  very  close  to  reality  or  they  are  performed  within  real  life             situations. This type of learning leads to very profound experiences and to an             unforced  learning  process.  Pupil’s  own  experiences  followed  by  intentional             reflection is transformed into the formation of general knowledge. Therefore             this knowledge is stored in the pupil’s long-term memory and is then quick to             be  retrieved  in  specific  situations.  It  is  intentional  learning,  as  the  actual             experiences  connect  to  the pupil’s  past  experiences.  They  can  make  use  of             this knowledge in the future.             The  Experiential  Methods  of  teaching  have,  according  to  Lencz  (1992),  the             following characteristics:                                               93","  A positive evaluation of oneself and others - strengthens the positive               mood in the classroom,              Learning  through  participation  -  pupils  make  an  initiative  in  order  to               obtain  the  information.  This  information  is  then  used  to  create  new               ideas,              Learning  through  cooperation  -  supports  communication,  creative               thinking, interpersonal relationships,              Learning  through  a  personal  experience  brings  about  a  change  in               behaviour, creativity and interpretation,              Acknowledgement of own values, feelings and attitudes - a change in               the understanding of oneself and others connected to the change in the               behaviour and attitudes,              Creative learning - it relates to problem solving. It requires thinking in               concepts  and  images,  connecting  the  rational  and  emotional               contemplation.           These activities belong, according to Hanuš and Chytilová (2009), amongst the           Experiential Methods:              Physical Activities - sports in nature, hiking and recreational activities in               nature, camping, etc.,              Artistic  Activities  -  literature,  fine  arts,  music,  singing,  dance,               filmography, theatre, photography,              Socio-Psychological  Activities  -  communicative,  self-knowledge,               creative, intellectual, social,              Social Activities - contemporary social games, happenings, celebrations               and rituals, contemporary board games,              Cognitive Activities - observation and monitoring, cognition, experiment,              Technical Activities - construction, craft, technique, ones own practise,              IT  and  Media  Activities  -  games,  programming  and  designing,               researching, creative media.           For  a  successful  accomplishment  of  the  experiential  lesson  the  teacher,           according to Denková (2013), has to comply with the following criteria:              Age  of  Pupils  -  activities  have  to  be  suitable  for  the  developmental               period of the pupils,              Group  Climate  -  the  overall  mood  of  the  classroom  cannot  be  tense,               a teacher  is  open  to  different  pupils’  views  and  expressions  and  thus               creates a feeling of trust and respect,              Teacher’s Presence - a teacher should not interfere when solution to the               problem is formed within the group so the free expression of the pupils               is not disturbed, in an nonintrusive way a teacher should point out the               opinion that he considers to be the correct one,              Pupils’ Discipline - a teacher makes an effort to maintain an acceptable               discipline  in  the  classroom  so  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  overall               course of teaching process,                                            94","  Teacher’s Authority - pupils should respect the teacher, however, at the                  same time the teacher should act as a partner who is willing to help in                  every situation should a pupil ask for it,                 Self-reflection  of  Pupils  -  a  teacher  should  during  the  lesson  allow                  a space for pupils to express their views through their experience, when                  pupils  observed  a  given  challenge  through  their  eyes,  the  task  of                  a teacher is to bring the lesson to the end.             Beside the experience itself, the important aspect of Experiential Learning is             the  reflection  of  ones  experiences,  which  is  supposed  to  induce  a  need  to             learn  new  knowledge  and  its  application  in  real  life,  by  which  the  new             experiences  are  instigated.  An  experience,  as  the  state  of  a  real  situation             which a pupil finds themself in, is an emotional intervention to the pupil that             leads to joy and enthusiasm in children, however, can also have the opposite             effect  -  a  fear,  rejection,  sadness,  feeling  of  failure.  Therefore,  for  the             effectiveness  of  positive  development  of  the  pupil's  personality,  it  is             important  that  the  appropriate  selection  of  activities  from  which  they  can             choose or freely decide to or to not participate in.             The experiential pedagogy influences man in these areas (Holec, 1994):                 Intellect  Development  (memory,  sensory  awareness,  attention,  wit,                  logical thinking, tactics, strategy, abilities to combine)                 Creativity  Development  (imagination,  fantasy,  original,  unconventional                  practices)                 Social  Skills  Development  (communication,  cooperation,  team  work,                  rhetorics, negotiation, discussion, responsibility, assertiveness)                 Motor and Movement Skills Development (speed, strength, endurance,                  dexterity)                 Will  Development  (patients,  self-control,  psychological  endurance,                  courage)                 Self-Knowledge  (self-awareness,  self-mastery,  abolishment  of  the                  psychological barriers, self-confidence, independence).                 THE LOCAL COUNTRY IN GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION IN ELEMENTARY                                         SCHOOLS             The local country is the country in which children grow up, attend school and             perform  sports.  Children  are  introduced  to  the  knowledge  of  their  local             country  at  a  pre-school  age.  They  get  familiar  with  the  basic  terms  and             descriptive features of the country such as rivers, forests, residences, traffic             communications.  They  intuitively  distinguish  between  different  types  of             landscapes and they talk about it.             In  Homeland  studies  in  the  3rd  and  4th  year  (2  classes  per  week),  pupils             illustratively  explore  the  main  features  of  a  municipality  and  its  closest             surroundings,  they  learn  to  understand  the  basic  relations  between  nature             and society in a local landscape at elementary level. Since Homeland studies             represent  an  elementary  level  of  geographical  education,  they  have  a  very             close relation to Geography. However, we cannot completely associate it with                                              95","the teaching of Geography, because Homeland studies are a complex vision of           the  world  in  geographical  as  well  as  historical  contexts,  with  a  significant           educational function (Tomčíková, Rakytová, 2017).           The subject Geography in Slovakia is taught in the 5th year in the range of           2 classes per week (66 classes per year) and in the 6th, 7th, 8th and 9th year           in the range of 1 class per week (33 classes per year). The curriculum of a local           landscape is, more or less, the interest of Geography education in each year.           Thanks  to  the  School  Educational  Programme,  the  number  of  Geography           classes in individual years can be increased and this increase can be used for           the  inclusion  of  the  curriculum  about  a  local  landscape.  However,  it  is           necessary to objectively add, that schools are often not willing to increase the           number  of  Geography  classes  in  the  National  Educational  Programme,  the           increase usually occurs mainly in foreign languages or other subjects, which           are  defined  as  cross-sectional  themes  by  the  National  Educational           Programme. Then, we cannot wonder that there is no space for creativity and           lack of time for the curriculum about a local landscape, but also an absence of           enthusiasm not only on the side of teachers but also on the side of pupils.           The additional space for teaching of geography of local landscape is provided           by  the  cross-curricular  topic  of  Regional  Education  and  Traditional  Folk           Culture, it can be incorporated, through the curricular reform of The National           Educational Programme, into optional subjects such as Regional Education or           Regional History. The objective is to create conditions for students to grow           and develop their sense of beauty in their region, nature, architecture, folk art           and  learning  about  the  cultural  heritage  of  our  ancestors.  The  educational           activity  is  focused  on  educating  the  pupils  about  the  history,  but  also  the           present,  of  regional  knowledge  of  their  own  village  or  town  (Tomčíková,           2010).               THE EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING IN TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY OF THE                                    LOCAL COUNTRY           Learning through experience brings new knowledge and experiences to pupils,           without the feeling of an active learning. Pupils exercise their new knowledge           in real situations and gain competencies that can be used in a real life. Pupil’s           own active approach in the Experiential Learning lies in the activities, which           they do themselves through either a direct observation during geographical           walks and excursions, or provided in the classroom by finding solutions to the           different problem tasks.           The subject of Geography teaches pupils to think about the natural and social           characteristics  which  are  mutually  interconnected.  The  subject  should  also           motivate  them  to  yearn  to  learn,  discover  and  protect  the  natural  beauty,           furthermore  to  help  to  cultivate  the  world  around  them.  The  teacher’s           challenge  is  to  present  the  curriculum  in  a  way  that  will  invite  pupils  to           become active participants of the teaching process, with different options of           learning  methods  such  as  group  or  independent  work,  in  order  to  find           solutions to different problems in projects creation.                                             96","Walks, Excursions, Teaching Outdoors, poss. Virtual Excursion             The forms that carry a characteristic of the Experiential Learning, and create             a new direct experience, are walks and excursions. To teach pupils Geography             in the classroom environment only with the use of textbooks and maps can be             uninteresting because a pupil does not get a chance to engage their senses in             the learning process. The organisational form such as geographical walk or an             excursion  allows  to  perceive  objects  and  characteristics  directly  in  pupil’s             natural environment, moreover it provides an opportunity to engage passive             pupils  in  the  learning  process.  Experiential  learning  is  a  powerful  teaching             tool.  While  classroom  lectures  address  primarily  the  cognitive  domain,             experiential learning involves more; cognitive, affective and physical domains             of a pupil (Oxendine, Robinson and Willson, 2004). The result is that students             can relate to the subject matter in a way that is meaningful to their own lives.             The main reason for the geographical walks and excursions is an application of             the  theoretical  knowledge  of  pupils  during  the  various  observations  and             exercises  in  local  landscape.  The  pupils  are  learning  how  to  work  with             a compass,  orientate  maps  of  the  local  landscape  and  determine             a morphological type of a local landscape. Furthermore they observe changes             in the local landscape and acquire their relationship to the local landscape,             environment and shared responsibility in environment protection.             A walk is a time-wise and short organisation structure; a direct educational             activity usually takes one teaching lesson and is suitable for primary education             to  explore  the  pupils’  natural  and  social  environment  of  the  nearest             surroundings and their environment. An amount and a content of the walks is             limited by the size of the place in which they are taking place and the most             effective  timing  during  transfers  between  points  of  interest.  It  is  in  the             competence  and  invention  of  teachers  to  what  they  are  capable  of             introducing to their pupils directly in the real environment, in which the given             natural or social phenomena exists and is currently active.             An  excursion  demands  a  larger  time  and  content  space.  Due  to  this  fact,             fewer excursions are carried out, compared to the amount of walks during the             school  year.  More  thorough preparation  is  required,  a  communication  with             parents  is  needed,  and  it  is  more  financially  demanding.  However,  on  the             other hand, it provides an opportunity to visit and get to know objects, thus             pupils are offered with more working material for further use in curriculums             of other subjects.             Hofmann et al. (2017) sees a large importance in the outdoor teaching. It has             different strategies compared to traditional teachings – from the traditional             excursions, through the field research, all the way to the research-orientated             teaching. The authors of this write-up hold the view that teacher’s and pupil’s             task in this type of teaching process is different to the traditional one in the             classroom. The teacher is not the provider of the information anymore, but             a manager,  a  trainer,  and  the  pupil  is  not  merely  the  one  absorbing  the             information, but is actively learning human being.             During an excursion it is, however, not possible to visit and present to pupils             all  the  beauty  of  the  local  country.  Therefore,  it  is  suitable  to  take  an             advantage of a virtual excursion as a part of the lesson in the classroom, this             offers to the educator new options. Without any problems the educator can                                              97","secure for the pupils a presentation of selected places in the local region. But           a preparation of the virtual excursion is quite demanding on teacher’s part.           Suitable  is  a  dynamic  interactive  excursion,  the  part  of  which  are  different           video and audio recordings, but also a real static photographs supported by           the  charts  that  have  often  an  explanatory  and  outlining  function.  It  is           necessary  that  the  teacher  visits  the  places  and  thoroughly  prepares  the           virtual excursion. He is though freed from tasks that organising the excursion           involves,  i.e.  the  amount  of  administrative  and  organisational  obligations           relating to the excursion preparation.                      Fig. 2. Work of the pupils on the walk.           Source: author            Challenge Based Teaching Process           Meaningful  learning  is  a  learning,  in  which  pupils  think  of  new  knowledge,           engage in discussion and seek solutions. Then their experience becomes the           basis of their knowledge. Many teachers have confirmed that the ability to           analyse  and  evaluate  the  information,  along  with  the  creativity  and           imagination are the key skills pupils can acquire. In many ways, is the way how           pupils  learn  just  as  important  as  what  they  learn  (Scoffham,  2011).  It  is           requested to introduce pupils to the country in which they live and present its           global  development  -  what  it  looked  like,  what  were  progressive  human           interventions  and  what  are  the  current  problems  in  the  country.  It  is           appropriate to clarify the causes of deployment activities, their specialization           in relation to the condition of the country, their impact on the landscape, the           state of the environment and the aesthetic value of the landscape. Teaching           of  local  landscape´s  geography  should  by  supplemented  by  the  geographic           assessment  of  the  country  in  terms  of  the  quality  of  the  environment  (the           restoration of town / village, the location of economic activity in the country),           regional planning (land use and its changes, the stability of the territory) and           historical development (manufacturing tradition, culture and customs, change           of the landscape during the period of time).           Activating Methods are practices that lead the education process in a way so           that the educational goals are achieved mainly on the basis of the pupil’s own           learning work, whereby the focus is on the thinking and solving of problems.           The  Activating  Methods  should,  among  other  things,  teach  pupils  critical           thinking. The critical thinking is an active and independent thinking process           that  includes  understanding  of  information,  analysis,  a  comparison  of           thoughts with the other views and opinions, seeing facts in contexts, the use                                            98","of all levels of logical thinking processes, taking a stand and the responsibility             for it.                           Fig. 3. Work of the pupils.             Source: autor              Project Based Teaching Process             The  primary  objective  of  the  Project  Based  Learning  is  to  actively  involve             pupils in the educational process.  The  main teaching method is the Project             Method, whereby pupils under the supervision of a teacher, or individually,             work  on  the  project  (theoretical  or  practical),  through  which  the  actual             learning takes place. By the use of this method in lessons, the teacher guides             pupils  to  learn  independence,  creativity  and  the  responsibility.  During  the             Project  Based  Learning  it  is  possible  to  develop  communication  skills  and             competences, i.e. writing skills, researching and creating information. Another             competence is the ability to work within a team should a group setting be also             utilised.  The  ability  to  work  with  modern  information  technology  tools  is             currently  one  of  the  basic  key  competencies,  since  to  be  able  to  use             a personal computer, the internet and to utilise several information channels             is a prerequisite for gathering a lot of information during a creation of suitable             projects. When selecting a project topic, it is necessary to take into account             the  needs  and  interests  of  pupils.  It  is  appropriate  if  the  project  relates  to             pupils’  out-of-school  exposure  and  is  based  on  their  own  experiences.  It             should be a bridge between the school and life, it should not be an artificial             reality  for  the  prescribed  curriculum.  The  appropriate  prerequisite  for  the             Project Based Learning is an internal motivation of pupils, therefore drawing             up of the project should lead to the specific results, and whereby based on             those results the pupils absorb the knowledge of the relevant subject. Out of             many benefits of the Project Based Learning we can mention that it is a highly             motivating method, creative, it teaches pupils to search for the information,             to  select  it  and  to  consider  its  relevance  for  the  problem  solving.  It  also             develops social-emotional intelligence and strengthens the aesthetic feel. The             Project  Based  Learning  leads  pupils  to  the  8mutual  communication  and             respect. Finally, their work leads to the sense of responsibility as they have to             justify and prove the correctness of the work created.                                                  99","Fig. 4. Work of the pupils on the project.           Source: author                                      CONCLUSION           We believe that pupil’s relationship to its school and the teaching subject is           not  solely  based  on  the  personal  prerequisites,  but  also  on  the  specific           educational methods and activities. It is our assumption that if a pupil actively           participates in the educational process, where they find their usefulness, the           situations that spark pupil’s passion for knowledge and progress are created.           The Experiential Learning is more effective form of the personal development           compared  to  the  traditional  one,  sometimes  almost  dogmatic  system  of           education. A major challenge for a teacher is to create an active environment           for the pupils so that they become more active and more creative.           In today’s terms, the teaching about the local country is of a large importance           in forming of the attitudes and pupil’s relationship towards the local region.           The one can only solve problems in the local region if one is familiar enough           with it.  Furthermore, if one  has formed a positive relationship towards the           region  and  the  whole  Slovakia,  which  is  also  very  important  to  nurture  in           schools  in  addition  to  the  home  environment.  It  is  necessary  to  dedicate           lessons of Geography to the local country so that the pupils comprehend and           perceive  the  environment  in  which  they  are  growing  up,  so  they  gain  an           overview of the functioning of the natural processes in their surroundings. It is           important  that  they  are  sufficiently  aware  of  the  impact  of  humans  on  the           natural environment and the need to protect nature in their region.                                       REFERENCES           ANDRESEN, L., BOUD, D., COHEN, R. Experience-BasedLearning , in Foley, G.,           Understanding   Adult   Education   and   Training,   second   edition,           2000,Allen\&Unwin, Sydney.           BRESTENSKÁ,  B.  et  al.  Premena  školy  s  využitím  informačných           a komunikačných technológií. Košice: ELFA. 2010, ISBN 978-80-8086-143-8.           DENKOVÁ, J., 2013. Zážitkové učenie  v praxi učiteľa, In: Zborník z Odbornej           konferencie  PRIMAS:  Objavné  vyučovanie  matematiky  a  prírodovedných           predmetov,                    s.         42-50,         dostupné           na:http://www.primas.ukf.sk/conference/papers/OV_cvicni_ucitelia/c_Denko           va.pdf                                           100","GAŠPAROVÁ,  M.  Osobitosti  aplikácie  prírodných  a  kultúrno-spoločenských             reálií  v  primárnom  vzdelávaní.  In:  Podmiotowość  w  edukacji  wobec             odmienności  kulturowych  oraz  społecznych  zróźnicowań  2.  Poznań:             Wydawnictwo Wyźszej Skoły Bezpieczeństwa, 2012, s. 419-439. ISBN 978-83-             61304-54-8.             HANUŠ, R., CHYTILOVÁ, L. Zážitkově pedagogické učení. Praha: Grada, 2009,             ISBN978-80-247-2816-2.             HOFFMAN  a  kol.  Terénní  výuka  jako  specifická  výuková  forma  ve  výuce  na             základní  škole.  In  Miroslav  Prokša,  Anna  Drozdíková.  Inovácie  a  trendy             v prírodovednom vzdelávaní. Bratislava: Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave,             Prírodovedecká fakulta, 2016. s. 61-67, ISBN 978-80-223-4175-2.             HOLEC, O. Dramaturgie.In: Outward Bound Czech Republic: Prazdninová škola             Lipnice, Instruktorský šlabikář, 1994, s. 37-50.             KARIKOVÁ,  S.  Štrukturovaná  hra  v  zážitkovom  učení.  In:  Zborník  príspevkov             z vedeckej  konferencie  „Hra-prostriedok  formovania  osobnosti”.  Banská             Bystrica: PF UMB, 1999, s. 23-29.             LENCZ, L. Pedagogika etickej výchovy, 1992, Metodické centrum Bratislava             OXENDINE, C., ROBINSON, J., WILLSON, G. Experiential learning, In M. Orey             (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. 2004             SCOFFHAM, S. Coreknowledge in therevised curriculum. In Geography: 96 (3):             201, p. 124-129.             TOMČÍKOVÁ, I. 2010. Miestna krajina vo vyučovaní vlastivedy a geografie na             základnej škole. In Geographia Cassoviensis: 4 (1): p. 159 – 163.             TOMČÍKOVÁ, I., RAKYTOVÁ. Geography of local landscape in the educational             process  in  primary  schools  in  Slovakia.  In  European  Journal  of  Geography,             2017 (in print).                                           Shrnutí             Cieľom  vyučovania  na  slovenských  školách  je  rozvíjať  vedomosti,  zručnosti             a kompetencie žiakov využiteľné nielen v škole, ale aj v každodennom živote.             Pred  učiteľom  stojí  výzva,  ako  žiakom  sprístupniť  obsah  učiva  tak,  aby  im             ponúkol  možnosť  byť  aktívnymi  účastníkmi  vyučovacieho  procesu.  Jednou             z možností  takého  učenia  sa  je  práve  zážitkové  vyučovanie,  kde  sa             prostredníctvom  určitej  skúsenosti  vyvolá  zážitok.  Ten  vzniká  pri  aktívnom             riešení reálnych alebo modelových úloh.             Práve  miestna  krajina  ponúka  priestor  na  rozvoj  predstavivosti,  ktorú  môže             učiteľ vo vyučovacom procese podporovať osobným zážitkom a skúsenosťou             žiakov. Hlbšie poznanie geografie miestnej krajiny tak je nielen cieľom, ale aj             prostriedkom  geografického  vzdelávania.  Konkrétne  geografické  javy  a  ich             vzťahy v miestnej krajine slúžia ako model na pochopenie všeobecne platných             súvislostí  a  pravidelností.  Umožňujú,  aby  žiaci  ľahšie  pochopili  a  trvale  si             osvojili  zákonitosti  prírodného  prostredia,  ale  aj  osobitosti  a  vzťahy  medzi             človekom a krajinou.             Cieľom  príspevku  bolo  popísať  podstatu  a  metódy  zážitkového  vyučovania,             podať  námety  ako  implementovať  do  vyučovacieho  procesu  metódy                                             101","podporujúce  aktívne  učenie  sa  žiakov.  Vlastný  aktívny  prístup  žiaka           v zážitkovom učení spočíva v činnostiach, ktoré sám vykonáva, či už priamym           pozorovaním na geografických vychádzkach, či exkurziách v miestnej krajine,           alebo   sprostredkovane   v   triede   riešením   rôznych   problémových           a projektových úloh.                                                                                                  102","ACTIVATING METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY TEACHING (GEOGRAPHY BY                                          SENSES)                                                             2                                           1                               Jana Vojteková , Michaela Žoncová                 1                  Department of Geography and Regional Development, Faculty of Natural              Sciences, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Trieda A. Hlinku 1, 949                                      74 Nitra, Slovakia                                      jvojtekova@ukf.sk               2                Department of Geography and Geology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Matej Bel                   University in Banská Bystrica, Tajovského 40, 974 01 Banská Bystrica                                   michaela.zoncova@umb.sk              Abstract:  The  paper  deals  with  activating  and  explorational  methods  in             teaching of regional geography. As an example, a methodology for teaching of             regional geography of Slovakia, which is taught in the 8th grade of primary             school,  is  presented.  The  aim  of  the  proposed  methodology  is  to  acquire             knowledge on the specifics of the regions of Slovakia using the explorational             approach  and  activating  methods.  Activating  methods  lead  the  teaching             process so that educational goals are achieved mainly on the basis of pupils'             own  activities  while  the  emphasis  is  being  placed  on  solving  problems.             Teaching by using exploration, research or discovery by pupils themselves and             finding the truth is an important part of education in the process of adopting             key concepts in the field of natural (but not only) sciences. The methodology             was  verified  by  primary  school  pupils  at  the  event  called  Vedecký  jarmok             (Science fair) and geography students in the academic course of Geography             Didactics.             Key  words:  activating  methods,  explorational  methods,  regional  geography,             educational process, senses                                       INTRODUCTION             Due to the development of science, there are gradually increasing demands             on  pupils  cognition.  This  is  also  related  to  the  search  for  new  teaching             methods. The learning process in its multiplicity involves many aspects that             need to be respected when discovering new insights into teaching methods.             In this respect, it can be stated that teaching is a process in which there is             a constant  quantitative  and  qualitative  development  of  pupils  cognition             (Kalakay, 2001).             The aim of the paper is to propose methodology to acquire knowledge on the             specifics  of  the  regions  of  Slovakia  using  the  explorational  approach  and             activating methods. The methodology was verified by primary school pupils at             the event called Vedecký jarmok (Science fair) and geography students in the             academic course of geography didactics.                                               103","METHODS           Activating methods lead the  teaching process  so that educational goals are           achieved mainly on the basis of pupils' own activities while the emphasis is           being placed on solving problems. . Teaching by using exploration, research or           discovery by pupils themselves and finding the truth is an important part of           education in the process of adopting key concepts in the field of natural (but           not only) sciences. Pupils' discovery allows not only to learn new knowledge,           but  also  to  understand  the  very  essence  of  science  and  to  learn  about           research  methods.  This  occurs  in  situations  intentionally  created  by  the           teacher  that  allow  pupils  to  observe  phenomena,  manipulate  with  specific           objects,  experiment,  participate  in  excursions,  discuss  each  other,  solve           creative  tasks,  practical  and  theoretical  problems,  etc.  (Bagalová,  Siváková,           2012).           According to Kotrba, Lacina (2007), activating methods:               •   Promote pupils' interest in learning,               •   Support intensive experience, thinking and action,               •   Use the acquired experience and knowledge of pupils,               •   Significantly support and develop pupils' cognitive processes.           Clarity  in  modern  teaching  is  to  be  understood  as  a  process  or  product  of           sense  cognition  which  is  related  to  an  active  psychic  activity  of  the  pupil.           However,  knowledge  must  not  only  remain  at  the  stage  of  meaningful           understanding  of  the  phenomenon,  but  have  to  focus  on  the  essence  of           things, phenomena and the learning processes of geography and have to lead           to  abstraction.  Applying  the  principle  of  clarity  leads  to  an  increase  in           efficiency  in  the  pupils'  learning,  encourages  their  interest  and  facilitates           memorization.  Fundamental  means  which  apply  the  principle  of  clarity  in           geography teaching include game and experiment (Kalakay, 2001).           Didactic  games,  tasks  and  experiments  as  part  of  an  activating  teaching           method should not be missed in every modern learning process.           In geography teaching, we should look for new ways and means to enable our           pupil  not  only  to  develop  the  ability  to  learn  self-containedly  the  latest           knowledge  of  geography,  but  also  to  foster  an  interest  in  continuous           education (Dragulová, Vincejová, 2005).           Since each person is an individual and has different interests, also the pupil           does not have to be interested in everything from geography. The teacher's           success is if he is able to find at least one of the areas of geography that will           attract  the  pupil.  Moreover,  this  interest  can  easily  be  obtained  through           games, tasks and experiments.           In  the  paper,  we  deal  with  specific  didactic  games  as  a  part  of  activating           method in the teaching of regional geography. As an example, we present the           methodology created for the 8th grade of primary school, applied to the topic           called Regions of Slovakia with a time allowance of 45 minutes. Through this           method, pupils learn about the specifics of Slovakia's regions in a playful way.           The  aim  of  this  methodology  was  to  gain  insight  into  the  specificities  of           Slovakia's  regions  by  using  explorational  approach,  activating  methods  and           information-communication technologies.                                           104","The 7E learning cycle was used in the proposed methodology:                    Phase 1: Engage and Elicit,                    Phase 2: Explore,                    Phase 3: Explain,                    Phase 4: Elaborate/Extend,                    Phase 5: Evaluate.                                          RESULTS                        An example of methodology: Slovakia by Senses             In  the  preparatory  phase  of  the  previous  lesson,  the  teacher  assigns  pupils             a homework where each pupil has to bring some Slovak food product (Figaro             chocolate, Sedita Horalka (biscuit), parenica (cheese), Miva peanuts, etc.) or             drink (except for alcoholic beverages).             The  teacher  has  to  prepare  aids  (interactive  tablet,  tablets,  Wi-Fi  internet             connection, computer, loudspeaker, plastic cups, rubber bands, thin cloth or             napkin,  scissors,  adhesive  tape,  typical  Slovak  beverages,  food,  rocks  or             minerals  (beer,  wine,  bryndza  (cottage  cheese),  mineral  water,  wood,  etc.),             atlases of Slovak Republic, data projector).             The plastic cups are filled with beer, wine, bryndza (cottage cheese), pieces of             wood  (e.g.  pine,  spruce,  oak,  etc.),  mineral  water  with  a  pronounced  odor             (e.g. Fatra), rubber pieces (e.g. tire), chopped potatoes or cooked corn. A thin             cloth is placed on the top of the cups so that the content inside the cup is not             visible  and  the  canvas  attached  to  the  cup  is  fastened  using  a  rubber  or             adhesive tape (fig. 1).             In  addition,  the  teacher  prepares  various  sounds  typical  for  Slovakia  (e.g.             Slovak  dialects,  fujara  (music  instrument),  various  examples  of  folk  songs,             sounds of animals typical for Slovakia, etc.).             As the last, the teacher prepares the physical-geographical map of Slovakia             with  towns/cities  and  prepares  the  task  using  the  software  for  interactive             board.  If the school does not have software for interactive board, the teacher             will create this task in e.g. Microsoft PowerPoint software.             The proposed methodology also uses inter-subject relations where geography             is merged with history, civic education or music education.             Teacher at the beginning of the lesson invites pupils to bring typical Slovak             foods, beverages (other than alcoholic drinks) that they should have brought             from  home  (such  as  Horalka  (biscuit),  Figaro  chocolate,  parenica  (cheese),             etc.).  Pupils  place  these  traditional  Slovak  food,  drinks  or  meals  on  a  pre-             arranged  bench  near  the  teacher  where  cups  with  scents  are  already             prepared.                                                   105","Fig. 1. Sample of a cup with certain scent.            The teacher divides pupils into groups of 4-5. Each group receives a tablet,           access to the Internet and interactive board and atlas of the Slovak Republic.           Then teacher says the hypothesis: Can we discover Slovakia other than from           TV programs, textbooks, prints and the like? The teacher invites pupils to the           first of their activities to go and smell the prepared glasses.           Teacher  gradually  calls  each  group  (all  pupils  from  the  group)  to  the  desk           where the cups with different scents are prepared. Each group smells one cup           and their role is to identify what is in the cup and sit back.           After this task, there is a sound task. Teacher gradually plays prepared sounds           for each group and the task for pupils in each group is to identify the sound.           According to the atlas of the Slovak Republic and the Internet, the task for           pupils is to find out  where the “scent” can be found in  Slovakia.  Using the           tablet, its occurrence is drawn by a predefined symbol and color to the map           on the interactive board. For example, one of the groups will smell a cup with           a piece of wood. The task for pupils is to find out where the wood-processing           industry is located in Slovakia and mark it via tablets on the interactive board           using  a  pictogram  of  brown  color.  Another  group  will  mark  e.g.  wine           companies,  breweries,  sheep  breeding,  mineral  springs,  thermal  springs,           rubber  industry,  cultivation  of  potatoes,  corn,  etc.  The  pictogram  used  will           also be marked in the legend of the map (fig. 2).                                                        106","Fig. 2. Sample of semi-finished pupils' map.              After  the  “smelling”  task,  the  sound  task  follows.  Teacher  gradually  plays             prepared  sounds  for  each  group  and  the  task  is  to  identify  the  sound.  For             example,              the              teacher              uses:             https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R1_lBpN4AGw  sound  and  the  pupils'             task  is  to  find  out  what  music  instrument  it  is  (fujara)  and  then  using  the             Internet,  they  identify  its  origins,  peculiarities,  etc.  (For  example,  on  25             November  2005  it  was  included  in  the  List  of  Oral  and  Intangible  Cultural             Heritage UNESCO in a solemn proclamation in which UNESCO appreciated a             total of 43 works). Moreover, teacher can play a sample of the conversation             from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-LzaxnhThtc and the pupils' task is             to  find  out  what  dialect  (záhoráčtina)  it  is  and  where  it  can  be  found  in             Slovakia, its origins, etc. The dialect can also be replaced by songs specific for             certain   regions.   Furthermore,   it   can   be   the   animal   sound:             https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dGagp49q7uA and the pupils' task is to             find  out  what  animal  (marmot)  it  is  and  then  find  out  endemic  and  relict             animals in Slovakia and their occurrence.             During the lesson, the teacher talks about regions of Slovakia as well as cities,             cultural and natural monuments, etc., explains the link between the industry             or agriculture and regions. The examples used by the teacher include regions             that are not mentioned in the tasks for pupils. For example, the automotive             industry is not mentioned in the tasks for pupils and the teacher explains that             it  is  located  mainly  in  western  Slovakia  due  to  a  good  transport  network,             workforce (universities focused on engineering ...), etc.             When all groups mark their findings on a map on the interactive board, the             teacher will show the correct solutions. If the pupils missed something, they             can supplement it or correct the wrong findings. During the revelation of the             resulting map, the teacher discusses with pupils and gives them explorational             questions such as: Why are there winery companies located there? Why are             potatoes grown mainly in those localities? What determines the occurrence of                                             107","mineral springs?, etc. If pupils do not know the answer, they have to find out           in each group why it is so. If they do not find out it until the end of the lesson,           it will be their homework which will be presented on the next lesson.           When they identify all the sounds and find out all the necessary information,           they indicate their occurrence in the interactive board.  The teacher correct           their  findings  and  discusses  with  pupils  using  explorational  questions.  For           example: Why did the dialects emerge? How can we help preserve the natural           heritage?  Why  the  specific  dialect  is  located  in  those  localities?  If  pupils           cannot answer, they have to find out in each group why it is so. If they do not           find out it until the end of the lesson, it will be their homework which will be           presented on the next lesson.           At the end of the lesson, the teacher invites pupils in each group to evaluate           their results and compare with other groups. After the pupils' evaluation, the           teacher  assesses  each  group  and  as  a  reward  for  all  groups,  teacher           encourages  pupils  to  go  and  taste  all  the  foods  they  brought  which  adds           another sense of taste. When tasting the food, the teacher tells pupils to look           at the packaging and find out where the product was made.           Pupils thus used all the senses in this methodology:               •  Hearing - listening to sound samples,               •  Smell - smelling the cups with various “aromas of Slovakia”,               •  Taste - tasting traditional Slovak food,               •  Sight - searching for information in atlases, on the Internet, etc.,               •  Touch  -  marking  information  on  the  map  in  a  tablet  or  interactive                  board.                                      APPLICATION           The methodology Slovakia by Senses was applied in the educational process at           university,  in  particular,  in  the  subject  Geography  Didactics  where  it  was           verified by the future geography teachers. The future geography teachers also           used  information-communication  technologies  in  the  educational  process.           They  were  divided  into  groups  and  in  the  groups  they  developed  the           methodology  Slovakia  by  Senses.  After  verification,  a  discussion  on           advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  methodology  was  conducted.  The           further  task  for  the  students  was  to  prepare  new  methodologies  using  the           activating  methods  in  geography  teaching  and  present  them  in  the  next           seminar.  Among  the  benefits  of  the  methodology,  students  emphasized           mainly a playful approach, searching for knowledge from various sources (not           just print), using information-communication technologies (interactive board,           tablets, internet connection ...), rewarding pupils in the form of Slovak food           tasting, involvement of senses, etc. As the shortcomings of the methodology,           they  stated  mainly  demanding  teacher's  preparation  (time,  skills)  for  the           lesson  and  knowing  how  to  use  information-communication  technologies           (Chvojka, Vojtek, 2016).           The methodology Slovakia by Senses was also adapted to the World by Senses           which was oriented on the regional geography of the world and was used in                                            108","the events called Vedecký jarmok (Science fair) (fig. 3) and during University             Days where it was verified mainly by primary school pupils and other visitors             of these events. The aim of these events was to popularize natural sciences             through interesting demonstrations and experiments from individual natural             sciences, to stimulate the interest of young people and their parents in the             study  of  natural  science  subjects  and  to  show  the  importance  of  natural             science knowledge for ordinary life. The interactive table or tablets were not             used  in  these  events  and  pupils  marked  their  findings  in  the  printed  world             map. The correct answers  were  marked on the  second printed similar  map             (fig.  4).  The  pupils  were  most  interested  in  sound  samples  of  the  different             languages  of  the  world  where  it  was  more  difficult  to  determine  which             language is correct and where in the world it is used. This activity was also             solved  by  pupils  of  lower  grades  based  on  their  own  experience  of  from             holidays, trips or television programs. The smelling samples of various spices             from  the  world  were  easily  identifiable,  but  the  localization  of  their             occurrence  on  the  map  (production,  cultivation)  was  challenging  for  pupils             because they could not search for the correct answers on the Internet, in the             atlases  or  in  another  print  resource,  but  they  had  to  rely  on  their  own             knowledge.                           Fig. 3. World  by Senses in  the Vedecký jarmok (Science fair) event  – sense of             sound.                          Fig.  4.  Sample  of  maps  used  for  the  methodology  World  by  Senses  in  the             Vedecký jarmok (Science fair event – sense of smell).                                                  109","CONCLUSION           Activating methods are often applied in geography teaching mainly through           didactic  games,  tasks  or  experiments.  These  methods  were  used  in  many           studies which deal with geography teaching such as Vilínová, Repaská, Herda           (2014) who used these method in project teaching or Kramáreková, Dubcová,           Vojtek (2012) who deal with cartography teaching in Slovakia or Dubcová et           al. (2013) who apply these methods in field teaching of geography and many           others.           Based  not  only  on  the  above  mentioned  results,  it  can  be  claimed  that           a competent teacher has to  know a lot of ways to not only teach pupils as           much as possible, but also to engage them, motivate and develop the relation           to  education  process.  The  development  of  pupils'  creative  abilities  requires           intentional creation of creative situations in the teaching process.                                      REFERENCES           BAGÁLOVÁ,   Ľ.,   SIVÁKOVÁ,   M.   Aktivizujúce   metódy   a   prístupy           v prírodovednom vzdelávaní. Uplatnenie bádateľskych postupov vo vyučovaní           prírodovedy  na  1.  stupni  ZŠ.  [online].  2012.  [cit.  2017-08-20].  Dostupné  na           internete:   <http://www.statpedu.sk/files/articles/dokumenty/vzdelavacie-           aktivity/aktiv izujuce-metody-v-prirodovede_fin.pdf >.           DRAGULOVÁ, A., VINCEJOVÁ, E. Didaktické hry na hodinách zemepisu. Prešov:           Metodicko-pedagogické centrum, 2005. 54 s.           DUBCOVÁ,  A.,  KRAMÁREKOVÁ,  H.,  NEMČÍKOVÁ,  M.,  NÉMETHOVÁ,  J.,           OREMUSOVÁ,  D.,  RAMPAŠEKOVÁ,  Z.,  REPASKÁ,  G.,  ŠOLCOVÁ,  L.,           TREMBOŠOVÁ, M., VILINOVÁ, K. Didaktika geografie  v teréne. 1. vyd. Nitra:           UKF, 2013. 395 s. ISBN 978-80-558-0297-8.           CHVOJKA,  L.,  VOJTEK,  M.  Aktuálny  stav  využívania  geoinformačných           technológií  vo  výučbe  geografie  na  stredných  školách  v  Nitrianskom           samosprávnom  kraji =  Current  State  of  Using  Geoinformation  Technologies           For  Teaching  Geography  at  Secondary  Schools  in  the  Nitra  Self-governing           Region.  In:  Geografické  informácie:  22nd  International  Geographical           Conference on Central Europe After 25 Years of Transformation, Oct 09-10,           2014, Nitra, Slovakia. ISSN 1337-9453, roč. 20, č. 2, 2016, s. 161-174.           KALAKAY,  R.  Demonštračný  experiment  vo  vyučovaní  fyziky.  [online].  2001.           [cit. 2017-08-20]. Dostupné na internete: <http://physedu.science.upjs.sk/sis/           fyzika/experimenty/demonstracne/index.htm>.           KORTBA, T., LACINA, L. Pracovný list. Aktivizujúce metódy. [online]. 2007. [cit.           2017-08-20].  Dostupné  na  internete:  <http://www.pdf.umb.sk/~lrovnanova/           PL_aktivizujuce_metody_text.pdf>.           KRAMÁREKOVÁ,  H.,  DUBCOVÁ,  A.,  VOJTEK,  M.  School  Cartography  in  the           Slovak Republic After 1993. In: 4th International Conference on Cartography \&           GIS: Proceedings Vol. 1, 18-22 June, 2012, Albena, Bulgaria. Sofia: Bulgarian           Cartographic Association, 2012. ISSN 1314-0604, pp. 175-185.           VILINOVÁ,  K.  REPASKÁ,  G.,  HERDA,  M.  Projektové  vyučovanie  prírodných           zložiek  aplikovaných  na  miestnu  krajinu  =  Project  Teaching  of  Natural           Components  Applied  To  the  Local  Landscape.  In:  Geografické  informácie:                                           110","22nd International Geographical Conference on Central Europe After 25 Years             of Transformation, 09-10 Oct, 2014, Nitra, Slovakia. ISSN 1337-9453, roč. 18,             č. 2, 2014, s. 214-222.                                           Zhrnutie             Príspevok  sa  zaoberá  aktivizujúcimi  metódami  vo  výučbe  regionálnej             geografie,  pričom  v  príspevku  uvádzame  konkrétne  metodiku  venovanú             výučbe  regionálnej  geografie  Slovenska  pre  8.  ročník  ZŠ  pomocou  tejto             metódy a bádateľského prístupu a aj jej aplikáciu.             Metodika  Slovensko  zmyslami  sa  zaoberá  výučbou  regionálnej  geografie             Slovenska zmyslami. Žiaci pomocou zmyslov spoznávajú špecifiká jednotlivých             regiónov Slovenska. Táto metodika bola verifikovaná v edukačnom procese so             študentmi učiteľstva geografie pri výučbe didaktiky geografie, pričom študenti             ako plusy tejto metodiky uviedli najmä hravý prístup, vyhľadávanie vedomostí             z rôznych zdrojov, nie len printových, využitie IKT (interaktívna tabuľa, tablety,             internetové  pripojenie  ...),  odmenu  žiakov  formou  ochutnávky  slovenských             potravín,  zapojenie  zmyslov  a podobne.  Ako  nedostatky  metodiky  uviedli             najmä náročnú prípravu učiteľa (čas, zručnosti) na vyučovaciu hodinu, krátku             časovú dotáciu, manipuláciu s IKT.             Metodiku  Slovensko  zmyslami  sme  pretransformovali  na  Svet  zmyslami             orientovanú na regionálnu geografiu sveta a tú sme aplikovali na podujatiach             Vedecký  jarmok  a  Univerzitných  dňoch,  kde  ju  overili  najmä  žiaci  ZŠ,  ale  aj             ostatní  návštevníci  týchto  podujatí.  Žiakov  najviac  zaujali  zvukové  ukážky             jednotlivých jazykov sveta, kde bolo pre nich náročnejšie určiť, ktorý jazyk je             správny a v ktorej časti sveta sa s nim hovorí, avšak túto aktivitu vedeli vyriešiť             aj žiaci nižších ročníkov na základe vlastných skúsenosti z dovoleniek, výletov,             či  televíznych  programov.  Čuchové  ukážky  korení  sveta  boli  síce  ľahko             identifikovateľné, ale lokalizácia ich výskytu na mape (produkcia, pestovanie)             bola  pre  žiakov  náročná,  nakoľko  nemohli  vyhľadávať  správne  riešenia  na             internete,  v atlase,  či  inom  printovom  zdroji,  ale  museli  sa  spoliehať  len  na             vlastné vedomosti.             Na  základe  nielen  týchto  výsledkov  môžeme  konštatovať,  že  schopný  učiteľ             musí poznať veľa spôsobov, ako žiakov nielen čo najviac naučiť, ale aj zaujať             ich, motivovať a vypestovať v nich vzťah k vzdelávaniu.                                                            111","GEOGRAPHY AND ITS APPLICATION IN EDUCATION WITHIN THE CROSS           BORDER COOPERATION PROJECT “SPRINGS CONNECTING” (CASE STUDY)                           1                                    1                                                               3                                                                        1                                                2             Kamil Zágoršek , Emil Drápela , Tomáš Vitvar , Matthias Kändler , Jiří Šmída ,                                                1                                      Hynek Böhm             1               Technical University of Liberec, Faculty of Science, Humanities and Education                         Studentská 2, CZ-461 17 Liberec, Czech Republic           kamil.zagorsek@tul.cz, emil.drapela@tul.cz, jiri.smida@tul.cz, hynek.bohm@tul.cz             2              Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, Facultad de Ingeniería en Ciencias de la             Tierra, Campus Gustavo Galindo - km. 30.5 vía perimetral, Guayaqui, Ecuador              Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Faculty of Environmental Sciences,                          Kamýcká 129, 165 21 Praha, Czech Republic                                  vitvartom@gmail.com              3               Technische Universität Dresden, International Institute Zittau, Environmental                        Biotechnology, Markt 23, 02763 Zittau, Germany                              matthias.kaendler@tu-dresden.de            Abstract:  Technical  University  of  Liberec,  Technical  University  of  Dresden-           International  Graduate  School  Zittau  and  Czech  University  of  Life  Sciences           Prague  within  the  framework  of  the  cross-border  co-operation  project           “Prameny  spojují/Quellen  verbinden”  (Springs  connecting  landscapes  and           countries)  applied  mostly  physical  geographical  studies  in  education.  The           project  is  providing  resources  and  capacities  to  develop,  implement  and           maintain practical education of students from all three institutions in the field           of Earth, natural sciences as well as human sciences. Altogether 85 students           have participated in the project activities and have been practically trained;           moreover 6 Bachelor and 5 Maser theses were carried out up to now.           Key words: Education, cross-border cooperation, springs                                     INTRODUCTION           Practical  education  in  Earth  and  natural  sciences  has  been  increasingly           supported over the past decades and centuries.  The proper ratio between           theoretical and practical education remains a challenge not only in basic and           secondary  schools,  but  also  in  universities.  Practical  education  is  typically  a           resource-  and  time-consuming  activity  during  both  preparatory  and           implementation phases. International projects with student participation and           educational components have increasingly proven to meet these challenges           and promote innovative tools in the practical education. These projects can           on one hand supply the financial resources needed for the practical and field                                             112","education and, on the other hand, involve the  students in various practical             scientific tasks included in implementing project work plans.             This approach has been recently employed by three institutions - Technical             University  of  Liberec  (TUL),  Technical  University  of  Dresden-  International             Graduate  School  Zittau  (IHI)  and  Czech  University  of  Life  Sciences  Prague             (CZU)  within  the  framework  of  the  cross-border  co-operation  project             “Prameny  spojují/Quellen  verbinden”  (Springs  connecting  landscapes  and             countries), supported by the joint Czech-Saxonian EU programme Interreg 5A             SN-CZ  2020  “Hallo  Nachbar.Ahoj  sousede”.  This  project  providing  resources             and  capacities  to  develop,  implement  and  maintain  practical  education  of             students from all three institutions in the field of Earth, natural sciences as             well  as  human  sciences.  The  springs  were  chosen  as  objects  of             multidisciplinary scientific and educational interest and valuable cross-border             historical and cultural heritage.             The  essential  target  group  of  this  project  are  students,  prevailingly  those             studying bachelor degrees in geography at TUL, master degree students from             CZU and bachelor to postgraduate students from IHI. The principal aim of the             project  is  to  educate  the  participating  students  in  a  wide  spectrum  of             geographical, geological, biological, hydrochemical and ecological disciplines             related  to  the  research  of  spring  and  water  ecosytems.    As  of  today,  the             project  is  launching  its  second  half  after  having  provided  three  workshops,             one  summer  school  and  various  research  tasks  supporting  the  theoretical             background of the practical education. Hence, this paper describes experience             made with educational applications of geographical and other research in the             frame of this project (Vitvar et al. 2017).                     The project: Springs connecting landscapes and countries             The  project  “Prameny  spojují/Quellen  verbinden”  (http://quellen.tul.cz)  was             created  by  researchers  from  the  Technical  University  of  Liberec,  Czech             University of Life Sciences and Technical University of Dresden and started in             2016.  This  three-year  project  aims  at  improving  the  skills  of  students  of             participating  universities  to  promote  research  across  the  borders  and             implement  various  types  of  educational  activities,  supported  by             complementary research of about 40 selected spring ecosystems in the cross-             border  Liberec-Zittau  area.  This  research  and  educational  topics  include             geography,  geology,  hydrology,  hydrochemistry,  hydrobiology  as  well  as             human  geographical  approaches  to  assess  the  historical  and  cultural             development of the spring ecosystems and its current vulnerability and role in             the  landuse  management.  These  40  springs  were  selected  upon  relevant             available  information  and  field  pre-screening  of  about  100  springs,  which             represent  the  variety  of  geological,  hydrochemical,  hydrological,             hydrobiological and human geographical aspects of the studied area.             The educational part of the project has been implemented via workshops and             summer  schools.  Each  workshop  focused  on  different  field  of  study  of  the             spring, typically related to the dominant competence of the host university.             The  Liberec  workshops  are  therefore  aimed  to  the  geological,             geomorphological and also human geographical aspects of springs (Fig. 1). The             applications  of  GIS  methods  were  demonstrated  for  collecting,  storing  and                                              113","analysing  spatial  data,  as  well  as  using  of  cartography  methods  for           visualization  of  the  results.  The  Zittau  workshops  are  aimed  to  field           measurements  of  basic  physico-chemical  parameters  (such  as  temperature,           pH-value,  electrical  conductivity  and  dissolved  oxygen  content),  of  water,           water  sampling  and  hydrochemical  laboratory  analyses.  Finally,  the  Prague           workshops  address  the  hydrological,  hydrobiological,  botanical  and           ecotoxicological aspects of the spring ecosystems.           The methods learned during workshops have been thoroughly employed by           students in their own spring studies. The topics of the student work include           searching, mapping, pre-screening of more than 100 springs and pre-selection           of  the  40  springs  for  detailed  studies,  fieldwork  and  water  sampling,           hydrochemical  and  hydrobiological  laboratory  work  on  analyses  of  water,           biota and sediment, elaboration of historical and land-use aspects of spring           ecosystems, and innovative visualization approaches in field and desktop GIS           applications.                                    Educational events           The  main  activities  of  the  “Prameny  spojují/Quellen  verbinden”  project           include  workshops  and  summer  schools,  where  their  participants  elaborate           various  theoretical  and  practical  topics  of  their  theses  or  study  exercises.           These workshops differ from summer schools in duration (3 days versus 6 in           summer schools) and focus. Whereas the workshops address more thoroughly           a  selected  set  of  topics  upon  the  prevailing  competence  of  the  host           institution, the summer school aims to provide a comprehensive summary of           the research approaches applied in the spring research. Both types of events           strongly  emphasize  practicing,  fieldwork,  learning  by  own  experience  and           inter-institutional cross-collaboration in student teams.           Until  now,  three  workshops  and  one  summer  school  were  implemented.           Other three workshops and one summer school are planned until the end of           the project in January 2019.           The first workshop was called “Surveys of Springs” and took place in Zittau           from 12 to 14 June 2016. It was focused on methods of collecting field data           about  springs,  training  with  various  types  of  measurement  devices  and           performing simple chemical analyses of water in the IHI laboratory. In addition           to  the  hydrochemical  laboratory  facilities,  the  meteorological  station  and           monitoring devices of meteorological, soilwater and groundwater data were           presented. The workshop was attended by a total of 14 participants.           The second workshop was called “Springs are alive” and took place in Prague           from 20 to 22 October 2016. The workshop was focused on the methods of           studying living organisms in springs and their ecosystems and the research of           relationships  between  living  organisms  and  chemical  parameters  of  water           (such  as  water  quality  and  pollution).  Participants  have  practiced           distinguishing between different types of plants, algae and cyanide bacteria as           well  as  monitoring  and  capturing  of  benthic  organisms  living  in  the  spring           ecosystems  and  their  identification  in  microscopic  laboratories.  Part  of  the           workshop was also devoted to laboratory determination of potentially toxic           metals in the selected organisms and in sediment. The workshop ended with           a final team competition, attended by 29 participants.                                           114","The  third  workshop  was  called  “Land  of  Springs”  and  took  place  from  6  to             8 April 2017 in Liberec. The central theme of the workshop was the influence             of geography on springs, in particular the influence of geology and relief on             the  one  hand  and  the  influence  of  human  use  on  spring  landscape  and             ecosystems  on  the  other  hands.  Students  learned  to  recognize  the             relationships between the geological subsoil, the relief forms and the localities             where the springs are located. They also practiced how to describe the human             influence  on  the  spring  area  sites,  explore  the  human  attitudes  to  water             resources by the means of mental mapping, and visualized their results using             ArcGIS  Online.  The  workshop  was  again  wrapped-up  by  a  final  team             competition, with a total of 27 participants.                               Fig. 1. Practical education in geology in framework of the summer school.             Source: Martin Mašek              The first summer school was named “Summer school with springs” and took             place  from  17  to  22  September  2017  in  Heřmanice  (Jablonné  v  Podještědí             municipality),  Zittau  and  Prague.  The  aim  of  the  summer  school  was  to             present  in  an  overall  manner  all  the  above-mentioned  activities,  with             emphasis  on  attractive  educational  approaches,  fieldwork  and  mini-project-             cooperation  in  student  teams.  The  student  mini-projects  included  first             mapping of selected sources, measurement of their parameters, and sampling             of water and biota. In the improvised laboratories in the accommodation in             Heřmanice, biota samples were analysed, water and sediment samples were             analysed in laboratories in Zittau and Prague, where students learned basic             methods. All obtained data were stored in the GIS, and the results were finally             presented in the form of team mini-projects. A total of 15 students attended             the summer school.                                Cross-border educational aspects             The  project  “Prameny  spojují/Quellen  verbinden”  has  established             a sustainable  cross-border  cooperation  of  two  neighbouring  regional             institutions  (IHI  and  TUL-Geography  Department)  that  both  have  been                                             115","developing  educational  programmes  that  focus  on  regional  environmental           aspects.  Although  both  departments  have  been  facing  changes  and           adjustments of competences and programmatic structures in the very recent           past, this project and its outcomes have created a  sustainable platform for           cooperation of both educational units and their students on topics related to           environmental and geographical aspects of the transboundary region Liberec-           Zittau.  The  platform  has  been  supported  by  a  variety  of  projects  funded           through the transboundary research and networking programmes such as Ziel           3 and Interreg.           Up to date, 6 Bachelor and 5 Master theses were carried out in the framework           of these programmes at TUD-IHI, TUL and the respective project partners in           Prague  (Czech  Technical  University  in  Prague,  Czech  University  of  Life           Sciences).  All  these  have  elaborated  transboundary  field  data  from  both           countries and provided a solid knowledge and cooperation base for further           transboundary practical education in this region.           The importance of experiencing practical science for the training of university           students is shown on example of this cross-border cooperation project. Higher           education  in  various  European  countries,  including  the  Czech  Republic,           records the decreasing of practical skills to conduct research of the individual           scientific fields (Whittle et al. 2010). If students are involved in a project with           a  team  of  scientists,  they  can  easily  gain  practical  experiences  from           researchers  directly  and  learn  research  habits  in  practical  situations  rather           than  just  theoretical  ones.  This  can  be  one  of  their  motivations  to  further           education and to better preparation for both further education and the post-           graduate  practice.  The  interdisciplinary  focus  of  water  spring  research           strengthens  the  students'  awareness  of  the  need  for  team  communication           and the nature of the involvement of scientific disciplines in solving practical           tasks.                                       Case study           The  final  evaluation  of  the  springs  is  not  finished  jet.  To  demonstrate           methodology  and  results  from  field  work  we  selected  the  Ploučnice  spring           (Vitvar et al. 2017).           The Ploučnice spring is situated in the Podještědí (Lower Ještěd region) and           has already been marked on old maps (eg. Turnov 1951). Its original name in           German language was “Polzenquelle”; the Czech name “Pramen Ploučnice” is           referred as literal translation (Vitvar et al. 2017).           We  provided  geological  and  geomorphological  field  study  of  the  surround           area. The Ploučnice spring is situated in the Bohemian Cretaceous Basin, in           the valley between Osečná and Janův Důl. The major sediment of surrounding           is  marine  sand  to  fine  grained  conglomerate  Turonian  in  age  belonging  to           Jizera  Formation.  The  valley  itself  is  filled  by  Upper  Pleistocene  loess,  right           next to the spring are fluvial clay, sand and gravel. The whole area is fragile,           deformed from northeast to southwest direction, which is indicated by short           tectonic faults (Uličný, 2001).           Vegetation characteristics of the spring surroundings were studied using two           methods:  biotope  description  and  fytocenological  relevés,  which  were                                            116","described in details in Vitvar et al. (2017). Ploučnice spring is characterized by             a  seminatural  mixed  montane  sycamore-beech  forest  with  dominant  Acer             pseudoplatanus,  Fagus  sylvatica  and  sporadically  mixed  with  Alnus  incana             (Vitvar et al. 2017).             Macroinvertebrate  samples  were  collected  twice  a  year  by  a  quantitative             method.  According  to  Vitvar  et  al.  (2017),  the  most  abundant             macroinvertebrate  species  at  the  Ploučnice  spring  was  freshwater  shrimp             (Gammarus fossarum).             Water  samples  were  analysed  in  the  TUD-IHI  laboratory  in  Zittau,  the             complete  and  more  precise  results,  see  Vitvar  et  al.  (2017).  Physical             parameters of water were measured in spot by Multimeter WTW Multi 3430.             The water of Ploučnice spring is moderately mineralized (average conductivity             is  242  µS/cm),  with  average  pH  is  7.21  and  the  average  dissolved  oxygen                                                      -                                                              -                                                                       3-                                                           2-             concentration  is  8.6  mg/l.  The  major  ions  (NO 3 ,  SO 4 ,  Cl   and  PO 4 )  were             analysed  by  Ion  Chromatograph  Dionex  ICS-1100.  The  dominant  ions  in                                              -                                    2+                                                                         2-             Ploučnice spring water is Ca  and HCO 3 , the less abundant anion is SO 4  and                2+             Mg .             The human geography analysis of springs was carrying out by semi-structured             interviewing, studying archives and local fairy tales. Probably the best-known             of  story  is  about  the  peasant  who  drove  up  to  the  spring  with  horses             harnessed to a fully loaded carriage; and since the spring was very deep he             got drown in it (Interview with the mayor of Osečná, Jiří Hauzer, 26. 7. 2016;             Interview with the mayor of Janův Důl, Jan Mašek, 26. 7. 2016). One of the             local fairy tale is about a wicked waterman who drowned everybody who tried             to poach in his water (Řeháček, 1997).                                        CONCLUSIONS             The  project  “Prameny  spojují/Quellen  verbinden”  has  high  educational             potential;  altogether  85  students  have  participated  in  the  project  activities             and have been practically trained. Most of the students continued in project             activities during the whole year and experience and knowledge, gained by the             project,  have  certainly  complemented  knowledge  obtained  during  their             regular studies. The students have also been working on their bachelor and             master thesis, which are connected with project activities or with their field of             study  and  experiences  gained  in  scope  of  the  project.  Major  added  value             should also be seen in cross-border and international scope of the project and             its participants.              Acknowledgements:  The  described  project  is  funded  by  the  programme             Interreg  VA  5A  SN-CZ  2014-2020,  Nr.  101.002.497.391.  “reg.  č.  100249739             Prameny  spojují  krajiny  a  státy  –  environmentální  vzdělávání  a  kooperace             v regionu Liberec-Zittau” The authors thank all the Bachelor, Master and Ph.D.             students and technicians of the partner universities for their support as well as             the representatives of local authorities for collaboration on the interviews. Our             thanks go also to Martin Mašek for providing the photography.                                               117","REFERENCES           ŘEHÁČEK,  M.  Vyprávění  o  strašidlech,  přízracích  a  podivných  úkazech           nejsevernějších Čech. Kalendář Liberecka, Liberec, 1997. ISBN 80-238-3847-4           ULIČNÝ, D. Depositional systems and sequence stratigraphy of coarse-grained           deltas in a shallow-marine, strike-slip setting: the Bohemian Cretaceous Basin,           Czech Republic. Sedimentology 2001, DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-3091.2001.00381.x           VITVAR, T., KÄNDLER, M., ŠMÍDA J., KOMÍNKOVÁ, D., ŽENKOVÁ RUDINCOVÁ,           K.,  DRÁPELA,  E.,  ZÁGORŠEK,  K.,  SOUČKOVÁ,  L.,  BERCHOVÁ,  K.,  BÍLÝ,  M.  \&           BÖHM, H. Springs connect people and landscapes – environmental education           and cooperation in the region Liberec-Zittau. ACC JOURNAL 2017, Volume 23,           Issue 1. 15-26. Technická univerzita v Liberci 2017 (ISSN 1803-9782)           WHITTLE  Sue  R.;  PELL  Godfrey  \&  MURDOCH-EATON  Deborah  G.  Recent           changes  to  students'  perceptions  of  their  key  skills  on  entry  to  higher           education. Journal of Further and Higher Education Volume 34, 2010 - Issue 4.           557-570. Taylor and Francis Online, 27 Oct 2010. (ISSN 1469-9486)           http://quellen.tul.cz/ [30.10.2017]. © 2016 Technická univerzita v Liberci                                         Shrnutí           Technická  univerzita  v  Liberci,  Technická  univerzita  v  Drážďanech  -           Mezinárodní postgraduální škola Zittau a Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze           v  rámci  projektu  přeshraniční  spolupráce  “Prameny  spojují/Quellen           verbinden” aplikují do vzdělávání poznatky z geografického výzkumu. Projekt           poskytuje zdroje a kapacity pro rozvoj, implementaci a udržování praktického           vzdělávání  studentů  ze  všech  tří  institucí  v  oblasti  přírodních  i  humanitních           věd.           Výzkum  pramenů  je  zaměřen  na  geografické,  geologické,  hydrologické,           chemické a biogeografické studium vody a okolí pramenů. Komplexní studium           je prováděno společně se studenty bakalářského a magisterského stupně ze           všech  zapojených  institucí.  Celkem  85  studentů  se  doposud  účastnilo           projektových  aktivit  a  bylo  prakticky  vyškoleno;  navíc  bylo  vytvořeno  6           bakalářských a 5 magisterských prací.           Studenti  zapojení  do  projektu  jsou  v  kontaktu  s  týmem  vědců  a  mohou  od           nich získávat praktickou zkušenost i návyky bádat a vědecky uvažovat, přímo           v konkrétních  praktických  situacích,  nikoliv  jen  těch  teoretických.  To  vede           jedna k jejich motivaci dále se vzdělávat, a také k lepší přípravě jak na další           vzdělávací stupně, tak na praxi v období po absolvování univerzitního studia.           Přidanou hodnotou pak je přeshraniční a mezinárodní dimenze projektu.           Na  příkladu  pramenu  Ploučnice  představujeme  metodiku  a  předběžné           výsledky našeho studia. Pramen Ploučnice se nachází v České křídové pánvi,           čemu  odpovídá  i  vápenato-hydrogenuhličitanová  voda.  Kolem  pramenu           převládají javory a buky, v prameni samotném žije nejčastěji blešivec potoční           ze  skupiny  sladkovodních  různonožců.  Mimořádné  postavení  pramene           Ploučnice,  jako  jednoho  z  nejvydatnějších  pramenů  ve  střední  Evropě,  se           projevuje mimo jiné i v množství legend a příběhů spojených s ním.                                              118","PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, LANDSCAPE RESEARCH                  POSSIBILITIES OF AIR TEMPERATURE DATA PROCESSING FROM THE                 METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS IN BRNO AND SURROUNDING AREA                        Karel Dejmal, Petr Kolář, Josef Novotný, Alena Roubalová                 Department of Military Geography and Meteorology, University of Defence,                                Kounicova 65, Brno, Czech Republic                                   alena.roubalova@unob.cz              Abstract: Statistical analysis of air temperature variability in the Brno urban             area  is  the  aim  of  the  work.  Datasets  from  professional,  institutional  and             amateur  meteorological  stations  were  utilized  for  the  2015–2016  period.             Preliminary  results  include  the  evaluation  of  availability,  reliability,  and             usability  of  amateur  stations´  data.  Air  temperatures  of  selected             meteorological stations were used in order to complete individual time series.             Different approaches were compared and evaluated.             There  are  qualitative  differences  between  stations  due  to  the  diversity  of             conditions of measurement and station parameters, mainly sensor placement,             type of surface and spatial exposition. Five distinctive groups of stations were             singled out following the evaluation of those parameters via cluster analysis. It             was demonstrated that sensor placement and microclimatic conditions play             a more significant role in air temperature measurement than basic physical-             geographical factors (altitude, longitude).             Key words: air temperature, amateur meteorological stations, quality control,             time and spatial interpolation, cluster analysis                                       1 INTRODUCTION             Data from meteorological stations serve for evaluation of climatic situation,             but  also  to  give  information  about  current  weather  and  predict  its  future             course. In order to ensure maximum precision of the meteorological analysis,             it is desirable to use a homogenous network of stations that is at the same             time  as  dense  as  possible.  Czech  Hydrometeorological  Institute  (CHMI)             operates  over  800  meteorological  and  climatological  stations  that  should             meet  the  standards  established  by  World  Meteorological  Organization             (WMO). [1] [2].             In the Czech Republic there are numerous meteorological stations operated             on  amateur  or  semiprofessional  level  by  either  individuals  or  institutions             (expert offices of universities, city organizations, etc.), that are interested to             collect and make available their own station data. Weather information could             be also obtained from Amateur meteorological society (AMS) that is in a long-             term  cooperation  with  CHMI,  or  directly  from  the  owners  of  amateur             meteorological stations. Their stations however often do not conform to the             WMO standard and are typically differing in measuring conditions as well as                                              119","quality  of  measuring  instruments.  The  most  influencing  elements  for  air           temperature measurement are among others sensor type and its placement           (height,  exposition,  open/closed  space),  color,  type  and  form  of  radiation           cover, type of surface in the proximity of the sensor (natural/artificial) and the           surroundings of the station in general (obstacles, surface diversity).           Besides meteorology and climatology, the air temperature records are used in           other domains, such as transport and agriculture or integrated rescue system.           The wide scope of climatological analyses gave base for a plurality of scientific           studies, that not only deal with statistical evaluation of air temperature, but           also describe different methods and drawbacks of data processing and point           to  the  issue  of  non-standard  meteorological  stations  [4]  [5]  [6]  [7].  Many           researches  nowadays  focus  on  the  topical  phenomena  of  heat  island           formation inside the city. Hand in hand with population growth, population           density in cities and world urbanization rises the impact of urban environment           on air temperature and other meteorological  elements [8] [9] [10]  [11]. An           important stage in data processing is the control of their quality, consisting           among others from definition of missing data periods, identification of errors           in measurements and records. This phase is in longer-time series followed by           series harmonization, which  could be carried out through diverse  statistical           tests and instruments, described in several professional publications [12] [13].           While  aiming  to  procure  complete  records,  it  is  necessary  to  supplement           those values that are either missing, or cancelled due to detected errors.           A  dominant  majority  of  publications,  that  for  different  objectives  examine           regional  variability  of  air  temperature,  implements  preferably  data  from           professional meteorological stations or from special-purpose stations [5]. This           work aims to appraise the usability of amateur stations as well, which might in           ideal  cases  supplement  the  network  of  professional  stations  and  thus           contribute  to  a  spatial  refinement  of  status  and  course  of  weather,  help           characterize  the  microclimate  of  specific  localities  or  analyze  temperature           extremes. Amateur meteorological stations have already been used for some           studies abroad e.g. estimation of existence of heat island inside a city in the           Netherlands, or in the USA, where they provided a more complex information           of  the  current  weather  conditions  for  tourists  via  Internet  [14]  [15].  In  the           Czech Republic this is a first attempt to evaluate the potential and possible           pitfalls of this kind of meteorological data.                                  2 DATA AND METHODS           For air temperature  variability analysis in Brno and surrounding area in the           period  2015–2016  were  employed  18  meteorological  stations,  using           maximum air distance of 25 km from the city center as a criterion of selection.           Spatial  distribution  is  demonstrated  in  Figure  1.  It  illustrates  a  non-           homogenous  group  of  stations  within  which  could  be  spotted  amateur           stations (operated by individuals), as well as those operated by institutions of           university  or  other  character  or  the  Czech  Hydrometeorological  Institute  in           professional  mode  (station  Brno-Tuřany).  A  more  detailed  resume  of  the           stations is contained in Tab. 1. Stations recorded data in various time steps           that were converted into 1h step for consequent analysis.                                             120","Fig.  1.  Spatial  localization  of  employed  meteorological  stations  in  Brno  and             surrounding area; abbreviations of station names are explained in Tab. 1 (CP –             locality Černá Pole, containing a total of three stations – Met, Dav, Arb).              Quality  control  of  the  data  was  the  first  step  of  their  processing.  The  air             temperature  course  for  every  station  was  drawn  in  a  monthly  step.             Consequently, this was supplemented by the air temperature course of the             reference  station  BTp,  which  had  been  selected  as  the  only  professional             station  of  the  group.  If  accessible,  interval  minima  and  maxima  of  air             temperature  were  then  visualized.  This  subjective  method  was  applied  to             identify the most frequent types of errors and most problematic stations. The             resulting detection of suspicious values was based on the following objective             parameters: (1) air temperature values fall outside the interval <-50;50> ⁰C;             (2) interpolated value (bilinear interpolation) from the 2 neighboring values             differs  from  the  real  value  by  more  than  15 °C  (only  counted  if  the  time             difference  of  the  near  observation  times  does  not  exceed  31 minutes);  (3)             occurrence of constant values – if there are at least 5 consecutive identical             values within a 2h time window; (4) if the values of the controlled series differ             from the reference series by more than 10 °C (only counted if the available             time  in  the  reference  series  does  not  exceed  20  minutes  from  the  time  of             observation); (5) air temperature is lower that the dew point temperature (in             case the dew point temperature is available); (6) air temperature is lower than             minimum or higher than maximum air temperature (if those are available for             the interval).                                                 121","Tab. 1: List of used stations and their characteristics (station type: A – amateur,           I – institutional, P - professional)                                                    Altitude   Measurement                Station name      Abbr.   Station type   [m]   interval [min]            AMS Brno-Tuřany       BTa        A        242         60            ČHMÚ Brno-Tuřany      BTp        P        241         30            ČP Arboretum          Arb        I        247         15            ČP DAVIS              Dav        I        248          5            ČP METEOS6            Met        I        248         10            Holasice               Hol       A        199          5            Hostěnice             Hos        A        351          1            Kohoutovice           Koh        A        406          1            Královo Pole           KrP       A        256          5            Kraví hora            Hve        I        299          4            Lažánky                Laz       A        339         60            Rousínov              Rou        A        244          1            Soběšice              Sob        A        383          5            Svatopluka Čecha      SvC        A        253         10            VD Brněnská           VDB        I        236         60            Zbýšov                Zby        A        345          1            Žabčice               Zab        I        180         10            Želešice               Zel       I        220         60            Group  of  suspicious  values  was  then  finally  evaluated  and  verifiable  errors           were removed from the series. The algorithm did not succeed in detecting all           data, which were removed in the end. On the contrary, it pointed to many           values that were probably correct. Problems occurred for example due to the           atypical placement of sensors, where there was a big difference with regard           to  the  reference  series.  Therefore,  the  data  were  not  representative  for           a larger vicinity of the station, but only for the given atypical placement of the           sensor (e.g. on the facade of the building). This led us to carry out a thorough           field  exploration  of  all  stations,  metadata  collection,  photographic           documentation  and  geodetic  measurement.  A  confrontation  with  valid           meteorological standards [1, 19] brought about following findings:               1.  occurrence  of  obstacles  (such  as  buildings,  trees)  modifying  the                  radiation and wind conditions within a distance of 4 times the height                  of the obstacle from the station,               2.  the height of the temperature sensor over the ground surface               3.  type  of  the  radiative  shield  (w.  shelter  –  wooden  shelter,  ?  –                  parameter had not been found),               4.  sensor  location  (such  as  open  space,  roof  of  a  building,  wall  of  a                  building  –  the  sensor  is  positionned  directly  on  the  wall  or  at  a                  maximum distance 50 cm),                                            122","5.  type of ground surface (P – paved, G – grassy, M – paved + mixed in a                    distance < 5 m),                 6.  spatial exposure (no obstacles occur in the given direction).              The  observed  parameters  are  illustrated  in tab.  2.  No  technical  parameters             were  considered  (sensor  manufacturer,  measurement  accuracy,  calibration             frequency, etc.).             Tab. 2: Summary of parameters influencing the recorded air temperature data             according to [1] and [19]                              Sensor height  Radiative               Exposition              Station  Obstacles                   Placement  Surface                                  [m]       shield                      [°]              BTa      YES        3,5      PVC box    wall      P     280–100              BTp      NO          2       standard   space    G      0–360              Arb      YES         2       standard   space    G      0–360              Dav      YES        1,7      standard   space    M      330–30              Met      YES         2       standard   space    M      330–30              Hol      YES         2       standard   space    M      360–180              Hos      YES         2       standard   space    G      260–80              Koh      YES        8,5      PVC box    wall      P     90–270              KrP      YES         2       PVC box   space     G      330–360              Hve      YES        10       PVC box    wall     M      315–45              Laz      YES        1,5     w. shelter   space   G      240–10              Rou      YES         2       standard   space    M      235–145              Sob      YES        2,3      standard   wall      P     210–240              SvC      YES        12       PVC box    wall     M      260–80              VDB      YES         1          ?      space     G      0–180              Zby      YES        2,7      standard   wall     M      360–90              Zab      NO          2       standard   space    G      0–360              Zel      YES         4          ?      space     M      300–120              Frequency of failures (Figure 2) is another indicator of data usage. It has been             evaluated  after  the  interpolation  to  whole  hours  was  finished  (see  below),             since some stations either recorded the data in such fixed observation times             that never or rarely corresponded with whole hours (Laz), or were recorded in             an irregular time step (Hve).             One  of  the  possible  ways  to  supplement  the  missing  data  is  to  apply             a temporal  interpolation  from  the  existing  data  of  the  given  series.  The             accuracy of interpolation depends not only on the interpolation method, but             also on the period to which data are interpolated. For our case the selected             interpolation method is bilinear interpolation from neighboring values. A main             disadvantage of such  method is its  incapability to interpolate extremes. On             the other hand, the fact that it does not generate unrealistic values is a clear             benefit. Another method was considered to compare the accuracy – to take             the  last  available  value  (value  of  the  beginning  of  the  given  interval)  and                                             123","simply  copy  it  to  the  place  of  the  missing  data.  In  order  to  estimate  the           expected  accuracy  of  interpolation,  a  test  of  accuracy  of  above  stated           methods has been executed on stations with 1-minute data (Hos, Koh, Rou           and Zby). The tests worked with different time intervals in between the given           data up until a duration time of one hour. Interpolation was realized for all           possible cases inside this interval. E.g. for a 5-minute interval we tested the           interpolation accuracy of 1, 2, 3 and 4 minutes after the beginning of interval.           All  possible  intervals  of  this  length  that  could  have  been  derived  from  the           data, which offered a comparison between interpolated and real value, had           been considered. The standardly applied characteristics were counted for the           accuracy  appraisal:  RMSE  (root  mean  square  error)  and  values  of  95%  and           99%  quantile  of  error  (absolute  value  of  difference).  Consequently,  a           dependence of those characteristics on the time of day has been surveyed.           As there were several time outages longer than one hour that could not have           been filled by interpolation, the values had to be estimated with the use of           data from neighboring stations. An optimal number of most suitable stations           had  to  be  chosen  for  this  calculation.  A  set  of  most  similar  stations  was           defined for each station. Appropriateness of stations for the calculation was           assessed through: (1) coefficient of correlation, (2) standard deviation of value           differences on the stations, (3) Euclidean distances from the cluster analysis           and (4) geographic distance. Five stations were always selected on the base of           those criteria [12]. We determined five air temperature estimates by adding           the average difference between the calculated station and the given station           for each of the five stations. The resulting air temperature estimate was done           and  presented  on  the  average  of  these  five  estimates  (no  weights  were           considered).  Similarly,  other  combinations  of  selection  from  these  stations           were tested - from four stations, omitting one of them, three and two most           similar stations, and each of five stations individually.           This procedure has been applied on all data without distinction of time, but           also individually for every hour of the day. The role of selection of stations           individually for every hour in contrast to the selection based on all data and           their use for whole day has also been subjected to a test. After the appraisal           of  interpolation  accuracy  (RMSE)  for  observation  times  with  available           observations, the best method as well as the optimal set of stations for every           station  was  selected  and  missing  values  were  calculated.  In  case  the  best           combinations of stations could not have been used due to failures on one of           them, the next best available combination was applied respecting the order of           successfulness.           A cluster analysis was carried out on the common data of all stations in order           to express the rate of relative similarity of air temperature time series from           individual stations. The analysis  figures among explorative multidimensional           statistical techniques that are often used in climatology to define the climatic           zones  [e.g.  16].  In  case  of  smaller  territorial  range  the  results  of  cluster           analysis  may  serve  for  clustering  of  stations  with  similar  standpoint  or           exposition conditions [17]. The aim is to reduce the total number of stations           into several clusters, where the stations are as similar as possible and stations           outside  of  a  given  cluster  are  as  different  as  possible.    The  cluster  analysis           offers a larger number of possible ways to arrange the stations into clusters.           Two  methods  were  selected  based  on  the  recommendations  provided  by           climatological  studies  [18]  –  non-hierarchical  clustering  via  k-means  and                                           124","hierarchical clustering using Ward method. A quantified rate of difference is             Euclidean distance that can be calculated between either individual clusters or             among  all  stations.  To  ensure  the  representativeness  of  results  from  given             methods  only  those  hourly  observation  times  were  selected  in  the  period             2016–2016,  which  disposed  of  available  data  from  all  stations  (2  731  cases             from  possible  17 544).  Software  STATISTICA  12.0  was  employed  for  data             processing.                                          3 RESULTS             At least one piece of information was removed on 10 from 18 stations. This             concerned stations Arb (0,38% values removed), BTa (1,68%), Hv (< 0,01%),             Koh (2,87%), KrP (5,25%), Met (< 0,01%), Sob (0,19%), SvC (6,07%), VD (0,66%)             and Zab (< 0,01%). Considering the stations with more than 1% of removed             values  (BTa,  Koh,  KrP,  SvC),  the  most  frequent  cause  of  removal  was  the             occurrence of constant values or continuous significantly varying data ended             with an outage or abrupt change. In other stations it was mostly individual             notably differing values. For some stations, in the case of measurement failure             (or record failure), a defined value falling outside of the range of real values             appears. Such value, e.g. in Arb station, was not identified until this control,             which  means  it  is  not  a  result  of  faulty  measurement  but  measurement             failure.             The most missing data appears in station Zel, as this station started measuring             in 2016 (Fig. 2). More than 10% of data is also missing in stations BTa, KrP,             Koh, Laz and Dav. Only station BTp and thanks to the temporal interpolation             Zby as well, show all data from the period 2015–2016 (17 544 values).                             Fig.  2.  Percentage  of  data  completeness  in  time  series  (1)  and  ratio  of             temporally-interpolated values (2) from all theoretically possible hourly records             in the employed meteorological stations in 2015–2016.              As  far  as  the  estimated  accuracy  of  temporal  interpolation,  the  results  for             individual  stations  are  comparable  with  the  exception  of  Koh,  which             demonstrated  a  significantly  lower  accuracy.  This  is  evidenced  in  Figure  3,             depicting maximum value of RMSE for interpolation within selected length of             interval.  Similarly,  depending  on  the  length  of  interval,  maximum  quantile             (Q95,  Q99)  values  rise  as  well.  The  worst  results  inside  one  time  interval                                             125","appear close to the middle of interval. The more the values approach to one           of the limit values, the more rises the accuracy. Bilinear interpolation returns           better results in comparison to the method of last available value, even for a           point  in  time  just  a  few  minutes  after  this  last  available  value  has  been           recorded. If compared the dependence of characteristics (RMSE, Q95, Q99) on           the  time  of  day,  the  Koh  stands  out  from  the  other  stations  again.  The           disparity appears not only in size, but also in time of occurrence of extreme           values. For Koh the accuracy of interpolation augments from minimum values           at night to its maximum between 6–8 PM, while rest of the stations encounter           worst  quality  results  around  midday  and  then  the  characteristics  gradually           decline.           Temporal  interpolation  was  applied  to  supplement  missing  values  on  full           hours for all stations on such event, where the window between the available           values around this hour was maximum 60 minutes and one of those values           had been recorded maximum 10 minutes from the given observation time. On           the base of above described tests on 4 stations the resulting estimated value           of  RMSE  in  the  worst  case  is  0,2–0,3  °C,  Q95  around  0,5  °C  and  Q99           0,8–1,0 °C.  No  value  was  filled  with  this  technique  on  7  stations  from  18           (Figure  2).  Apart  from  Hve  and  Laz  stations  that  have  not  returned  any           recorded  value  exactly  on  the  hour,  more  than  10%  of  possible  data  were           calculated this way for Hol and SvC and more than 1% for KrP and BTa.                          Fig. 3. Maximum values of  RMSE time-interpolation of 2–60 minutes intervals           for stations Hos, Koh, Rou and Zby based on data from 2015–2016 period.            Spatial  interpolation  helped  to  supplement  all  data.  Calculation  via  mean           difference of air temperatures without distinction to the time of a day turned           out  to  be  substantially  worse  than  calculation  with  a  link  to  every  hour           separately. The best criterion for the selection of stations proved to be the           standard  deviation  (in  12  cases).  Coefficient  of  correlation  was  more           appropriate in 5 cases and in 1 case it was the Euclidean distance from the           cluster analysis. The difference between using the same station for a whole           day and individual selection of stations for every hour was not distinct (but           individual selection was better in 15 cases). The optimal number of stations in           two cases (closely placed stations Arb and Dav) was only one selected station.           The rest of the possibilities (selection of 2, 3, 4 and 5 stations) appear to be           the best 4 times each. RMSE would decline with the rising number of selected           stations during elimination of cases of neighboring stations (Met, Dav, Arb).                                           126","Mean  RMSE  value  amounts  to  0,9 °C  and  ranges  from  0,3  °C  (Met)  to             1,7 °C (KrP),  mean  value  of  Q95  is  1,9 °C  (0,6–3,0 °C)  and  Q99  3,1 °C             (1,3–7,2 °C).  Results  for  the  examined  stations  are  therefore  considerably             worse  than  would  correspond  to  the  range  of  temporal  interpolation.  For             example  the  result  of  spatial  interpolation  in  the  best  station  Met  is             comparable  with  temporal  interpolation  from  the  hourly  interval  on             30 minutes in the worst station Koh.             The results of cluster analysis prove that geographic distance of stations is not             a  crucial  factor  of  shared  variability  in  the  air  temperature  data.  A  more             notable impact could be attributed to the sensor placement (open space/wall,             city/landscape) or microclimatic conditions. The group of 18 stations can be             divided into five clusters through the application of k-mean method (1 – Laz;             2 – KrP, Rou, SvC, BTa, Zab; 3 – Zel; 4 – Hos; 5 – rest of the stations), while             cluster no. 2 typologically corresponds to the stations with higher rate of data             variability  caused  by  placement  on  the  walls  of  buildings  (SvC,  BTa),  in  the             landscape (Zab) or at the periphery of a smaller city (Rou). The cluster no. 5             represents an inhomogeneous group of city stations with the exception of Zby             that is however situated inside a former industrial area. Stations constituting             autonomous  clusters  are  located  in  places  characteristic  with  specific             microclimatic  slope  and  valley  conditions  (Laz,  Hos).  Almost  identical             distribution of stations results from Ward method that additionally brings also             the genesis of clustering. Analysis of clustering recommended such Euclidean             distance, that divides the stations into 7 clusters (Figure 4).                                Fig. 4. Cluster analysis dendrogram for the set of meteorological stations in the             period  2015–2016  from  common  hourly  data  of  air  temperature  (dashed  line             illustrates the Euclidean distance for definition of individual clusters).                               4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS             The  results  of  field  survey  confirm  that  the  stations  are  typologically  very             diverse. The differences are induced by their different parameters resumed in             tab.  2.  Some  of  those  parameters  in  the  given  urban  setting  influence  the             meteorological  data  more  significantly  than  basic  physical-geographical             parameters  (altitude,  longitude,  topography).  This  mostly  concerns  sensor                                             127","location,  type  of  surface  and  exposition.  That  is  why  it  is  very  difficult  to           interpret data in sum and in context of other works [5, 9] to discuss, e.g. the           issue of the city thermal island. A short period of time prevents the use of           data  for  climatological  purposes.  Nevertheless,  it  is  possible  to  present  the           basic  statistical  characteristics  of  the  period  2015–2016  on  the  basis  of           complete time series, supplemented by temporal or spatial interpolation data           (Figure 5). No significant discrepancies were found. Stations located at higher           altitudes north of Brno (Laz, Hos) are cooler and the data are also affected by           valley  location  of  the  stations  compared  to  other  stations.  As  far  as  urban           stations, SvC could be labelled the hottest station, which is most likely due to           the combination of sensor position on the wall of the building and the black           radiant shield. Comparison of three nearby stations in Cerna Pole (Ard, Dav,           Met) confirms that the physical distance or altitude is not the most important           parameter  within  the  analyzed  stations’  set.  For  a  more  detailed           interpretation,  it  is  necessary  to  analyze  the  data  under  specific           meteorological situations (radiation x advection days, etc.) at different times           of the day, which would be the aim of the following research issues.                          Fig. 5. Basic statistical characteristics of air temperature for individual stations in           the  period  2015–2016  (the  dashed  line  corresponds  to  the  average  air           temperature of the BTp reference station).            Temporal  interpolation  is  a  more  appropriate  method  of  adding  missing           values than spatial interpolation even for a set of nearest stations. It would be           preferable  to  verify  the  suitability  of  both  methods  even  in  longer  time           intervals than one hour. The accuracy of time interpolation can be expected           to deteriorate with increasing time intervals. At the same time, it is possible to           test other temporal interpolation approaches (e.g. regression models). It was           demonstrated that in the spatial interpolation from the given stations the key           role  plays  a  degree  of  stations’  similarity  which  is  given  by  the  size  of  the           standard deviation of the difference of values or the correlation dependence,           and  not  geographical  or  Euclidean  distance  between  stations.  A  different           spatial interpolation provides better results for each daytime separately. It is           also desirable to test the season's dependency. In most cases, it turned out to           be better to limit the selection for less than five stations, which is a generally           recommended number when working with professional station data.                                              128","The data from most stations located in open space could be used for further             processing. Stations Zel, VDB and Laz, which are influenced by the type and             placement  of  temperature  sensor,  are  an  exception.  Data  from  amateur             stations fixed on building walls are less usable than those from other stations,             especially during radiation weather conditions and during winter season. As             far  as  the  number  of  outages,  the  number  of  corrected  values  and  the             location of the sensors, the following stations provide less usable data: Zel,             KrP, SvC, Koh and BTa. This assumption was also confirmed by cluster analysis.             On  the  other  hand,  different  microclimatic  conditions  of  the  Laz  and  Hos             stations are projected to the data, revealing the influence of the valley slope,             or basin position of the stations.              Acknowledgement: This research runs in the collaboration with the project of             specific  research  SV16-210/2.  We  would  also  like  to  thank  all  the             individuals/institutions  that  participate  in  the  project  by  providing             meteorological data.                                         REFERENCES             [1]  WORLD  METEOROLOGICAL  ORGANIZATION.  Guide  to  meteorological                  instruments and methods of observation. 7th ed. Geneva, Switzerland,                  World Meteorological Organization, 2008, 716 p.             [2]  AMS o. s. Amatérská meteorologická společnost [online]. AMS o. s., 2012                  [cit. 2017-10-21]. Available from:                  http://www.amsos.cz/index.php?page=main             [3]  ČHMÚ.  Český  hydrometeorologický  ústav [online].  ČHMÚ,  2011  [cit.                  2017-10-10]. Available from: http://portal.chmi.cz/             [4]  BRÁZDIL,  R.,  ŠTĚPÁNEK,  P.:  Kolísání  teploty  vzduchu  v  Brně  v  období                  1891–1995. Geografie - Sborník ČGS, Praha, ČGS, 1998, 103, 1, p. 13–30.                  (in Czech)             [5]  DOBROVOLNÝ,  P. et  al.:  Klima  Brna:  víceúrovňová  analýza  městského                  klimatu. Brno, Masarykova univerzita, 2012, 202 p. (in Czech)             [6]  NOSEK, M.: Teplotní poměry v Brně v období 1851-1950. Meteorologické                  zprávy, 1954, 7, 4, p. 101–107. (in Czech)             [7]  QUITT, E.: Klima města Brna (rukopis). Diplomová práce. Přírodovědecká                  fakulta, Masarykova univerzita, Brno, 1957, 253 p. (in Czech)             [8]  ELSAYED, I. S. M.: Effects of Population Density and Land Management                  on the Intensity of Urban Heat Islands: A Case Study on the City of Kuala                  Lumpur,  Malaysia,  Application  of  Geographic  Information  Systems,                  Bhuiyan M. A. (Ed.), InTech, 2012, 17 p.             [9]  DOBROVOLNÝ,  P.:  The  surface  urban  heat  island  in  the  city  of  Brno                  (Czech  Republic) derived from land surface temperatures and selected                  reasons  for  its  spatial  variability.  Theoretical  and  Applied  Climatology,                  2013, 112, 1–2, p. 89–98.             [10]  OKE, T. R.: City size and the urban heat island. Atmospheric Environment,                  1973, 7, 8, p. 769–779.                                             129","[11]  VAN HOVE, L. W. A. et al.: Exploring the urban heat island intensity of               Dutch  cities.  Assessement  based  on  a  literature  review,  recent               meteorological  observations  and  datasets  provided  by  hobby               meteorologists. Alterra report 2170, Wageningen, 2011, 60 p.           [12]  ŠTĚPÁNEK,  P.: Metodologie  kontroly  a  homogenizace  časových  řad  v               klimatologii.  Praha,  Český  hydrometeorologický  ústav,  2012,  118  p.  (in               Czech)           [13]  ŠTĚPÁNEK,  P.  et  al.:  Homogenization  of  daily  air  pressure  and               temperature series for Brno (Czech Republic) in the period 1848-2005. In               Proceedings of the Fifth Seminar for Homogenization and Quality Control               in  Climatological  Databases.  Geneva,  Switzerland,  WCDMP-No.  71,               WMO, 2009, p. 107–121.           [14]  BRISTOW, R. S. et al.: Emergency Preparedness and Tourism: Both Win               with Help of the Amateur Meteorologist. In: Peden, Schuster, J. G., Rudy,               M.  (eds.)  Proceedings  of  the  2005  northeastern  recreation  research               symposium;  2005  April  10–12;  Bolton  Landing,  NY,  2006,  General               Technical Report, p. 135–139.           [15]  WOLTERS,  D.,  BRANDSMA,  T.:  Estimating  the  Urban  Heat  Island  in               Residential  Areas  in  the  Netherlands  Using  Observations  by  Weather               Amateurs. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology. 2012, 51, 4,               p. 711–721.           [16]  UNAL,  Y.  et  al.:  Redefining  the  climate  zones  of  Turkey  using  cluster               analysis. International Journal of Climatology, 2003, 23, 9, p. 1045–1055.           [17]  PRAX, P. et al.: Měření, validace a analýza dlouhodobých dešťových řad               v městském odvodnění. VUTIUM, Brno, 2010, 108 p. (in Czech)           [18]  KALKSTEIN, L. S. et al.: An evaluation of 3 clustering procedures for use in               synoptic  climatological  classification.  Journal  of  Climate  and  Applied               Meteorology,  1987,  26,  6,  p.  717–730.  https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-               0450(1987)026<0717:AEOTCP>2.0.CO;2           [19]  LIPINA, P., ŹÍDEK, D.: Návod pro pozorovatele meteorologických stanic:               Metodický  předpis  č.  13,  verze  č.  2.  Český  hydrometeorologický  ústav,               Praha, 2014, 96 p. (in Czech)                                         Shrnutí           Data z meteorologických stanic představují důležitý podklad k vyhodnocování           klimatických poměrů, podávání informací o aktuálním počasí, a také pro jeho           predikci. V České republice je velký počet meteorologických stanic provozován           nejen oficiálně Českým hydrometeorologickým ústavem, ale i na amatérské či           poloprofesionální bázi buď jednotlivci, nebo institucemi (odborná pracoviště           vysokých  škol,  městské  organizace,  apod.)  se  zájmem  o  sběr  a  dostupnost           vlastních  staničních  dat.  Jejich  stanice  se  však  často  vymykají  platným           standardům  a  je  pro  ně  typická  různorodost  podmínek  měření  a  kvality           měřících  přístrojů.  Na  měření  teploty  vzduchu  má  mj.  značný  vliv  typ  čidla           a jeho  umístění  (výška,  expozice,  otevřený/  uzavřený  prostor),  barva,  typ           a podoba  radiačního  krytu,  dále  druh  povrchu  v blízkosti  čidla  (přírodní/           umělý) a celkové okolí stanice (překážky, různorodý povrch).                                            130","Analyzovaná  data  18  meteorologických  stanic  byla  podrobena  subjektivní             i objektivní kontrole naměřených údajů. V rámci terénního šetření byla každá             stanice  zdokumentována  s důrazem  na  sběr  relevantních  metadat.  Teplota             vzduchu  byla  zpracována  v hodinovém  kroku  s tím,  že  chybějící  údaje  byly             doplněny  algoritmy  časové  či  prostorové  interpolace.  Standardními  nástroji             (RMSE)  byla  zhodnocena  vhodnost  jednotlivých  metod.  Prostřednictvím             shlukové analýzy a z ní plynoucích euklidovských vzdáleností se kvantifikovala             míra podobnosti dat všech stanic.             Časová interpolace se jeví jako vhodnější metoda doplnění chybějících hodnot             než  interpolace  prostorová.  Bylo  by  vhodné  ověřit  vhodnost  obou  metod             i v delších  časových  intervalech.  Zároveň  se  nabízí  testování  jiných  přístupů             časové interpolace (např. regresní modely). Bylo prokázáno, že při prostorové             interpolaci  z daných  stanic  hraje  primární  roli  míra  podobnosti  stanic  daná             velikostí  směrodatné  odchylky  rozdílů  hodnot  teploty  vzduchu  či  těsností             korelační  závislosti,  nikoliv  vzájemná  vzdálenost  stanic.  Lepší  výsledky             poskytuje  odlišná  prostorová  interpolace  pro  každou  denní  dobu  zvlášť.  Je             žádoucí  otestovat  i  závislost  na  sezóně.  Ve  většině  případů  se  ukázalo  jako             lepší omezení výběru na méně než pět stanic, což je obecně doporučený počet             při práci s daty profesionálních stanic.             Údaje z amatérských stanic umístěných na stěnách budov jsou hůře využitelné             než  ze  stanic  ostatních,  zejména  pak  při  radiačním  typu  počasí  a  během             zimního  období.  Z hlediska  množství  výpadků,  počtu  opravených  hodnot             a umístění čidel lze za hůře využitelné označit tyto stanice: Zel, KrP, SvC, Koh             a BTa. Toto vymezení se potvrdilo i na základě výsledků shlukové analýzy. Na             druhou stranu se v datech promítají odlišné mikroklimatické podmínky stanic             Laz  a  Hos,  kde  je  patrný  silný  vliv  údolní  svahové,  resp.  kotlinové  polohy             stanic.                                                                        131","WATER REGIME AND PREDICTION OF ITS IMPACT ON RIVER CROSSING IN                         DIFFERENT TYPES OF ZONAL LANDSCAPE                          Filip Dohnal, Marian Rybanský, Kateřina Šimková               Department of Military Geography and Meteorology, Faculty of Military                Technology, University of Defence in Brno, Kounicova 65, 662 10 Brno                                   filip.dohnal@unob.cz            Abstract: The main goal of the army is defence of the state, the fulfilment of           which requires state-of-the-art technologies. Terrain analyses are one of the           basics. The landscape affects almost everything and the water is its important           element.  From  the  military  point  of  view,  watercourses  are  considered  as           significant  operational  obstacles.  The  characteristics  of  watercourses,           especially the water regime, are dependent on latitude and altitude, but also           on the climatic conditions of the areas through which the rivers flow. On the           basis of a publicly available database with hydrological data, an analysis was           made of the river characteristics in different types of zonal landscapes. The           water regime should develop very similarly over the course of the year. This           hypothesis was partially verified using the statistical methods. The main goal           is  approximate  prediction  of  the  water  regime  in  different  seasons  of  the           given type of zonal landscape.           Key words: water regime, zonal landscape, trafficability, river.                                    1 INTRODUCTION           The landscape sphere represents a complex unite that includes a sphere of           physical-geographical  (natural)  and  human-geographic  sphere  [3].  Both  of           these  spheres  include  several  components  that  bind  to  one  another,           intertwine  with  each  other,  and  interfere  with  each  other.  The  physical-           geographic  sphere  includes  lithosphere,  atmosphere,  hydrosphere,           cryosphere,  pedosphere,  and  biosphere  [3],  [15].  Lauermann  and  Rybanský           (2002)  describe  the  landscape  as  a  complex  unite,  which  is  created  by           interaction, intertwining and influencing the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the           pedosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere, the biosphere and the socio-           economic  sphere.  This  fact  agree  with  creating  the  various  landscape           classifications  around  the  world,  e.g.  Köppen  climate  classification  [18],           Holdridge life zone system [9], Trewartha climate classification [4], Köppen-           Geiger climate classification [11], Whittaker biomes classification [18], Lvovič           river types [3], Guilcher or Demek river classification [3] (see chapter 3).           From the previous definitions we can clearly state that one of the basic and           the most important components of the landscape is the hydrosphere (water).           In the nature, the water can be find in all three states and it is in constant           cyclical circulation – the hydrological cycle, which is represented as a system.           Based on this system, we can, according to Chow et al. (1988) or according to           Brutsaert (2005), divide the water into atmospheric water, surface water, and           sub-surface  water.  Landscape  development  is  directly  dependent  on  the                                           132","intensity of river processes and the development of the river network where             flowing water is the main contributor [3].             The  landscape  has  always  had  a  significant  influence  on  the  work  of  the             military troops, and therefore it has become the subject of exploring military             geography, which ranks among military science disciplines. Effective military             tasks  require  a  variety  of  analyses,  including  landscape  analysis  (terrain             analysis).  One  of  the  field  analyses,  which  deals  with  the  influence  of             geographic  factors  on  the  movement  of  military  technologies,  is  terrain             analysis [12].                    2 THE IMPACT OF LANDSCAPE ON THE VEHICLE MOVEMENT             Terrain  trafficability,  the  ability  to  overcome  objects  and  terrain  obstacles,             always  belonged  to  the  interests  of  the  world  armies.  Knowledge  of  the             behaviour  of  the  landscape,  knowledge  of  landscape  features  and  their             interrelationships  certainly  had  and  still  has  an  effect  on  the  outcome  of             military operations, so the issue of terrain trafficability was primarily solved in             the framework of military unites.             Cross-country  movement  can  be  defined  as  the  degree  of  technical             competence  of  specific  vehicles  to  move  around  obstacles  and  overcome             various geographic objects and phenomena [14].             When  evaluating  geographic  objects  and  phenomena  affecting  terrain             trafficability, we focus on [6] [7] [12] [14] [16]:             -   relief,             -   vegetation,             -   soils,             -   climatic condition,             -   waters,             -   settlements,             -   communications.             The  factors  are  closely  related  and  interact  with  each  other  to  a  certain             extent. The resulting ability of the vehicle to move on the terrain surface is             a function of all factors including the maximum vehicle speed [12].             Another definition states [5] that cross-country movement is driving through             terrain,  where  the  terrain  is  not  adapted  to  automobile  traffic.  When             evaluating terrain trafficability, this publication focuses on:             -   relief (slope),             -   soils,             -   vegetation,             -   climatic conditions,             -   surface roughness.             Focusing on the land water, the analysis of terrain trafficability assesses the             possibility of overcoming water barriers, including watercourses,  waterways             and  water  areas.  Water  obstacles  can  be  overcome  by  barking,  cruising  or             using  special  technical  equipment  (pontoon  bridges).  Factors  that  enter                                             133","evaluation  of  drainage  overcome  are:  depth,  width,  flow  rate,  flow,  and           climatic influences [13]. If we only deal with watercourses and their influence           on the assessment and forecasting of trafficability in a global concept, it is not           necessary  to  evaluate  the  factors  mentioned  in  the  previous  sentence           individually  but  generally  as  the  effect  of  water  regime  to  overcome           watercourses.             3 TYPES OF WATER REGIME OF THE RIVERS IN CONNECTION WITH THE                         REGIONALIZATION OF LANDSCAPE TYPES           The  water  regime  generally  reflects  changes  in  hydrological  characteristics           during the period of time (daily, monthly, yearly water regime) and depends           on the effects of many factors, including climatic conditions, source of water           (atmospheric  precipitation,  melting  snow  or  melting  glacier)  or  altitudinal           zonation.           The regionalization method has resulted in a number of climatic classifications           that divide the area by selected factors. By geographers, meteorologists and           climatologists  the  most  widely  used  climate  classification  is  the  Köppen           climate  classification  [18].  This  classification  system  is  a  combination  of           latitude, average annual temperature and average annual rainfall, and is made           up of 5 major climatic types and several other subtypes that reflect seasonal           changes  in  temperature  and  precipitation.  Just  rainfall  and  temperature  in           a certain  period  of  time  predetermine  the  water  regime  of  rivers.  Another           classification  was  made  by  eg  Strahler,  who  proceeded  to  compile  the           classification similarly to Köppen [15].           The water regime of rivers depends not only on climatic conditions, but also           on  vegetation  distribution.  Whittaker  (1975)  classified  21  so-called  biomes           (biome  types)  that  correspond  to  climatic  zones  (i.e.  annual  rainfall  and           annual temperature) and vegetation structure [18].           For example, in 1964, M. I. Lvovič distinguished 38 types of water regime of           rivers [3]. In 1965, Guilcher created the classification of river types according           to their regimes. In this classification, we find 13 types of rivers [3]. Demek           (1975)  identified  the  main  types  of  rivers  according  to  the  water  regime           resulting from the law of the zonal climatic belts as follows:           1.  Polar type – melting of polar icebergs and snow water are involved in the               supply of rivers during a short summer; most of the year the rivers has               frozen surface or are frozen down to the bottom.           2.  Subarctic type – mainly snow melting water is involved in the supply of               rivers, the underground spring causes the largest flows in the summer; in               wetlands,  summer  precipitation  together  with  the  snow  water  cause               summer  floods;  subsurface  waters  contribute  very  little,  in  the  winter               there are frozen down to the bottom even great rivers.           3.  Temperate type in which we distinguish the following subtypes:               a)  with the predominance of spring water supply caused by melting of                  the snow cover,               b)  with the predominance of water supply caused by rainfall with the                  biggest  flow  in  the  spring,  both  due  to  the  numerous  rains  in  this                  season, and the melting of the snow cover,                                           134","c)  with  the  predominance  of  water  supply  caused  by  rainfall  in  the                     winter,  with  a  more  or  less  even  distribution  of  rainfall  during  the                     year,                 d)  with  the  predominance  of  water  supply  caused  by  rainfall  in  the                     summer due to monsoons.             4.  Subtropical (Mediterranean) type with the predominance of water supply                 caused by winter rainfall.             5.  Tropical type with the predominance of water supply caused by rainfall in                 summer; summer abundant rainfall prevails over evaporation, and floods                 combine and cause a high flood wave; in the rest of the year the flow is                 small.             6.  Equatorial  type,  in  which  rainfall  is  abundant  throughout  the  year  and                 supplies  water  flows  evenly,  although  the  largest  flow  is  in  each                 hemisphere in the autumn.             The water regime of the rivers is a reflection of several factors, of which the             nature of the climate in the region has a very significant impact. As well as             various  climatic  classifications  or  classification  of  terrestrial  biomes,  the             classification  of  river  water  regimes  has  also  emerged.  In  all  these             classifications, the effect of latitude, rainfall, or air temperature is projected.             Arms  (1990)  expressed  the  relationship  between  climatic  characteristics             (temperature and humidity-precipitation) and terrestrial biomes [18].                  4 PREDICTION OF THE IMPACT OF THE RIVER WATER REGIME ON                              OVERCOMING THE WATERCOURSES                                    4.1 Input assumptions             An  analysis  of  the  prediction  of  the  impact  of  the  river  water  regime  on             overcoming  the  watercourses  has  been  done  using  hydrological  database             managed by the Global Runoff Data Center (GRDC) in Germany. GRDC collects             and archives flow data from over 9300 profiles from around the world. Part of             the database data can be obtained from the UNH / GRDC Composite Runoff             Fields v1.0 international project (http://www.grdc.sr.unh.edu/index.html). For             analysis, data from this database (1340 profiles) were used because they have             a  more  user-friendly  form  of  writing.  Long-term  average  monthly  flow  Q am                3 -1                                                       3 -1             [m ·s ]  and  long-term  average  annual  flow  Q a   [m ·s ]  (taken  as  normal)  at             measuring  stations  spread  over  watercourses  in  different  climatic  areas             became the key hydrological information. The purpose of the whole analysis is             to  verify  the  hypothesis  that  in  the  given  climatic  area  the  water  regime             should show similar development on individual river measuring profiles during             the year. The analysis is focused only on the influence of the climate factor on             the water regime of the rivers (in this case the regime of discharge) and on             the influence of the discharge regime on the prediction of the possibilities of a             watercourse overcoming in the different climatic areas.                                                   135","Fig. 1. Terrestrial Biomes.           Source: http://www.grdc.sr.unh.edu/index.html                             4.2 Verification of the hypothesis           To  verify  the  hypothesis,  raw  data  had  to  be  edited  firstly  and  redundant           information  removed.  The  geographic  coordinates  of  the  positioning  of  the           measuring profile on the river are determined to the nearest thousandth of           a degree [17]. For each measured profile, the long-term average monthly flow           values  Q am   and  the  long-term  average  annual  flow  values  Q a   are  known.           Measured profiles were divided into two groups according to the position (in           the northern or southern hemisphere) and further into 14 terrestrial biome           classes (Figure 1) [17].           It is inappropriate to use the absolute values of long-term monthly flows to           compare  drainage  regimes  of  individual  rivers  in  a  given  biomes.  For  this           purpose,  it  is  more  appropriate  to  divide  the  individual  long-term  average           monthly flows Q am  and the long-term average annual flow Q a  expressed in the           decimal number d Qm  (Formula 1):                                          =                            (1)             where 	 = 1, 2, … , 12 represents the month (from January to December).           For each biome, the average values of individual monthly dividing d TBm  were           also calculated as the arithmetic mean of all d Qm  measured profiles in a given           biome (Formula 2). The river regime of discharge expressed this way then has                                            136","become  representative  for  each  biome  (separately  for  the  northern  and             southern hemispheres).                                             1                                         =   ∙                          (2)                In formula (2), m represents, as in the previous formula, the month and n the             number of stations in the given biome.             Correlation  coefficients  R  determining  the  degree  of  linear  dependence             between the regime of discharge of individual measuring profiles (expressed             by  d Qm )  and  the  representative  regime  of  discharge  of  the  given  biome             (expressed by d TBm ) were calculated using the correlation analysis. Using the             interpolation of the point value of the coefficient R by the Inverse Distance             Weighting  (IDW)  method,  the  correlation  coefficient  is  distributed  to  the             plane.             Interpolation have revealed it is possible to observe the areas that contain the             measured  profiles  which  are  characterized  by  a  regime  of  discharge  non-             linearly dependent or almost without any dependence on the representative             regime  of  discharge  of  the  given  biome  (South  and  West  coast  of  North             America, Northwest and Northeast coasts of South America, southern part of             South  America,  Western  Europe,  South  and  Central  Africa,  Eastern  China,             Southeast Asia, Southeast coast of Australia or New Zealand). On the contrary,             areas that are well correlated can be found.             To determine the validity of the hypothesis, a test with test criteria (Formula             3) was used to assess the degree of linear dependence:                                     =        ∙ √ − 2                   (3)                                       1 −              where R TB  expresses the correlation coefficient of the given biome (calculated             as the arithmetic mean of the correlation coefficients R in the given biome)             and n the extent of the base dataset (in this case 12 months). Testing took             place at a significance level of 0.05 with n -2 degree of Student Distribution             Frequency (Formula 4) and the result of 2,2281 became the critical value in             the test.                                    , 12 − 2  = 2,2281                (4)              If                                         || >  ,                      (5)             the hypothesis can be rejected due to the low linear correlation between d Qm             and d TBm . This statement is valid for: Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf             Forest, Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests, Temperate Conifer Forests in             Northern  hemisphere,  Temperate  Grasslands,  Savannas  and  Shrublands  in             Southern  hemisphere  and  Desert  and  Xeric  Shrublands  in  Northern             hemisphere.                                              137","4.3 Predicting the impact of the river’s water regime on overcoming the                                     watercourses           As  already  mentioned  above,  the  overcoming  of  watercourses  and  other           water  barriers  by  vehicles  always  belonged  to  the  activities  of  armies.           Assessing  the  possibilities  of  overcoming  the  watercourses  is  itself  a  very           complex issue. It depends on the knowledge of the individual factors and their           interrelationships that affect the manoeuvre itself [13]. High-quality analysis           of individual factors depends primarily on the availability of data sources and           information.           To  predict  the  impact  of  the  river's  water  regime  on  overcoming  the           watercourses in a shorter period (in days), it is possible to use a variety of           meteorological  and  hydrological  outputs.  In  such  an  interval,  the           meteorological  conditions  in  the  area  have  the  greatest  influence  on  the           regime  of  discharge.  If  it  is  a  long-term  prediction  (weeks  to  months),  it  is           necessary to use statistically processed data (climatic and hydrological).           The annual discharge is characterized by one characteristic that can predict           the possibility of overcoming the watercourses in different climatic areas. This           is the volatility or the degree of variability in long-term monthly flows during           the year. One indicator that determines the rate of variation of the series of           long-term monthly flows is the index K r  (Formula 6) [10].                                        ∑|' − 8,3|                                   $ =                                  (6)                                    %                                            8,3           In formula 6, the percentage of each of the months in the long-run average           annual discharge is 8.3 and represents the average part of each month in the           yearly  discharge  (   = 8,3).  Assuming  an  ideally  balanced  discharge  during            the  year,  $ = 0;  assuming  a  maximum  unbalanced  discharge,  when  the                     %           yearly  quantity  of  water  discharges  in  a  single  month  and  for  the  rest           11 months  the  river  will  dry,  $ = 22.  The  increasing  numerical  value  of  K r                                     %           represents also the increase in the degree of river imbalance. Figure 2 shows           the interpolation of index K r  by the IDW method.                                                              138","Fig. 2. Spatial distribution of index K r .             Source: Filip Dohnal              From the point of view of the possibility of overcoming the watercourses, the             high rate of water flow imbalance during the year appears to be a negative             factor.  The  big  change  in  discharge  characteristics  from  normal  state  has             a significant effect on the prediction of overcoming the watercourses in the             area. On the other hand, the low level of imbalances and the slight monthly             changes  in  discharge  characteristics  are  not  considered  negative.             Watercourses show stability and balance over the year, so the prediction of             the ways to overcome them is more successful. Based on the distribution of             the  frequency  of  occurrence  of  the  coefficients  d TBm ,  5  classification  grades             were  developed.  They  express  the  degree  of  influence  of  the  regime  of             discharge  on  the  prediction  of  the  possibilities  of  overcoming  the             watercourses (Table 1).             Tab. 1: The degree of influence of the regime of discharge on the prediction of             the possibilities of overcoming the watercourses              Categ        d TBm        Degree of         Recommendation               ory                       impact                A         ≤ 0,42    significant   The period is more appropriate for                                                   overcoming the watercourses – possible                                                     freezing of water or drying of river.                B     0,42 <   ≤ 0,66   considerable   The period rather unsuitable for overcoming                                                    the watercourses – knowledge of more                                                     detailed information is necessary.                C     0,66 <   ≤ 1,54   no impact   The period suitable for overcoming the                                                           watercourses.                D     1,54 <   ≤ 2,34   considerable   The period rather unsuitable for overcoming                                                    the watercourses – knowledge of more                                                     detailed information is necessary.                E         > 2,34    significant   The period rather unsuitable for overcoming                                                          the watercourses.             Source: Filip Dohnal              In Table 2, the effect of the regime of discharge of watercourses on the ability             to overcome water flows in a given month is shown for all biomes (separately             for the Northern hemisphere and Southern hemisphere).                                             139","Tab. 2: The effect of the regime of discharge on the prediction of the possibilities           of  overcoming  the  watercourses  for  all  biomes  in  Northern  and  Southern                       2           hemisphere (R  expresses coefficient of determination of prediction; x express           “no available data”)                                                 Northern hemisphere                                                 Southern hemisphere                                  2               Landscape type    R                                                      month                                       J   F   M  A   M  J   J   A   S   O   N   D            Tropical and Subtropical   0.3038   B   B   B   B   C   C   C   D   D   C   C   C             Moist Broadleaf Forest   0.3223   C   C   D   D   C   C   C   B   B   B   B   C            Tropical and Subtropical   0.5963   A   A   A   A   A   B   D   E   E   D   C   B             Dry Broadleaf Forests   0.5914   D   E   D   C   C   B   B   B   A   A   B   C            Tropical and Subtropical   0.8290   A   A   A   A   B   C   D   E   E   C   B   A              Coniferous Forests   X   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x             Temperate Broadleaf   0.2042   C   C   C   C   C   C   C   C   C   C   C   C              and Mixed Forests   0.2937   C   C   C   D   C   C   C   B   B   C   C   C              Temperate Conifer   0.2653   C   C   C   C   D   D   C   C   C   C   B   B                  Forests        x     x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x                               0.5971   A   A   A   C   D   D   C   C   C   C   C   B                   Taiga                                 x     x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x            Tropical and Subtropical   0.6989   A   A   A   A   A   A   C   E   E   D   C   B             Grasslands, Savannas,                 Shrublands    0.5523   D   E   D   C   C   B   A   A   A   A   B   C             Temperate Grasslands,   0.4885   B   B   C   D   D   D   C   C   C   B   B   B                Savannas and   0.0551   C   C   C   C   C   C   C   C   C   C   C   C                 Shrublands             Flooded Grasslands and   0.7346   B   A   A   A   B   C   C   D   D   D   C   C                 Savannas      0.7205   C   D   D   D   C   C   C   B   B   B   B   C            Montane Grasslands and   0.8499   A   A   A   B   C   C   E   E   C   C   B   A                 Shrublands    0.4315   D   D   C   C   C   B   B   B   B   C   C   C                               0.8178   A   A   A   A   C   E   E   D   C   C   A   A                  Tundra                                 x     x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x             Mediterranean Forests,   0.7974   C   D   D   C   C   C   B   A   A   B   C   C             Woodlands and Scrub   0.5473   B   A   A   A   B   C   E   E   D   C   C   A               Desert and Xeric   0.2580   B   B   C   C   C   C   C   D   C   C   B   B                 Shrublands    0.4460   C   D   E   E   C   C   B   A   A   A   A   C                               0.8077   A   A   A   A   A   A   B   D   E   E   E   C                 Mangroves                                 x     x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x   x           Source: Filip Dohnal                                     5 CONCLUSION           In the analysis of watercourses trafficability, we focus on assessing the impact           of  different  watercourse  characteristics  (depth,  width,  stream  velocity,           character of the bottom, etc.). To predict the possibilities of overcoming the           watercourses in the global concept, it is possible to use statistically processed           data,  which  express  the  development  of  hydrological  characteristics  during           the year. One of them is regime of discharge. Monthly changes in discharge           characteristics  can  greatly  affect  the  possibility  of  overcoming  the           watercourses.                                             140","The results of the analysis show that in the areas where climatic conditions             are  characterized  by  less  annual  variability,  the  rivers  are  characterized  by             a high degree of imbalance (high K r  coefficient). These are mainly the areas of             Tundra,  Taiga,  Coniferous  Forests,  Subtropical  Savanna  and  Temperate             Savanna. Although the rivers are characterized by a high level of imbalance,             reliability  is  rising  in  the  prediction  of  the  possibilities  to  overcome  the             watercourses.  In  areas  where  rivers  have  higher  level  of  balance,  however,             reliability  in  predicting  the  possibility  of  overcoming  the  watercourses  is             declining. In these biomes, it is necessary to focus on assessing the possibility             of overcoming the watercourses to other factors that affect the water flow             regime (e.g. source of water).              Acknowledgement: The work presented in this paper was supported within the             projects:  “Development  of  the  methods  of  evaluation  of  environment  in             relation  to  defense  and  protection  of  the  Czech  Republic  territory”  (Project             code NATURENVIR) and “Analysis of impact of terrain surface, soils, hydrology             and vegetation on the Cross-Country Movement – the support of the project             “NATO Reference Mobility Model (NRMM)” and the geographical support of             the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic” (Project code SV17-210).                                         REFERENCES             [1]  BRUTSAERT,  W.,  2005.  Hydrology:  an  introduction.  1st.  New  York:                 Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521824798.             [2]  CHOW,  V.,  MAIDMENT,  D.  and  MAYS,  L.  1988.  Applied  hydrology.  4th.                 New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. ISBN 0-07-010810-2.             [3]  DEMEK,  J.,  QUITT,  E.  and  RAUŠER,  J.,  1975.  Úvod  do  obecné  fyzické                 geografie. 1. vyd. Praha: ACADEMIA.             [4]  FENG, S., HO, CH., HU, Q., OGLESBY, R. J., JEONG, S. and KIM, B., 2012.                 Evaluating observed and projected future climate changes for the Arctic                 using   the   Köppen-Trewartha   climate   classification. Climate                 Dynamics. 38(7-8),  1359-1373.  DOI:  10.1007/s00382-011-1020-6.  ISSN                 0930-7575. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-011-1020-6             [5]  FM  5-33:  Terrain  Analysis,  1990.  Washington,  DC.:  Headquarters,                 Depeartment of the Army.             [6]  HOFMANN, A., HOŠKOVÁ-MAYEROVÁ, Š., TALHOFER, V. and KOVAŘÍK, V.                 Creation  of  models  for  calculation  of  coefficients  of  terrain  passability.                 Quality \& Quantity, 2015, vol. 49, no. 4, p. 1679-1691. ISSN 0033-5177.                 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-014-0072-1             [7]  HUBÁČEK, M., KOVAŘÍK, V., TALHOFER, V., RYBANSKÝ, M., BŘEŇOVÁ, M.                 and  ČEPLOVÁ,  L.,  2016.  Modelling  of  geographic  and  meteorological                 effects on vehicle movement in the open terrain. In: Central Europe Area                 in View of Current Geography. 1st. Brno: Masaryk University, s. 149-159.                 DOI: 10.5817/CZ.MUNI.P210-8314-2016. ISBN 978-80-210-8313-4.             [8]  LAUERMANN,  L.  and  RYBANSKY,  M.,  2002.  Vojenská  geografie.  Praha:                 Ministerstvo obrany ČR. ISBN 8023892746.             [9]  LUGO, A. E., S. L. BROWN, R. DODSON, T. S. SMITH and H. H. SHUGART,                 1999.  The  Holdridge  life  zones  of  the  conterminous  United  States  in                                             141","relation  to  ecosystem  mapping. Journal  of  Biogeography [online]. 26(5),               1025-1038  [cit.  2018-01-18].  DOI:  10.1046/j.1365-2699.1999.00329.x.               ISSN   03050270.   Available   http://doi.wiley.com/10.1046/j.1365-               2699.1999.00329.x.           [10] NETOPIL,  R.,  1981.  FYZICKÁ  GEOGRAFIE  -  I.:  Hydrologie  –  Limnologie  –               Oceánografie. První vydání. Praha: Státní pedagogické nakladatelství, n. p.           [11] PEEL, M. C., B. L. FINLAYSON and T. A. MCMAHON. Updated world map of               the  Köppen-Geiger  climate  classification.  Hydrology  and  Earth  System               Sciences Discussions, European Geosciences Union, 2007, 11(5), pp. 1633-               1644. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-11-1633-2007           [12] RYBANSKY,  M.,  2009.  Cross-country  movement:  the  impact  and               evaluation of geographic factors. Brno: Akademické nakladatelství CERM.               ISBN 9788072046614.           [13] RYBANSKY, M., The Impact of Drainage on Cross-Country Movement. In:               Proceedings  from  International  Conference  on  Military  Technologies.               Brno:  University  of  Defence,  Brno,  2011,  p.  1371-1380.  ISBN  978-80-               7231-787-5.           [14] RYBANSKY,  M.,  HUBÁČEK,  M.,  HOFMANN,  A.,  KOVAŘÍK,  V.  and               TALHOFER,  V.,  The  Impact  of  Terrain  on  Cross-Country  Mobility  –               Geographic Factors and their Characteristics. In: Proceedings of the 18th               International Conference of the ISTVS, Seoul, Korea, 2014. Seoul, Korea:               Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea, 2014, p. 1-6. ISBN 978-1-942112-               45-7.           [15] STRAHLER, A., 2011. Introducing physical geography. 5th ed. Chichester:               John Wiley. ISBN 978-0470-13486-3.           [16] TALHOFER,  V.,  HOFMANN,  A.,  KRATOCHVÍL,  V.,  HUBÁČEK,  M.  and               ZERZÁN,  P.  Verification  of  Digital  Analytical  Models:  Case  Study  of  the               Cross-Country Movement. In: 2015 International Conference on Military               Technologies (ICMT). Brno: University of Defence, 2015, p. 203-209. ISBN               978-80-7231-976-3.           [17] UNH/GRDC:  Composite  Runoff  Fields  V  1.0  [online  database],  2000.               [2016-07-13]. Available http://www.grdc.sr.unh.edu/index.html.           [18] WARD, A. and TRIMBLE, S., 2004. Environmental hydrology. 2nd ed. Boca               Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers. ISBN 1-56670-616-5.                                                          142","THE SIGNIFICANCE OF HISTORICAL LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE IN SOUTH                MORAVIA FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE LANDSCAPE, LANDSCAPE              FUNCTION AND THE PROTECTION OF AGRICULTURAL LAND RESOURCES                                                                            2                            1                                           1                                                          2                Marek Havlíček , Hana Skokanová , Bořivoj Šarapatka , Renata Pavelková ,                                                  2                                       Patrik Netopil              1               The Silva Tarouca Research Institute for Landscape and Ornamental Gardening,                             Lidická 25/27, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic              2               Faculty of Science, Palacký University in Olomouc, 17. listopadu 1192/12, 771 46,                                    Olomouc, Czech Republic                                   marek.havlicek@vukoz.cz              Abstract: The paper focuses on identification of rare landscape structures in             model  areas  of  South  Moravia  with  traces  of  traditional  and  regionally             conditioned  ways  of  farming,  assessment  of  their  significance  in  the             protection  of  agricultural  land  resources,  environmental  protection,  and             provision of eco-system services. The potential of future use of these areas,             the  possible  sustenance  of  traditional  ways  of  farming,  or  the  possible             renewal of extinct landscape structures are other key topics of the paper.             The  aim  of  the  paper  is  to  find  the  answers  to  the  following  research             questions: What are the surviving rare historical landscape structures in the             model areas with respect to the categories of land use, how are they being             currently managed? How are the surviving historical landscape structures in             the model areas protected in the view of the environmental and landscape             protection?  What  are  the  options  of  renewal  of  historical  landscape             structures?             Key words: historical landscape structure, landscape function, environmental             protection, protection of agricultural land resources                                       INTRODUCTION             Historical  landscape  structures  are  a  significant  phenomenon  of  cultural             landscape in which the historical way of land use is recorded; they also make             the  landscape  features  specific  (Muchová,  Petrovič,  2014;  Atik,  Işıklı,             Ortaçeşme,  2016).  Many  historical  landscape  structures  have  survived  in             Central Europe, which are currently being mapped using old map resources,             remote  land  survey,  detail  terrain  models,  terrain  research  and  research  of             archive  materials  (Šantrůčková  et  al.,  2016).  In  the  view  of  maintaining             biodiversity in agricultural landscape (Skokanová et al., 2016) and sustainable             land  farming  (Stejskalová  et  al.,  2012;  Pašakarnis  et  al.,  2013;  Dumbrovský,             Larišová,  2016),  it  is  necessary  to  maintain  or  to  restore  rare  landscape             structures with the traditional ways of farming (Hreško et al., 2015; Petrovič             et al., 2017). While assessing the historical structures of South Moravia (Czech             Republic), the focus was placed mainly on traces of traditional and regionally             conditioned  ways  of  farming  –  the  structure  of  arable  land,  meadows,                                             143","orchards, pastures, gardens, hop gardens, vineyards, and baulks (Amici et al.,           2017,  Špulerová  et  al.,  2015;  Súľovský  et  al.,  2017).  The  issue  of  historical           water management – fishponds, pond systems, drives, dykes, reservoirs - was           also dealt with in this dry area (Fairchild  et al., 2013; Havlíček et al., 2014;           Pavelková et al., 2016).           It  is  possible  to  map  historical  landscape  structures  in  Europe  using  old           topographic maps which can be used in the GIS if they date from the 1850s           (Skokanová et al., 2012; Kanianska et al., 2013), using detailed cadastre maps           (Skaloš,  Engstová,  2010;  Hanušin,  Štefunková,  2015)  or  using  aerial  shots           which  have  been  available  for  Central  Europe  since  the  1930s  (Mojses,           Petrovič, 2013; Šebo, Kopecká, 2014; Skokanová et al., 2016).           The paper aims at identifying the rare landscape structures in the typical hilly           areas  of  Central  Europe  which  bear  traces  of  traditional  and  regionally           conditioned  ways  of  farming,  assessing  their  significance  in  the  view  of           agricultural  land  resources  protection,  environmental  protection,  and           provision of eco-system services. The potential of future use of these areas,           the  possible  sustenance  of  traditional  ways  of  farming,  or  the  possible           restoration of extinct landscape structures are other key topics of the paper.           The  aim  of  the  paper  is  to  find  the  answers  to  the  following  research           questions:           What  are  the  surviving  rare  historical  landscape  structures  in  the  Kyjovská           pahorkatina  Hilly  Land  with  respect  to  the  categories  of  land  use,  how  are           they currently being managed?           How  are  the  surviving  historical  landscape  structures  of  the  Kyjovská           pahorkatina  Hilly  Land  protected  with  respect  to  the  environmental  and           landscape protection?           What are the options of restoration of historical landscape structures in the           Kyjovská pahorkatina Hilly Land?                                       METHODS                                 Materials and methods           The  historical  development  of  the  landscape  structures  of  larger  territories           can be assessed on the basis of old topographic maps of the medium scale           (Skokanová  et  al.,  2012).  The  authors  used  the  maps  from  the  following           surveys  to  assess  the  model  area  of  South  Moravia  represented  by  the           Kyjovská pahorkatina Hilly Land: the 2nd Austrian Military Survey 1 : 28 800           (1836-1841),  the  3rd  Austrian  Military  Survey  1 : 25 000  (1876),  the           Czechoslovak  topographic  maps  1 : 25 000  (1953-1955),    the  Czechoslovak           topographic  maps    1 : 25 000  (1991),  the  Base  maps  of  the  Czech  Republic           1 : 10 000  (2002-2006)  and  orthophotomaps  from  2016.  The  land  use  was           divided into nine categories in the assessment of important historical changes           of the landscape development of the Kyjovská pahorkatina Hilly Land: arable           land, permanent grassland, garden and orchard, vineyard, forest, water area,           built-up  area,  recreational  area,  other  areas  (Skokanová  et  al.,  2012).  The           procedure of creating maps of landscape use applies the unified method valid           for the whole Czech Republic in which the smallest map unit is of 0.8 ha and           the minimum width of individual polygons is 40 m. A more detailed landscape                                            144","structure  was  studied  using  the  maps  of  the  stable  cadastre  in  the  scale             1:2880 from 1827, the sets of archive aerial shots from 1953 to the present             day,  using  field  survey  and  available  photographs  of  particular  areas  of             interest picked on the basis of an assessment of landscape macrostructure in             maps of the medium scale.                                          Study area             The Kyjovská pahorkatina Hilly Land belong among the typical farming areas             of South Moravia with a large scale of areas of arable land in large land blocks,             with  large  areas  of  large-scale  vineyards  and  orchards  and  small  scale  of             forested  areas,  permanent  grasslands  and  water  areas.  The  Kyjovská                                                        2             pahorkatina  Hilly  Land  cover  the  whole  of  487  km .  This  geomorphological             unit  is  located  in  South  Moravia  and  extends  into  four  districts  (Hodonín,             Uherské Hradiště, Břeclav and Zlín). It is an indented hilly area with an average             height  of  235  m  and  a  medium  slope  of  3  °  30  ',  with  hollow  and  trough-             shaped valleys and the distinctive Čejč basin (Demek, Mackovčin, et al., 2006).             The Kyjovská pahorkatina Hilly Land peak called Babí lom is at 417,2 m.a.s.l.             The  lowest  point  is  169,5 m.a.s.l.  The  rugged  surface  of  the  Kyjovská             pahorkatina Hilly Land is also evidenced in the distribution of individual slope             categories: the most common are medium slopes of 5° to 10° (31.7% of the             area)  with  optimum  uses  as  vineyards,  orchards,  forests  or  pastures;  slight             slopes of  2° to 5° (32.5%) with optimum uses as arable land, built-up areas,             orchards, recreational areas; flat areas in river and stream meadows, planes,             planar parts of terraces of 0° to 2° slope (29.3%) with optimum uses as arable             land, floodplain forests, water-meadows, water areas, orchards and vineyards             on terraces, larger slopes of  10° to 15° cover only 5.5% of the area and its             optimum use is a forest.                                     Fig. 1. Kyjovská pahorkatina Hilly Land. Source: Base Map of the Czech Republic             at 1 : 200 000 (ZM 200), Copyright © 2010 ČÚZK.                                              145","RESULTS AND DISCUSSION           Changes of the landscape use based on old topographic maps of medium                                         scale           Arable land prevailed in all the observed periods in the Kyjovská pahorkatina           Hilly  Land.  Its  ration  greatly  increased  at  the  end  of  the  19th  century  and           reached  its  peak  in  1953-1954  (Tab. 1).  The  increase  of  arable  land  in  this           period caused the extinction of permanent grasslands and water areas. In the           subsequent periods, the scale of arable land decreased, mainly due to their           transfer  to  large-scale  vineyards,  gardens  and  orchards,  built-up  areas.  In           1836-1841  and  1876,  the  other  largest  area  of  land  use  of  the  Kyjovská           pahorkatina  Hilly  Land  was  the  permanent  grassland  (Table  1).  Extensive           ploughing  of  meadows  and  pastures  for  arable  land  gain  at  the  end  of  the           19th century and unfavourable effects of the socialist farming method led to           a decline  in  the  area  of  permanent  grassland  from  16.7%  to  only  1.4%  (in           1991). The ratio of grasslands in the Kyjovská pahorkatina Hilly Land has been           on a slight increase in the last 20 years, however, it is still very low compared           to  the  original  data.  Permanent  grasslands  are  mainly  formed  on  slopes  of           arable  land,  extinct  vineyards  and  orchards.  The  surviving  permanent           grassland  in  this  region  can  thus  be  considered  very  rare  with  respect  to           sustaining the biodiversity of the given region.           Tab.  1:  Development  of  land  use  in  the  Kyjovská  pahorkatina  Hilly  Land  from           1836 to 2015 (area in%)                               1836-        1953-         2002-  2014-                 Land use      1841   1876   1954   1991   2006   2015                Arable land    66.5   77.3   79.6   68.3   68.3   66.0            Permanent grassland   16.7   8.3   2.9   1.4   2.5    3.1                 Orchard        0.2    0.1   1.7    4.1    4.2    3.4                 Vineyard       6.6    5.4   4.6    10.4   8.5    9.7                  Forest        6.2    5.7   6.2    7.2    7.6    7.9                Water area      1.0    0.0   0.0    0.2    0.2    0.3               Built-up area    2.8    3.1   5.0    8.1    8.5    9.3             Recreational Area   0.0   0.0   0.0    0.2    0.2    0.3                Other Area      0.0    0.0   0.0    0.1    0.1    0.1                  Total        100.0   100.0   100.0   100.0   100.0   100.0            In  the  long  term,  the  number  of  vineyards  is  also  significant  in  this  region,           which  is  currently  about  10%  (Table  1).  While  the  vineyards,  together  with           orchards and small fields in the mosaic-like landscape of ecologically attractive           agricultural  landscapes,  existed  until  1953-1954,  today  they  are           predominantly made up of large-scale areas which were mass-produced in the           second half of the 20th century. The preserved mosaic-like structures of the           farmland  have  a  significant  impact  on  the  landscape  functions,  eco-system           services  of  the  landscape,  the  landscape  biodiversity  and  the  protection  of           agricultural  land  resources,  mainly  the  protection  against  water  and  wind           erosion. The number of garden areas and orchards increased mainly thanks to           the establishment of large orchards in the second half of the 20th century.           Fruit trees were grown in the region in the second half of the 19th century,           but  they  were  usually  part  of  small  fields  and  vineyards,  thus  their           representation is not always clear on the topographic maps. Forests are rather                                           146","sporadic in the Kyjovská pahorkatina Hilly Land, their number did not exceed             the 8% limit (Tab. 1). They are mostly localised in higher levels above the sea.             The  built-in  aeras  grew  three  times  during  the  observed  period,  thus  their             scale is currently 9.3%,  which makes them the third largest category in the             land  use  in  the  studied  area.  There  are  no  larger  towns  in  the  Kyjovská             pahorkatina Hilly Land apart from Kyjov (11.5 thousand inhabitants).  On the             other  hand,  there  are  a  high  number  of  smaller  towns  and  large  villages             inhabited by 2,000 to 5,000 inhabitants. Water areas developed specifically in             the  Kyjovská  pahorkatina  Hilly  Land;  their  number  plummeted  in  the             beginning period between 1836-1841 and 1876, when not only two largest             natural lakes in the region ceased to exist (Kobylí and Čejč lakes), but also the             pond systems on the rivers Kyjovka and Trkmanka and other water courses.             No  restoration  of  ponds  to  their  original  form  has  taken  place  yet.  Smaller             water areas were created sporadically, with the exception of the Velký Bílovec             water reservoir on the river Prušánka.                Rare historical landscape structures in the Kyjovská pahorkatina Hilly                                           Land             A very rare historical structure in the agricultural landscape of South Moravia             is  considered  to  be  a  small  agricultural  tenure  with  alternating  vineyards,             fields, orchards. A similar finding was presented in other studies as well (Amici             et  al.,  2017,  Špulerová  et  al.,  2015;  Súľovský  et  al.,  2017).  Their  historical             continuity is shown in the example in Fig. 2 in the village of Čejkovice on the             basis of a map of the Stable cadastre from 1827 and a photograph from 2012.             The significance of these rare historical landscape structures is known to all             representatives  in  spatial  planning  and  in  tourism;  however,  the  practical             agricultural landscape use abandons the traditional management in a part of             the area and replaces it with larger vineyard complexes with a higher scale of             mechanisation and minimum of solitary trees.              When assessing mosaic-like landscape structures in the Kyjovská pahorkatina             Hilly Land, it was found that approximately 15% of these rare areas have been             preserved  or  partially  preserved  since  the  mid-19th  century.  Fragments  of             these areas were predominantly preserved in the immediate background of             the  settlements  or  in  the  background  of  wine  cellars.  The  significance  of             a historical mosaic landscape structure lies in the enhancement of landscape             functionality, the support of the higher biodiversity of the area, the support of             the protection of the agricultural land resources as well as the preservation of             the typical landscape features of South Moravian hilly land. These locations             are significant for example for the protection of populations of certain bird             species (Skokanová et al., 2016). Maintenance of these areas is an issue due             to  abandoning  the  traditional  farming  in  the  region.  However,  based  on             negotiations  with  the  local  planning  authorities,  there  is  a  demand  for             maintenance  and  protection  of  the  so-called  settlement  or  suburban  zone,             where  the  transfer  of  the  seat  to  the  open  landscape  would  be  gradual,             through  a  mosaic  of  smaller  fields,  meadows,  pastures,  orchards  or             accompanying greenery.                                                 147","Fig. 2. Mosaic landscape structure in Čejkovice with vineyards, small fields and           orchards on the Stable Cadastre map from 1827 (left) and the photograph from           2012 (right).            Permanent grasslands are a very rare element in the landscape structure of           the Kyjovská pahorkatina Hilly Land, currently their scale comprises only 3%,           while  it  was  17%  in  1836-1841.  The  continually  used  areas  of  permanent           grassland are very rare in this country and are often included in the protected           areas (Fig. 3). Two thirds of the specially protected small-scale areas in the           Kyjovská pahorkatina Hilly Land are declared to protect steppe vegetation -           NP  Hovoranské  louky  (left)  and  NNP  Na  Adamcích  (right).  Permanent           grasslands are also represented (e.g. at former mining areas of brickworks and           sandpits) in other specially protected small-scale areas. Permanent grasslands           are also represented in a significant scale at Europe´s important locations, bird           areas,  and  significant  landscape  elements  in  this  area.  They  play  a  very           important  role  in  the  protection  of  agricultural  land  resources  at  the  same           time;  they  are  crucial  locations  of  high  biodiversity  of  the  area.  The           restoration of permanent grasslands in the Kyjovská pahorkatina Hilly Land is           one  of  the  key  activities  that  can  help  protect  soil  from  erosion,  increase           biodiversity and improve other landscape features.                       Fig. 3. Protected areas with rare steppe species – Nature preserve Hovoranské           louky (left), National nature preserve Na Adamcích (right).           Extinct historical structures of the Kyjovská pahorkatina Hilly Land landscape           and their possible restoration.                                             148","The  location  called  Babí  hora  is  in  the  vicinity  of  the  villages  Vrbice  and             Čejkovice  (see  Fig.  4).  The  aerial  photograph  from  1953  and  the  attached             black-and-white  photograph  from  the  early  1970's  still  show  the  slopes  of             Babí hora with an interesting landscape structure.                                      Fig. 4.  Babí hora  location in a 1970's photograph  and in an aerial  photograph             from  1953  (above)  and  in  a  photograph  and  an  aerial  photograph  from  2012             (below).             Source: http://kontaminace.cenia.cz/, http://botany.cz/cs/babi-hora/              Under the socialist  method of farming, this dimension was levelled with its             surrounding terrain by the use of bulldozers and planted with vineyards which             are currently exposed to the effects of frost in the frost basin (see Fig. 4). In             addition to this very negative impact on the historical landscape, typical for             the Kyjovská pahorkatina Hilly Land are also agricultural terraces with areas of             up to 100 ha, which were created in very indented areas similar to those of             Babí hora. The restoration of the original structure of the landscape in these             locations is not possible, only the adjacent  slopes near the terraces can be             managed in an appropriate manner.                                                          149","Fig.  5.  Šatrapský  pond  in  a  map  from  1827  (left)  and  today's  wetland  on  the           same site in a photo from 2013 (right).            Šatrapský  pond  was  on  the  southern  edge  of  the  cadastral  territory  of  the           village  Čejkovice;  it  was  depicted  in  the  map  of  the  1st  Austrian  Military           survey from 1763, on the map of the Stable Cadastre from 1827 (see picture           on  the  left),  on  the  map  of  the  2nd  Austrian  Military  survey  from  1841.           However, it was drained in the second half of the 19th century and it has not           been restored up to the present day, despite its partly preserved dyke. After           the 2005 winter, which was rich in snow showers, wetland started developing           arbitrarily in the location of the pond with the branching Prušánka covering an           area corresponding to the the area of the original pond (16 ha). This shows           that  partial  restoration  of  some  landscape  elements  is  possible  without           human  interference;  the  wetland  restoration  in  this  location  is  a  typical           example of the influence of landscape memory. The area of South Moravia           and especially the Kyjovská pahorkatina Hilly Land is an area where a number           of  pond  systems  disappeared  in  the  middle  of  the  19th  century  and  their           restoration is partly due to the preservation of some remnants of old pond           dykes (Havlíček et al., 2014; Pavelková et al., 2016).                       Fig. 6. Implementation of measures to increase the biodiversity of agricultural           landscape in the vicinity of the villages of Šardice and Hovorany.            In  the  vicinity  of  the  villages  of  Šardice  and  Hovorany,  several           implementations of measures in the landscape have occurred in recent years           in  order  to  increase  the  biodiversity  of  the  area  and  the  protection  of  the           agricultural  land  resources.  It  is  fully  consistent  with  the  attempts  at           sustainable agricultural management (Stejskalová et al., 2012; Pašakarnis et                                           150","al., 2013; Dumbrovský, Larišová, 2016). Fig. 6 (left) shows the implementation             of  a  biocorridor  along  the  local  communication,  Fig.  6  (right)  shows  the             implementation of the wetland Mokroňovsko, which has become a sanctuary             to  a  number  of  rare  amphibian  species  (e.g.  the  smooth  newt)  and  water             birds.  The  monitoring  of  animal  distribution  has  confirmed  that  the             implementations of measurements in agricultural landscape and their regular             management  have  a  crucial  influence  on  the  biodiversity  of  agricultural             landscape of South Moravia.                                        CONCLUSION             A specific small agricultural tenure with a combination of vineyards, orchards             and small fields, or preserved areas of permanent grassland, water areas can             be considered rare historical landscape structures in the model territories in             South  Moravia.  The  traditional  farming  of  small  areas  is  being  gradually             abandoned. The continuity of the preserved historical landscape structures in             the studied area of the Kyjovská pahorkatina Hilly Land can be documented             starting in the first half of the 19th century.  The extinction of rare landscape             structures took place in several waves starting in the second half of the 19th             century  (e.g.  in  favour  of  the  production  of  sugar  beet)  until  the  1970s  or             1980s  (creation  of  terraces,  elimination  of  sloping  sites).  Some  historical             preserved  landscape  structures  in  the  model  areas  are  protected  as  small-             scale  specially  protected  areas  or  locations  of  the  NATURA  2000  system.             Currently,  there  are  opportunities  for  restoration  of  historical  landscape             structures, especially with the use of grant titles, or while planning complex             land  improvements.  It  is  advisable  to  use  knowledge  of  the  historical             landscape  structure  when  rebuilding  wetlands,  water  areas,  building  bio-             corridors, green infrastructure, local roads and other landscape elements in             the landscape.              Acknowledgement:  The  paper  is  part  of  the  project  QJ1630422  –  Soil             protection through optimization of spatial and functional parameters of the             elements  of  landscape  structure  in  the  process  of  Land  Consolidation  which             was subsidised by the programme KUS of the National agricultural agency for             science and research.                                         REFERENCES             AMICI, V., MACCHERINI, S., SANTI, E., TORRI, D., VERGARI, F., DEL MONTE, M.             Long-term patterns of change in a vanishing cultural landscape: A GIS-based             assessment,   2017.   Ecological   Informatics,   37,   pp.   38-51,   DOI:             10.1016/j.ecoinf.2016.11.00. DOI:10.1016/j.ecoinf.2016.11.008             ATIK, M., Işıklı, R.C., Ortaçeşme, V. Clusters of landscape characters as a way             of  communication  in  characterisation:  A  study  from  side,  Turkey,  2016.             Journal  of  Environmental  Management,  182,  pp.  385-396.  DOI:             10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.07.076             DUMBROVSKÝ, M., LARIŠOVÁ, L. The influence of different technologies of soil             processing on infiltration properties of soil in the cambisols area of the opava                                              151","district,  2016.  Acta  Universitatis  Agriculturae  et  Silviculturae  Mendelianae           Brunensis, 64 (5), pp. 1495-1505. DOI: 10.11118/actaun201664051495           FAIRCHILD,  G.W.,  ROBINSON,  C.,  BRAINARD,  A.S.,  COUTU,  G.W.  Historical           Changes in the Distribution and Abundance of Constructed Ponds in Response           to Changing Population Density and Land Use, 2013. Landscape Research, 38           (5), pp. 593-606. DOI: 10.1080/01426397.2012.672640           HAVLÍČEK, M., PAVELKOVÁ, R., FRAJER, J., SKOKANOVÁ, H., 2014. The long-           term development of water bodies in the context of land use: The case of the           Kyjovka and Trkmanka River Basins (Czech Republic). Moravian Geographical           Reports, 22 (4): 39–50. DOI: 10.1515/mgr-2014-0022.           HREŠKO,  J.,  PETROVIČ,  F.,  MIŠOVIČOVÁ,  R.,  2015.  Mountain  landscape           archetypes  of  the  Western  Carpathians  (Slovakia).  Biodiversity  and           Conservation, 24 (13), pp. 3269-3283. DOI: 10.1007/s10531-015-0969-6.           KANIANSKA, R., KIZEKOVÁ, M., NOVÁČEK, J., ZEMAN, M., 2014. Land-use and           land-cover  changes  in  rural  areas  during  different  political  systems:  A  case           study  of  Slovakia  from  1782  to  2006.  Land  Use  Policy,  36,  pp.  554–566.           DOI:10.1016/j.landusepol.2013.09.018           MOJSES, M., PETROVIČ, F., 2013. Land use changes of historical structures in           the agricultural landscape at the local level – Hriňová case study. Ekologia, 32,           1–12. DOI:10.2478/eko-2013-0001           MUCHOVÁ,  Z.,  PETROVIČ,  F.  Impact  of  land  consolidation  on  the  visual           characteristics  (scenery)  of  a  landscape,  2014.  Journal  of  Central  European           Agriculture, 15 (1), pp. 76-85. DOI: 10.5513/JCEA01/15.1.1414           PAŠAKARNIS, G., MORLEY, D., MALIENE, V. Rural development and challenges           establishing sustainable land use in Eastern European countries, 2013. Land           Use Policy, 30 (1), pp. 703-710. DOI: 10.1016/j.landusepol.2012.05.011           PAVELKOVÁ, R., FRAJER, J., HAVLÍČEK, M., NETOPIL, P., ROZKOŠNÝ, M., DAVID,           V.,  DZURÁKOVÁ,  M.,  ŠARAPATKA,  B.,  2016.  Historical  ponds  of  the  Czech           Republic: an example of the interpretation of historic maps, Journal of Maps           12 (Sup 1), pp. 551-559. DOI: 10.1080/17445647.2016           PETROVIČ, F., STRÁNOVSKÝ, P., MUCHOVÁ, Z., FALŤAN, V., SKOKANOVÁ, H.,           HAVLÍČEK, M., GÁBOR, M., ŠPULEROVÁ, J. Landscape-ecological optimization           of  hydric  potential  in  foothills  region  with  dispersed  settlements  –  a  case           study  of  Nová  Bošáca,  Slovakia,  2017.  Applied  Ecology  and  Environmental           Research, 15 (1), pp. 379-400. DOI:10.15666/aeer/1501_379400           SKALOŠ,  J.,  ENGSTOVÁ,  B.  Methodology  for  mapping  non-forest  wood           elements using historic cadastral maps and aerial photographs as a basis for           management, 2010. Journal of Environmental Management, 91 (4), pp. 831-           843. DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.10.013           SKOKANOVÁ,  H.,  HAVLÍČEK,  M.,  UNAR,  P.,  JANÍK,  D.,  ŠIMEČEK,  K.,  2016.           Changes of Ortolan Bunting (Emberiza hortulana L.) habitats and implications           for  the  species  presence  in  SE  Moravia,  Czech  Republic.  Polish  Journal  of           Ecology, 64 (1), pp. 98-112. DOI:10.3161/15052249PJE2016.64.1.009           SKOKANOVÁ,  H.,  HAVLÍČEK,  M.,  BOROVEC,  R.,  DEMEK,  J.,  EREMIÁŠOVÁ,  R.,           CHRUDINA,  Z.,  MACKOVČIN,  P.,  RYSKOVÁ,  R.,  SLAVÍK,  P.,  STRÁNSKÁ,  T.,           SVOBODA,  J.,  2012.  Development  of  land  use  and  main  land  use  change           processes in the period 1836-2006: Case study in the Czech Republic. Journal           of Maps, 8 (1), pp. 88-96. DOI: 10.1080/17445647.2012.668768                                            152","STEJSKALOVÁ,  D.,  KARÁSEK,  P.,  PODHRÁDSKÁ,  J.,  TLAPÁKOVÁ,  L.,  2012.             Methods  of  determining  landscape  functions  and  their  evaluation:  A  case             study of Hustopeče, Czech Republic. Moravian Geographical Reports, 20 (2),             pp. 17-24. ISSN: 12108812             SÚĹOVSKÝ,  M.,  FALŤAN,  V.,  SKOKANOVÁ,  H.,  HAVLÍČEK,  M.,  PETROVIČ,  F.,             2017.  Spatial  analysis  of  long-term  land-use  development  in  regard  to             physiotopes: case  studies  from the Carpathians. Physical geography, 38 (5),             pp. 470-488, DOI: 10.1080/02723646.2017.1318652             ŠANTRŮČKOVÁ,  M.,  WEBER,  M.,  SOJKOVÁ,  E.,  BENDÍKOVÁ,  L.,  2016.  Map             Analysis of Cultural Heritage Values in Designed Landscapes: A Case Study on             Červený  Hrádek,  Czech  Republic.  Acta  Universitatis  Agriculturae  et             Silviculturae  Mendelianae  Brunensis,  64  (2),  pp.  663–675.    DOI:             10.11118/actaun201664020663             ŠPULEROVÁ, J., PISCOVÁ, V., GERHÁTOVÁ, K., BAČA, A., KALIVODA, H., KANKA,             R., 2015. Orchards as traces of traditional agricultural landscape in Slovakia.             Agriculture,  Ecosystems  and  Environment,  199,  pp.  e67-e76.  DOI:             10.1016/j.agee.2014.08.021                                           Shrnutí             Článek je zaměřen na identifikaci cenných krajinných struktur v modelových             územích  jižní  Moravy  se  stopami  tradičních  a  regionálně  podmíněných             způsobů  hospodaření,  posouzení  jejich  významu  z hlediska  ochrany             zemědělského půdního fondu, ochrany přírody, poskytování ekosystémových             služeb. Klíčovým tématem tohoto článku je také potenciál budoucího využití             těchto  území,  možnosti  udržení  tradičního  způsobu  hospodaření,  případně             možnosti obnovy zaniklých krajinných struktur.             Cílem  příspěvku  je  najít  odpovědi  na  tyto  výzkumné  otázky:  Jaké  jsou             dochované  cenné  historické  krajinné  struktury  v modelových  územích             z hlediska  kategorií  využití  krajiny,  jak  jsou  v současnosti  obhospodařovány?             Jak  jsou  chráněny  historické  dochované  krajinné  struktury  v modelových             územích  z hlediska  ochrany  přírody  a  krajiny?  Jaké  jsou  možnosti  obnovy             historických krajinných struktur v modelových územích?             Za cenné historické krajinné struktury v modelových územích na jižní Moravě             lze považovat zejména specifickou drobnou zemědělskou držbu s kombinací             vinic,  sadů  a  malých  polí,  případně  dochované  plochy  trvalých  travních             porostů.  Tradiční  hospodaření  na  drobných  plochách  je  zde  postupně             opouštěno. Kontinuitu výskytu dochovaných historických krajinných struktur             ve  studovaném  území  Kyjovské  pahorkatiny  je  možné  doložit  již  od  první             poloviny  19.  století.  Některé  historické  dochované  krajinné  struktury             v modelových  územích  jsou  chráněny  jako  maloplošná  zvláště  chráněná             území,  případně  lokality  soustavy  NATURA  2000.  Aktuálně  existují  možnosti             obnovy historických krajinných struktur, zejména s využitím dotačních titulů,             případně  při  plánování  komplexních  pozemkových  úprav.  Při  obnově             mokřadů, budování biokoridorů, zelené infrastruktury, místních cest a dalších             prvků v krajině je vodné využívat znalosti o historické struktuře krajiny.                                                153","INVEST SOFTWARE AS A MODELLING TOOL FOR ECOSYSTEM SERVICES              ASSESSMENT (EXAMPLE OF POLLINATOR ABUNDANCE MODEL FOR                            NITRA AND SURROUNDING AREA)                                       Martin Jančovič              Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Department of ecology and                       environmental studies, Tr. A. Hlinku 1, 949 74, Nitra                               martin.jancovic01@gmail.com            Abstract:  The  main  aim  of  this  paper  is  to  use  the  InVEST  software  (model           Pollinator Abudance: Crop Pollination) for the ecosystem services assessment           in  the  territory  of  Nitra  town  and  adjacent  municipalities  (Slovakia).  At  the           beginning,  we  clarify  the  concept  of  ecosystem  services  and  the  basics  of           InVEST software. Then, on the basis of the landscape structure map (for year           2016) we demonstrate how InVEST works – we use the pollination model for           detecting the preconditions for occurrence of wild bees and bumble bees in           the landscape. We analyse occurrence of wild pollinators in the research area           in regards to possibilities of their nesting and accessibility to flower sources.           The analyses are based on GIS raster layer of landscape structure and related           data  -  information  about  basic  features  of  secondary  landscape  structure           (which  are  important  for  behaviour  of  wild  bees  and  bumble  bees)  and           information  about  pollinator  species  occurring  in  the  research  area.  The           outcomes  of  conducted  analysis  are  spatial  and  narrative  assessment  of           relative  potential  of  wild  pollinators’  occurrence  in  the  research  area.  This           information  could  be  useful  e.g.  for  agriculture  optimizing  and  landscape           management.           Key words: Ecosystem services, InVEST, pollinators, wild bees, bumble bees,           Nitra.                                    1 INTRODUCTION           Ecosystem  services  became  a  key  concept  in  the  current  ecology,  nature           protection and sustainable development. Ecosystem services are considered           to  be  an  innovative  approach  to  the  assessment  of  importance  that           environment  bears  considering  mainly  its  effects  on  human  prosperity  and           wellbeing  (Eliáš, 2010).  The  term “nature's  services” appeared for the first           time  in  the  academic  literature  in  1997  in  a  paper  in  Science  by  Walter           Westman called “How much are Nature´s services Worth?” (Costanza, 2017).           Ecosystem  services  are  dependent  on  natural  resources  such  as  soil,  air,           water, biodiversity and fauna – the term “natural capital” is often used. It is           important  to  assess  ecosystem  services  in  relation  to  their  functions,           processes and the structure of ecosystems (Costanza, 1997).           Absolute and relative value of the nature could be recognized and assessed by           various methods, such as in monetary expression through economic analysis           and the concept of total economic value, in biophysical and geochemical point                                           154","of view, it is possible to assess nature either by means of natural sciences or             different  -  qualitative  viewpoints  -  sociology,  cultural  geography,  art,  social             studies etc. (Badura et al., 2016). According to Gómez-Baggethum et al. (2016)             the  main  aim  of  the  ecosystem  services  assessment  is  to  accomplish             environmental sustainability, social justice and a long term economic viability.             Modern  methods  of  assessing  and  quantification  of  ecosystem  services  are             often  based  on  computer  modelling  and  geographical  information  systems.             They could be used in various scales, complexity and also for various purposes             –  there  are  plenty  of  local  and  regional  studies  using  the  previously             mentioned  modelling  tools  (for  Slovakia  see  e.g.  Mederly  et  al.  2017),  at             European scale, models such as ESTIMAP and QuickScan (www.ec.europa.eu)             are used.             The  ecosystem  services  issue  would  deserve  more  attention  and  more             complex elaboration than it has received so far when taking in consideration             the whole country of Slovakia due to its obvious benefits to the environmental             policy and landscape management. Our work could bring a new contribution             to the recent approaches based on comprehensive review of legislation and             decision  making  process  (Bezák  et  al.  2017),  land  use  changes  assessment             (Izakovičová et al. 2017), involvement of stakeholders to the valuation process             (Bezák, Bezáková 2014), assessments of ecosystem services in national parks             (Považan et al. 2014) and so on.             One of common and widely used models is a software tool InVEST developed             at Stanford University in California (www.naturalcapitalproject.org). This tool             contains several models for ecosystem services' assessment. Each model has             developed  a  special  assessment  method  for  specific  ecosystem  service             assessment. Therefore, InVEST could be considered as a comprehensive tool             for  analysing  and  visualizing  various  ecosystem  services,  and  it  is  currently             worldwide used (Gretchen et. al., 2009, Burkhard, Maes eds., 2017).             Pollination  is  a  very  important  regulating  ecosystem  service,  for  which             a diverse  landscape  with  occurrence  of  appropriate  crops  and  flowers  is             inevitable. In many cases, such landscape is composed of mixed agricultural             and  natural  biotopes  (Gordon  Allen-Wardell  et  al.,  1998).  Pollinators  fulfil             important tasks in the most  of the terrestrial  ecosystems and fulfil the key             ecosystem  service  for  sustaining  flower  associations  and  promoting             agricultural  production  (Simon  et  al.,  2010).  Nowadays,  pollinators'             abundance  and  diversity  is  decreasing  in  many  ecosystems  in  the  world             because of intensification of agriculture which results in loss of natural and             semi-natural  biotopes  and  abnormal  use  of  chemicals  that  have  negative             influence  on  nesting  and  migration  of  pollinators  (Benelli,  2017).  This  fact             could be the reason for developing a wide range of tools and approaches to             the assessment of the current pollination service in various landscape types.             Similarly, one of the InVEST models – Pollinator Abundance: Crop Pollination             belongs among the mentioned tools. The model is focused on the assessment             of wild bees and bumble bees occurence.             The InVEST model Pollinator Abundance: Crop Pollination classifies pollination             according  to  wild  bees  as  supporting  ecosystem  service.  As  CICES  (2017)             states, we can include this service in the regulating and supporting ecosystem             services.  Outcomes  of  this  model  could  be  helpful  e.g.  for  agriculture             optimization and they could contribute to better landscape management. In                                             155","our  study,  we  have  used  this  model  to  assess  the  pollination  ecosystem           service  in  the  model  area  of  Nitra  town  and  surrounding  municipalities           (Slovakia).                         2 AIM AND METHODOLOGY OF THE WORK           The main aim of this paper is an assessment of pollination ecosystem service           using InVEST software (model Pollinator Abundance: Crop Pollination), on the           example  of  the  city  Nitra  and  adjacent  municipalities  (Lužianky,  Zbehy,           Čakajovce, Jelšovce, Podhorany, Žirany, Štitáre, Nitrianske Hrnčiarovce). The           model  area  is  located  in  western  Slovakia,  in  the  Nitra  region  and  Nitra           district. The extent of area is 187.62 km², of which 100.48 km² belongs to the           Nitra town cadastre area and the rest of 87.14 km² belongs to the adjacent           municipalities (Čakajovce 5.78 km², Jelšovce 10.44 km², Podhorany 17.71 km²,           part of the cadastral area Žirany 3.78 km², Nitrianske Hrnčiarovce 9.95 km²,           Štitáre   7.49   km²,   Zbehy   19.56   km²,   Lužianky   12.43   km²)           (www.datacube.statistics.sk). According to the Statistical Office, the number           of inhabitants in the area in 2016 was 88 834 (Nitra town - 77 374 inhabitans,           adjacent  municipalities  11 460  inhabitants).  Case  study  area  is  quite           heterogeneous, it includes the densely populated Nitra town, the surrounding           agriculturally used lowland landscape and a part of the forested landscape of           Tribeč mountains (Zoborské vrchy).           As a first step, the map of secondary landscape structure (SLS) of the research           area in 2016 was created, by identifying individual features in the landscape,           vectorising  them  and  storing  in  a  QGis  format.  In  a  spatial  form,  we  have           identified the land use in a model area mainly on the basis of open-source           aerial photos (orthophotomaps from Google maps, 2016) – this applies to the           municipalities  of  Zbehy,  Čakajovce,  Jelšovce,  Podhorany,  Žirany,  Nitrianske           Hrnčiarovce and Štitáre. For the Nitra and Lužianky municipalities, the maps           from the study Haladová (2016) were used and actualised. For the SLS classes           determination,  the  legend  by  Petrovič  et  al.  (2009)  was  used.  We  have           identified totally 56 land use classes in 6 main categories – according to the           classification of Petrovič et al. 2009. Digitized map of SLS was a spatial base           for selected ecosystem service assessment and for demonstration results of           our work.           The next research step was based on the determination of the input values for           the  computational  model  Pollinator  Abundance:  Crop  Pollination.  For  this           model, the tabular data expressing the properties of individual SLS features           affecting  behaviour  of  wild  bees  and  bumblebees  are  required.  Such  data           include the type of SLS feature (buildings, agriculturally used landscape, water           elements,  differently  cultivated  landscape  and  unclassified  landscape  type),           nesting  sites'  accessibility  in  given  type  of  element  (above-ground  cavity           N_Cavity and under-ground N_Ground) and accessibility of flower sources in           spring (F_Spring) and in summer (F_Summer).           The next important information for the model operation is a table with data           about  pollinator  species  relevant  for  the  research  area.  These  data  include           pollinator species (SPECIES), index of nesting in cavities (NS-Cavity) or in the           ground  (NS_Ground),  activity  ratio  in  spring  (FS_Spring)  and  in  summer           (FS_Summer),  and  also  the  flight  radius  of  the  species  to  flower  sources                                            156","(Alpha). For our purposes, we have used the basic values from a pattern table             of the project's homepage (www.naturalcapitalproject.org).             After gathering spatial data and entering required tabular data into the model             environment, the map of pollinator occurrence was produced expressed as an             index of occurrence abundance (0 – without pollinators, 1 – high occurrence             of  pollinators)  for  considered  pollinator  species  (genus  Apis  and  Bombus).             These values represent probable occurrence of pollinators in the model area,             with  consideration  of  nesting  places  and  flower  sources  accessibility  from             surrounding  areas.  Therefore,  the  model  reflects  two  aspects  of  pollination             ecosystem  service  -  “pollinators’  demand”  –  their  occurrence  in  particular             landscape feature and “pollination supply” i.e. occurrence and placement of             flower sources in surrounding areas (www.naturalcapitalproject.org).                                          3 RESULTS                           3.1. Secondary landscape structure in 2016             Currently  (2016),  most  of  the  research  area  consists  of  agricultural  land  -                                                                        2             landscape feature “arable land” is dominant with an area of 90.52 km  that             represents 48.26% of the model area. The “broad-leaved forests” cover the                                                                2             second largest part of the landscape with an area of 30.41 km that represent             16.21% of the model area. The third largest landscape feature are “gardens” –                              2             their extent 7.21 km  represents 3.84% of the model area. Landscape features                                          2             “individual housing” cover 7.11 km  that represents 3.79% of the total area.             To the landscape features with negligible extent in the model area (share less             than  0.10%)  belong  bushes,  pastures,  greenhouses,  agricultural  cultivation             patterns with dominance of grasslands, formation of rocks, natural and semi-             natural  surface  waters  and  wetlands,  city  central  area,  vegetation  of             cemeteries  and  other  technical  sites,  sport  facilities,  landfill  sites,  railway             stations, airports, intersections. In total, 56 types of landscape  features are             identified in the area - because of broad extent of the map and its legend we             present only a part of it (fig. 1).             Presented  map  section  documents  the  basic  shape  of  the  model  area  –  it             could  be  characterized  as  mixed  agricultural-residential  landscape             complemented  by  broad-leaved  forests  of  the  Tríbeč  mountains,  with  the             occurrence of other diversified landscape features.                                                              157","Fig. 1. The secondary landscape structure in the city of Nitra and surrounding           municipalities,  2016 (Section of the map).           Source: own research 2017, Haladová 2016, www.google.maps.com                          3.2 Pollinator Abudance: Crop Pollination           The basic objective of the model Pollinator Abundance: Crop Pollination is an           identification of wild bees and bumble bees nesting sites in the investigated           area by the use of raster layer with specification of the landscape features.           Model's outcome shows values of probable occurrence of pollinators in the           landscape (fig. 2). The lowest value 0 represents features with no potential for           nesting and occurrence of wild bees, while the highest value 0.216 represents           relatively adequate potential for pollinators’ occurrence.                                                               158","Fig. 2. The relative potential of wild bees and bumlebees occurence in the city of             Nitra and surrounding municipalities (2016).             Source: InVEST - Pollinator Abundance: Crop Pollination, processed in QGIS              The model outcomes (Fig. 2) were subsequently reclassified and expressed by             index of occurrence of wild pollinators in these five categories according to             potential occurrence of pollinators (fig. 3) in the landscape:                                              159","1  Very  low  occurrence  –  index  value  0  -  0.051  –  landscape  area  8.9%  -           16.71 km 2           2  Low  occurrence  –    index  value  0.051  –  0.103  –  landscape  area  20.96%  -           39.30 km 2           3 Medium occurrence – index value 0.104 – 0.154 – landscape area 58.22% -           109.16 km²           4  High  occurrence  –  index  value  0.155  –  0.206  –  landscape  area  11.43%  -           21.43 km²           5  Very  high  occurrence  –  index  value  –  0.206  and  more–  landscape  area           0.48% - 0.89 km²                                         rd           The medium occurrence category (3 ) is the largest extent, with percentage                                      2           of 58.22% and area of 109.16 km . The second largest extent represents a low                                                                          2                              nd           occurrence category (2 ) with percentage of 20.96% and area of 39.30 km ,                                      th           the third is a high occurrence (4  category) with percentage of 11.43% and                         2           area of 21.43 km , category 1 (very low occurrence) covers only percentage of                                 2           8.9% and area of 16.71 km . The least represented is a category 5 (very high                                                             2           occurrence) with percentage of 0.48% and area of 0.86  km   - this  category           means the highest probability of wild bees’ occurrence.           Basically, the occurrence of wild pollinators is at a very low level in the model           area. The highest achieved value of pollinators occurrence (abundance) index           is 0.216, while the theoretically highest potential value is 1,0. This is probably           caused by the fact that exemplary data from InVEST model were not verified           for local conditions – this is still a challenge for further research.           In the category of “very low pollinators' occurrence” the highest abundance           has  been  assigned  to  a  landscape  feature  “roads”  with  percentage  of  25%           (this is caused mainly by a construction of the Jaguar Land Rover factory in the           area). In the category of “low pollinators' occurrence” “fields” are dominant           with  the  percentage  of  45%,  the  next  are  “broad-leaved  forest”  with           percentage of 20% and “individual housing” with percentage of 16%. In the           category  of  “medium  pollinators'  occurrence”  also  the  “fields”  with           percentage  of  66%  are  dominant,  followed  by  “broad-lived  forests”  with           percentage  of  21%.  In  the  category  of  “high  pollinators'  occurrence”  are           prevailing  “gardens”  with  percentage  of  28%  and  “industrial  and  technical           areas” with percentage of 19%. “Other vegetation in the city” with percentage           of 15% and “ruderal vegetation” with percentage of 11% that holds relatively           high  occurence  as  well.  In  the  last  category  of  “very  high  pollinators'           occurrence”  the  landscape  feature  “gardens”  with  percentage  of  78%           dominates, followed by “other vegetation in the city” with percentage of 11%.           After reclassification of continual data in 5 categories (1-5) it is obvious, that           the most favourable wild bees' biotope is located at the part of Nitra town           Zobor, covered by a large complex of “gardens” and occurrence of vineyards.           This  area  borders  with  the  broad-leaved  forest,  agricultural  landscape  and           other residential areas. On the other hand, “roads”, “construction sites” and           “objects of static traffic” are among the landscape features with the lowest           importance for wild bees' occurrence. Finally, in some marginal parts of the           research  area  the  lowest  category  of  the  index  is  occurring  –  this  could  be           caused by landscape isolation, i.e. not covering neighbouring villages during           calculation.                                           160","Except of the described basic use of the model for calculation of the index of             pollinators  abundance,  the  model  could  be  utilized  (after  gaining  required             data) for creating the scenarios of future development, as well as for counting             the value of ecosystem services for every landscape feature.                                                              Fig. 3. Categorization of the potential of wild bees and bumlebees occurence in             the city of Nitra and surrounding municipalities (2016).             Source: InVEST - Pollinator Abundance: Crop Pollination, processed in QGIS and GRASS GIS                                                161","4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION           The main aim of this paper is to use the InVEST software (model Pollinator           Abudance:  Crop  Pollination)  for  the  ecosystem  services  assessment  in  the           model area of Nitra town and adjacent municipalities. This area is typical by           current  dynamic  economic  development,  resulting  in  the  land  use  changes           and significant pressures on the environment.           In  our  study,  the  pollination  model  was  used  to  determine  probable           occurrence  of  wild  pollinators  in  the  study  area,  considering  possibilities  of           their  nesting  and  accessibility  of  flower  sources  on  the  basis  of  current           landscape structure and transformed model input data.           Our  outcomes  shows,  that  the  best  biotopes  for  wild  pollinators  in  the           reseach area are “gardens”, that are near the flower sources and also near           human dwellings. Categories such as “other vegetation in the city”, “ruderal           vegetation”  and  “industrial  and  technical  areas“  (mainly  those  that  are           abandoned),  represent  good  habitats  for  pollinator  occurrence  in  research           area as well. To the certain point, agricultural areas and forests (both large           complex of Tríbeč forests and small woods dispersed within the agricultural           landscape),  facilitate  the  occurrence  of  pollinators  too.  After  data           reclassification,  the  area  with  the  highest  probability  for  occurrence  of           pollinators was identified as area Zobor in the town of Nitra.           Finally,  it  is  obvious  that  landscape  diversity,  not  only  natural  diversity  but           also  diversity  in  land  use,  is  very  important  for  bees  and  other  pollinators.           They  can  find  shelter  in  gardens,  buildings  (mainly  those  that  are  old  and           uninhabited),  forests  and  in  many  other  landscape  features  with  adequate           accessibility  of  flower  sources  such  as  ruderal  vegetation,  gardens,  city           greenery, fields etc.           Regarding  our  research,  the  assessment  of  other  InVEST  models,  their           efficiency and testing different ecosystem services assessment in the model           area is a great challenge to the future.            Acknowledgement: This work was supported by the Scientific Grant Agency of           the  Ministry  of  Education  of  the  Slovak  Republic  –  VEGA  No.  1/0496/16           “Assessment  of  natural  capital,  biodiversity  and  ecosystem  services  in           Slovakia” and KEGA No. 032/UKF-4/2018 0158/14 “Overview of methods and           proposal  for  the  application  of  the  ecosystem  services  concept  in  the           Environmental studies study program”.                                      REFERENCES           BADURA, T. et al. 2016. Valuing preferences for ecosystem-related goods and           services. In: Routlege Handbook of Ecosystem Service, Abington a New York:           Taylor and Francis Group, 2016, p. 228-242. ISBN 978-1-13802508-0           BENELLI, G. 2017. Food for honeybess? Pollinators and seed set of Anthyllisis           barba-jovis L. (Fabaceae) in arid coastal areas of the Mediterranean basin. In:           Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, vol. 24, 2017, no. 5, p. 1056-1060. ISSN           1319-562X. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2017.01.018                                             162","BEZÁK, P., BEZÁKOVÁ, M., 2014. Landscape Capacity for Ecosystem Services             Provision Based on Expert Knowledge and Public Perception (case Study from             the  North  West  Slovakia).  In:  Ekologia  (Bratislava),  vol.  3, p. 344–353. ISSN             1335-342X.             BEZÁK, P. et al. 2017. Divergence and conflicts in landscape planning across             spatial  scales  in  Slovakia:  opportunity  for  an  ecosystem  services-based             approach? In: International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services             \&  Management.  vol.  13,  2017,  no.  2,  p.  119-135.  ISSN  2151-3732.             https://doi.org/10.1080/21513732.2017.1305992             BURKHARD,  B.,  MAES,  J.  (eds.),  2017.  Mapping  ecosystem  services.  Pensoft             Publishers, Sofia, 374 pp.             COSTANZA, R. et al. 1997. The value of the world´s ecosystem services and             natural  capital.  In:  Nature,  vol.  387,  1997,  p.  253-260.  ISSN  1476-4687.             https://doi.org/10.1038/387253a0             COSTANZA, R. et al. 2017. Twenty years of ecosystem services: How far have             we come and how far do we still need to go? In: Ecosystem services, vol. 28.             2017, p. 1-16. ISSN 2212-0416             ELIÁŠ, P. 2010. Ekosystémové služby. In: Životné prostredie, vol. 44, 2010, no.             2. ISSN 0044-4863             GRETCHEN,  D.  et.  al.  2009.  Ecosystem  services  in  decision  making:  time  to             deliver. In: Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, Washington DC, vol. 7,             2009, p. 21-28. ISSN 1540-9295. https://doi.org/10.1890/080025             GÓMEZ-BAGGETHUM,  E.  et  al.  2016.  Concepts  and  methods  in  ecosystem             service  valuation.  In:  Routlege  Handbook  of  Ecosystem  Service,  Abington  a             New York: Taylor and Francis Group, 2016, p. 99-111. ISBN 978-1-13802508-0             GORDON  ALLEN-WARDELL,  G.  et  al.  1998.  The  potential  consequences  of             pollinator  declines  on  the  conservation  of  biodiversity  and  stability  of  food             crop yields. In: Conservation Biology, vol. 12, 1998, no. 1, p. 8-17. ISSN 1523-             1739 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.97154.x             HALADOVÁ, I. 2016. Vývoj druhotnej krajinnej štruktúry mesta Nitra v kontexte             socioekonomických zmien. Dizertačná práca. Nitra: FPV UKF, Katedra ekológie             a environmentalistiky, 2016. 96 p.             IZAKOVIČOVÁ,  Z.  et  al.  2017.  Long-Term  Land  Use  Changes  Driven  by             Urbanisation  and  Their  Environmental  Effects  (Example  of  Trnava  City,             Slovakia). In: Sustainability. vol. 9, is. 9, no. 1553. ISSN 2071-1050,             MEDERLY,  P.  et  al.  2017.  Selected  methods  of  evaluation  of  ecosystem             services – OpenNESS project and Trnava case study. In: Životné prostredie, vol.             51, no. 4, p. 205-212. ISSN 0044-4863 (in Slovak).             POVAŽAN,  R.  et.  al.  2014.  Valuation  of  ecosystem  services  in  carpathian             protected areas with focus on slovakia – guidelines for rapid assessment. In:             Quaestiones rerum naturalium, vol. 1, 2014, no. 2, p. 7 – 44. ISSN 1339-7907             PETROVIČ, F. et al. 2009. Zoznam krajinných prvkov mapovateľných na území             Slovenska. In: GEO Information, p. 112 – 124. ISSN 1336-7234             SIMON et. al., 2010. Global pollinator declines: trends, impactsm and drivers.             In: Science direct, vol. 25, 2010, no. 6, p. 345-353. ISSN  0140-6736                                             163","https://cices.eu/revision-highlights/ [cited 19.7.2017]           http://datacube.statistics.sk/TM1WebSK/TM1WebLogin.aspx           [cited 19.7.2017]           http://ec.europa.eu/environment/pubs/pdf/factsheets/biodiversity_2020/20           20%20Biodiversity%20Factsheet_SK.pdf [cited 14.12.2016]           http://www.naturalcapitalproject.org/nightly-build/invest-users-           guide/html/index.html [cited 26.2.2017]           http://www.naturalcapitalproject.org/software/ [cited 20.2.2017]           http://www.naturalcapitalproject.org/invest/#invest-models [cited 27.2.2017]                                        Zhrnutie           Práca stručne definuje problematiku ekosystémových služieb ako jedného zo           základných  konceptov  ochrany  prírody  v súčasnosti.  Na  príklade  vybraných           obcí  z okresu  Nitra  hodnotíme  súčasný  stav  vybranej  ekosystémovej  služby           pomocou  softvéru  InVEST,  ktorý  sa  zaoberá  hodnotením  ekosystémových           služieb na základe rôznych výpočtov a preddefinovaných algoritmov. Vybraný           bol model Hojnosť opeľovačov: opeľovanie plodín, ktorý hodnotí predpoklady           pre výskyt divých opeľovačov v krajine (včiel a čmeľov) na základe vstupných           ukazovateľov  ako  typ  a  využitie  krajiny,  výskyt  druhov  divokých  včieľ,  ich           letový rozptyl, dostupnosť potravy, vhodnosť pre hniezdenie a i.           Východiskom  pre  použitie  modelu  bola  analýza  súčasného  stavu  využívania           skúmaného územia (druhotná krajinná štruktúra). Výsledkom z modelu sú dva           mapové  výstupy  –  prvým  je  základný  neupravený  výstup  z modelu,  kde  je           možné  interpretovať  rôzne  hodnoty  indexu  výskytu  opeľovačov  v krajine.           Druhým  výstupom  je  reklasifikovaná  mapa,  ktorá  upravuje  indexy  do  5           základných  kategórií  podľa  výskytu  divokých  včieľ  a  čmeľov  v  krajine,  a  na           základe  ktorého  je  možné  určiť  územia  s najvyšším  a  najnižším  výskytom           opeľovačov.           Z dosiahnutých výsledkov vyplýva, že pre divé opeľovače je dôležitá krajinná           diverzita  -  a  to  nielen  prírodná,  ale  aj  diverzita  využívania  krajiny.  Včely           a čmele  môžu  nachádzať  svoje  útočiská  najmä  v  prídomových  záhradkách,           v budovách  (najmä  starších  a  neobývaných),  lesoch  a  mnohých  iných           krajinných  prvkoch  s  dostatočnou  dostupnosťou  kvetinových  zdrojov,  ktoré           môžu byť obsiahnuté v ruderálnych porastoch, v záhradách, v mestskej zeleni,           poliach  a  pod.  Výsledky  tohto  modelu  môžu  byť  využité  napr.  pri           optimalizovaní  poľnohospodárskej  činnosti  a  môžu  byť  zohľadnené  pri           celkovom manažmente krajiny.                                                   164","CULTURAL HERITAGE AND GEODIVERSITY OF LANDFORMS IN THE                        LANDSCAPE OF THE ARCHDIOCESE OF OLOMOUC                                           1                            1                                                        1                                                                       2                Karel Kirchner  , František Kuda  , Lucie Kubalíková  , Marek Havlíček  , Ivo                                                       4                                         3                                  Machar  , Vilém Pechanec                  1                   Institute of Geonics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Department of                  Environmental Geography, Drobného 28, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic                    kirchner@geonika.cz, kuda@geonika.cz, kubalikova@geonika.cz               2               The Silva Tarouca Research Institute for Landscape and Ornamental Gardening,                    Research Centre Brno, Lidická 25/27 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic                                   marek.havlicek@vukoz.cz               3  Faculty of Science, Palacký University in Olomouc, Department of Development               and Environmental Studies, 17. listopadu 12, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic                                     ivo.machar@upol.cz               4               Faculty of Science, Palacký University in Olomouc, Department of Geoinfomatics,                          17. listopadu 50, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic                                    vilem.pechanec@upol.cz              Abstract: Within the framework of the NAKI II project – Cultural heritage of             landscape  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Olomouc  -  research,  presentation  and             management (DGB 16P02B014), we focus on the results that will contribute to             the  sustainable  development  of  regional  cultural  identity  through  applied             cultural heritage research in the cultural landscape of the area of interest. As             part  of  the  material  cultural  heritage,  we  include  the  landforms  that             originated from the conscious activity of man - the anthropogenic relief forms.             These  landforms  complement  the  geodiversity  of  the  landscape  and  are             referred  to  as  secondary  geodiversity.  Therefore,  their  identification  and             interpretation will make it possible to complement and enhance the diversity             of cultural heritage and to specify the development of the cultural landscape.             The first results from the area of Central Moravia will be presented with the             using of the historical maps, the digital model of the relief DMR5G and the             field research.             Key words: cultural heritage, secondary geodiversity, Archdiocese of Olomouc                                       INTRODUCTION             European cultural landscape with its historical values is a mirror of the cultural             identity development both on national and regional level. At the same time,             cultural  landscape  represents  the  space  for  conservation  and  sustainable             development  of  numerous  key  elements  of  the  cultural  identity.  NAKI  II             project  –  Cultural  heritage  of  landscape  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Olomouc  -             research, presentation and management (DGB 16P02B014) should contribute                                             165","to the issues of the cultural identity and to the knowledge of the sustainable           development of the cultural identity using the applied research of the cultural           heritage  within  the  landscape  of  the  historical  area  of  the  Archdiocese  of           Olomouc (ADO) - (Fig. 1).           In the study area, a historic role of the man as the decisive element of changes           within the European cultural landscape is accepted (Antrop 1997). The aim of           the research is to recognize the role of man in all the time, social and spatial           consequences  and  to  interpret  the  diversity  and  uniqueness  of  natural  and           cultural-historical  values  of  the  landscape  and  their  contribution  to  the           cultural heritage formation (Machar et al. 2016). A specific objective of the           physical-geographical and geomorphological research is the identification and           interpretation  of  anthropogenic  landforms  in  order  to  complement  and           increase  the  diversity  of  cultural  heritage  and  the  specification  of  the           development of the cultural landscape of ADO.                      Fig. 1. Localization of the Archdiocese of Olomouc within the Czech Republic.           Source: authors            In the first part of the research, we focused on the identification of the basic           land  use  changes  within  the  central  part  of  ADO  (Fig.  2)  and  on  the           formulation  of  the  basic  approach  to  the  anthropogenic  landforms           assessment in relation to the cultural heritage. These results are presented in           this paper.                                                    166","Fig. 2. Study area in the Central Moravia within the Archdiocese of Olomouc.             Source: authors                          METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH, TERMINOLOGY             Formulating  the  methodological  approach,  we  come  out  from  the  fact  that             anthropogenic  (technogenic)  landforms  represent  the  significant  part  of             tangible  cultural  heritage.  The  origin  and  formation  of  the  anthropogenic             landforms is often related to the driving forces of particular cultural periods,             war events and technical and scientific development.             Therefore, these historical anthropogenic landforms (e.g. ramparts, agrarian             terraces,  hollow  ways)  form  an  important  part  of  the  historical  landscape             elements (Buček, Černušáková 2016). Concerning the landscape assessment,             Dohnalová  et  al.  (2015)  includes  these  landforms  to  the  cultural  landscape             artifacts, i.e. objects that materialize the uniqueness of the specific culture of             the given region, municipality or locality, that reflect their traits and point on             the cultural-historical values. The cultural is all that is associated with human             existence, activity, thinking, attitudes and oppinions as manifestations of the             diversity and uniqueness of a particular community or society related to the             specific place. For the assessment purposes, Dohnalová et al. (2015) defines             e.g.  funeral  and  celebrational  historical  landforms  and  presents  also  the             topographic landforms (Hájek, Bukačová 2001).             Analyzing and dealing with the historical anthropogenic landforms is linked to             the  geodiversity  concept.    Geodiversity  is  defined  as  “the  natural  range             (diversity)  of  geological  (rocks,  minerals,  fossils),  geomorphological             (landforms, topography, physical processes), soil and hydrological features. It             includes  their  assemblages,  structures,  systems  and  contribution  to             landscapes”  (Gray  2013).  Panizza  (2009)  uses  a  term  “geomorphodiversity”             that is linked to the morphological diversity and the diversity of the processes.                                             167","Geodiversity can be seen in two ways:           - geodiversity as a value-free entity (analogical to definition of Gray 2013) that           include all the abiotic features. Those elements of natural geodiversity that           are of significant value to humans for non-depleting purposes which do not           decrease their intrinsic or ecological values are called “geoheritage” (Sharples,           2002).  The  concept  of  geoheritage  is  based  on  the  definition  of  natural           heritage  (UNESCO,  1972).  The  term  geoheritage  was  defined  as  those           components of natural geodiversity of significant value to humans, including           scientific  research,  education,  aesthetics  and  inspiration,  cultural           development, and a sense of place experienced by communities (Dixon, 1996           in Dingwall, 2005:14).           -  geodiversity  (respectively  geomorphodiversity)  as  “the  critical  and  specific           assessment  of  the  geomorphological  features  of  a  territory,  by  comparing           them  in  an  extrinsic  and  in  intrinsic  way,  taking  into  account  the  scale  of           investigation, the purpose of the research and the level of scientific quality”           (Panizza 2009).           Similar approach is presented by Zwolinski (2004): the broader meaning of the           geodiversity  refers  to  the  total  range  of  abiotic  elements  and  treats           geodiversity as an objective, value-neutral property of a real geosystem; the           strict meaning refers to the idea that geodiversity is a value and it describes           the diversity of lithological, morphological and other abiotic issues of a region           or site (so the geodiversity of given region or site can be high or low).           In the above mentioned definitions of geodiversity/geoheritage appears the           word “natural” (natural geodiversity or primary geodiversity, that means the           features  formed  without  the  human  impact  or  activity).  Obviously,  the           natural  features  represent  bigger  part  of  geoheritage  (both  on  global  and           local  scale),  but  the  secondary  (or  man-made)  geodiversity  (Cílek  2002)           should not be omitted as it also represents a significant resource for tourist           and  recreation  activities  (Kubalíková,  Bajer,  Kirchner,  2016,  Kubalíková,           Kirchner,  Bajer  2017,  Rypl,  Kirchner  2017).  Secondary  or  man-made           geodiversity  can  be  defined  (analogically  to  the  Gray’s  definition  of           geodiversity)  as  “the  range/diversity  of  the  man-made/anthropogenic           landforms,  including  their  assemblages,  relationships,  structures  and           systems”.           If the statements mentioned above are accepted and taken into account, the           slightly  modified  definition  of  the  geoheritage  can  be  presented:           components or features of primary (natural) and secondary (man-made or           anthropogenic)  geodiversity  which  are  of  significant  value  to  humans,           including scientific research, education, aesthetics and inspiration, cultural           development,  and  a  sense  of  place  experienced  by  communities.  Those           components of secondary geodiversity, which form the part of geoheritage,           are  generally  represented  by  anthropogenic  landforms  (or  man-made           landforms), anthropogenic processes and influences on the relief. Historical           anthropogenic  landforms  represent  a  significant  part  of  cultural  heritage           and historical memory of the landscape (Kyselka 2014). Taking into account           this concept, we are going to propose the basic principles of the historical           anthropogenic landforms assessment in the context of the cultural heritage           of the landscape.                                            168","RESULTS             Regarding  the  aim  of  the  project  and  planned  results,  we  focused  on  the             recognizing the changes of the land use in selected area within ADO. This will             allow  the  heading  of  the  further  detailed  research  of  the  historical             anthropogenic landforms (especially water management landforms).             The  landuse  changes  were  proceeded  using  the  interpretation  of  landuse             maps elaborated by The Silva Tarouca Research Institute for Landscape and             Ornamental  Gardening  from  the  years  1836-1852,  1876-1880,  1953-1957,             1998-1996,  2006  (Havlíček,  Chrudina  2013).  These  issues  were  dealt  within             a part  of  ADO  (central  Moravia)  including  11  districts  of  municipalities  with             extended  competence  (Bystřice  pod  Hostýnem,  Holešov,  Hranice,  Kroměříž,             Lipník nad Bečvou, Olomouc, Otrokovice, Prostějov, Přerov, Valašské Meziříčí,             Zlín).  This  area  corresponds  with  8  deanery  (decanates)  of  the  ADO.  This             analysis  served  as  a  basis  for  the  processing  the  extension  of  water             management landforms – area of ponds and pond dams. Historical maps of                                                 st             the Austrian military mapping were used (1  Austrian Military Mapping 1763-                    nd             1768,  2   Austrian  Military  Mapping  1836-1852),  see  Havlíček  et  al.  (2014),                                           st             Pavelková et al. (2016). During the 1  Austrian military mapping, a total of 405             water  surfaces  were  recorded  in  the  administrative  districts  of  11                                                             nd             municipalities  with  extended  competence.  During  the  2   Austrian  military             mapping,  only  118  were  recorded;  106  of  them  were  represented  on  both             mappings and only 12 were  newly created (Fig. 3). Some water areas were             later re-established (rebuilt) in the second half of the 20th century or recently,             but many of them have not yet been restored.                           Fig. 3. The extension of the water surfaces in the central part of ADO during the             years 1763-1768 and 1836-1852.             Explanations: 1 – water surfaces from 1763-1768, 2 - water surfaces from 1836-1852             Data source: ČÚZK - Czech Office of Surveying and Cadastre.                                                169","The location of the original water surfaces and relicts of the pond dams will           allow to focus (using fieldworks and DMR 5G (Lidar)) on the morphologically           remarkable  relics  of  the  dams  that  represent  important  secondary           geodiversity  elements  (anthropogenic  landforms)  and  give  a  historical           evidence of the landscape development within the study area (see Fig. 4).                     Fig. 4. A - Jezernický pond in the Bečva basin near Slavíč village on the map of           the 2nd Austrian military mapping dating from 1837. B - Remains/relics of the           side dams of Jezernický pond on the basis of the Digital model of relief of the           Czech Republic of the 5th generation (DMR 5G).           Source: ČÚZK - Czech Office of Surveying and Cadastre                                      CONCLUSIONS           Based on the actual knowledge we characterize the historical anthropogenic           landforms  as  a  part  of  secondary  geodiversity.  Identification  and           interpretation of the important historical anthropogenic landforms will allow           to complement and increase the cultural heritage diversity and to specify the           cultural  landscape  development.  It  will  be  necessary  to  establish  the           morphogenetic classification of the anthropogenic landforms and to add other           landforms  (e.g.  topographic  anthropogenic  landforms).  In  relation  to  the           observing  the  historical  water  management  landforms,  the  assessment           method  will  be  proposed  with  particular  regard  to  their  intrinsic  value,           scientific  significance,  their  role  in  the  historical  landscape  development           (evolution)  with  respect  to  the  cultural  heritage  and  historical  landscape           memory.            Acknowledgements:  This  study  was  conducted  with  financial  support  of  the           “Cultural  heritage  of  landscape  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Olomouc  -  research,           presentation and management” grant (num. DGB 16P02B014) as a part of the           NAKI II program of the Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic.                                                 170","REFERENCES             ANTROP,  M.  (1997).  The  concept  of  traditional  landscapes  as  a  base  for             landscape  evaluation  and  planning.  The  example  for  Flanders  Region.             Landscape  and  Urban  Planning.  1997,  38,  105-117.  ISSN  0169-2046.             https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(97)00027-3             MACHAR,  I.,  PECHANEC,  V.,  KIRCHNER,  K.,  BRUS,  J.  a  KUDA,  F.  Cultural             landscape  heritage  of  the  Olomouc  Archdiocese:  Lessons  learned  from  the             history of floodplain forests. In: 16th International Multidisciplinary Scientific             GeoConference Albena SGEM 2016, SGEM2016 Conference Proceedings. Book             3, Vol. 2, Sofia, 2016, s. 511-516. ISBN 978-619-7105-62-9.             BUČEK,  A.  a  ČERNUŠÁKOVÁ,  L.  Historické  prvky  v  lokalitách  starobylých             výmladkových  lesů.  In:  Černušáková,  L.  (ed.):  Sborník  konference  Venkovská             krajina 2016. Hostětín: Česká společnost pro krajinnou ekologii CZ-IALE, 2016,             s. 18 - 29. ISBN 978-80-7458-083-3.             DOHNALOVÁ,  B.,  FIŘTOVÁ,  B.,  KUČERA,  P.,  DOHNAL,  J.  a  Pavlačková,  K.             Metodika  identifikace  kulturních  artefaktů  v  krajině.  Brno:  Mendelova             univerzita, 2015. 301 s. ISBN 978-80-7509-382-0.             HÁJEK, T., BUKAČOVÁ, I. Příběh drobných památek. České Budějovice: Studio             JB, 2001. 137 s. ISBN: 80-900903-9-7.             KYSELKA,  I.  Drobné  historické  struktury  jako  paměť  krajiny  a  její  historická             stopa. Životné prostredie. 2014, 48(1), 9-14. ISSN 0044-4863.             KUBALÍKOVÁ,  L.,  BAJER,  A.  a  KIRCHNER,  K.  Secondary  geodiversity  and  its             potential for geoeducation and geotourism: a case study from Brno city. In:             Fialová,  Pernicová  (eds):  Public  recreation  and  landscape  protection  –  with             nature  hand  in  hand…  Conference  proceeding  1st  –  3rd  May  2016.  Křtiny.             Brno: Mendel University, 2016, s. 224-231. ISBN (print) 978-80-7509-408-7.             HAVLÍČEK,  M.  a  CHRUDINA,  Z.  Long-term  land  use  changes  in  relation  to             selected relief characteristics in Western Carpathians and Western Pannonian             basin – case study from Hodonín district (Czech Republic). Carpathian Journal             of Earth and Environmental Sciences. 2013, 8, 231–244. ISSN 1842 – 4090.             HAVLÍČEK,  M.,  PAVELKOVÁ,  R.,  FRAJER,  J.  a  SKOKANOVÁ,  H.  The  long-term             development  of  water  bodies  in  the  context  of  land  use:  The  case  of  the             Kyjovka and Trkmanka River Basins (Czech Republic). Moravian Geographical             Reports. 2014, 22(4), 39–50.  ISSN 1210–8812. https://doi.org/10.1515/mgr-             2014-0022             PAVELKOVÁ, R., FRAJER, J., HAVLÍČEK, M., NETOPIL, P., ROZKOŠNÝ, M., DAVID,             V., DZURÁKOVÁ M. a ŠARAPATKA, B. Historical ponds of the Czech Republic:             an  example  of  the  interpretation  of  historic  maps.  Journal  of  Maps.  2016,             12(1), 551-559. ISSN: 1744-5647.             https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2016.1203830                                                    171","RYPL,  J.  a  KIRCHNER,  K.  Scientific  values  of  landforms  as  the  basis  for  the           declaration  of  protected  sites  (a  case  study  of  Mt.  Kraví  hora  in  the           Novohradské hory Mts., Czech Republic). Applied Ecology and Environmental           Research. 2017, 15(3), 1537-1550. ISSN 1589 1623.           https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1503_15371550           ZWOLINSKI, Z. Geodiversity. In: Goudie (ed.) Encyclopedia of geomorphology,           vol 1. London: Routledge, 2004, s. 417–418. ISBN 0-415-27298-X.                                         Shrnutí           V rámci řešení projektu NAKI II Kulturní dědictví krajiny Arcidiecéze olomoucké           - výzkum, prezentace a management (DGB 16P02B014) se soustřeďujeme na           výsledky,  které  přispějí  k  udržitelnému  rozvoji  regionální  kulturní  identity           prostřednictvím  aplikovaného  výzkumu  kulturního  dědictví  v kulturní  krajině           zájmové oblasti, která je součástí evropské kulturní krajiny. V této krajině je           akceptována  historická  role  člověka,  jako  rozhodujícího  elementu           dynamických  změn.  Proto  je  nezbytné  poznat  úlohu  člověka  ve  všech           časových, sociálních i prostorových souvislostech a interpretovat rozmanitost           a jedinečnost přírodních i kulturně historických hodnot krajiny a jejich podíl na           vzniku kulturního dědictví. Při formulování metodického přístupu vycházíme           ze  skutečnosti,  že  součástí  materiálního  kulturního  dědictví  jsou  i  člověkem           vytvořené  antropogenní  tvary  reliéfu.  Vznik  antropogenních  tvarů  reliéfu           často  souvisí  s  hybnými  silami  vývoje  kulturními  etapami,  válečnými           událostmi,  technickým  a  vědeckým  rozvojem.  Při  řešení  vazeb  historických           antropogenních tvarů vycházíme z jejich vazeb na geodiverzitu přírody, která           je  definována  jako  přirozená  rozmanitost  geologických,  geomorfologických,           půdních  a  hyrologických  složek.  Zahrnuje  jejich  soubory,  struktury,  systémy           a vztahy v krajině (Gray 2004, 2013). Primární geodiverzita tvoří podstatnou           část  geologického  a  geomorfologického  dědictví,  ale  sekundární  (člověkem           vytvořená)  geodiverzita  (viz  Cílek  2002)  by  neměla  být  opomíjena,  protože           také  reprezentuje  geologické  a  geomorfologické  dědictví.  Sekundární  (nebo           antropogenní) geodiverzitu můžeme definovat jako diverzitu antropogenních           tvarů,  jejich  složek,  vztahů,  struktur  a  procesů,  které  tyto  tvary  formovaly.           Představujeme  první  výsledky  k rozšíření  vodohospodářských  tvarů           (rybničních  hrází)  na  střední  Moravě  na  základě  historických  map  1.  a  2.           rakouského vojenského mapování.                                                           172","THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL LANDSCAPE AS A CULTURAL HERITAGE: MALÁ                                           HANÁ                                         Jaromír Kolejka              Institute of Geonics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Ostrava, Brno branch, Drobného                                 28, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic                                      kolejka@geonika.cz              Abstract:  The  parts  of  the  territory  with  a  preserved  secondary  (economic)                                                              th             landscape structure, originated around the middle of the 19  century, may be             considered as existing segments of the pre-industrial landscape. Such territory             has retained a similar character of plot distribution and land use of that time.             These  segments  have  been  pre-identified  in  the  contemporary  cultural             landscape  according  to  the  recent  colour  orthophotomap.  The  existence  of             that cultural heritage has been confirmed or excluded by comparison with the                         nd             maps of the 2 military survey and indicating sketches of the cadastral survey                      st                                   th             from the 1  half of the 19  century. The records were systematically carried             out  according  to  the  cadastral  units  of  the  so-called  working  regions  of             Moravia. The segments of the pre-industrial landscape identified in laboratory             research then underwent a field research, followed by the determination of             their properties and the assessment of the state and the threats.             Key words: survey, inventory, Czech Republic                                       1 INTRODUCTION             The  Industrial  Revolution,  the  industrialization  of  the  Czech  lands,  has             profoundly  manifested  itself  in  the  use  and  appearance  of  the  cultural             landscape.  Deep  changes  touched  not  only  the  neighborhoods  of  industrial             cities.  Agricultural  production  responded  also  to  the  needs  of  the  industry,             e.g. by expanding the cultivation of technical crops, sugar beet and oil plants                            th             since  the  mid-19   century.  The  land  reform  after  the  founding  of  the             Czechoslovak Republic has divided large aristocratic and ecclesiastical estates             and  the  landscape  often  acquired  the  idealized  character  of  the  mosaic  of             small  multicultural  fields,  meadows,  pastures  and  groves  interposed  with             ponds. Reinforced mechanization of agriculture after the World War II and in             particular the collectivisation made the food production more productive and             freed the labor power for cities, while reducing the diversity of the cultural             landscape  of  large  fields,  the  often  inappropriate  large  scale  cooperative             objects, disrupted the human relationship to the land. Many less acceesssible             areas  recorded  a  succesion  of  the  “nature”  back  into  abandoned  meadows             and fields. The reduced number of rural population and permanent residents,             which  led  to  the  recession  of  many  municipalities,  especially  in  the  less             inhabited borderland.  Agricultural workers became from the original farmers,             whom the free time allowed to maintain remarkable old folk buildings and to             build new ones. The “rescues” of traditional rural buildings originated from             weekend  cottagers  (often  from  the  first  generation  of  urbanized  villagers).                                             173","These processes led to the fact that, under favorable conditions (sometimes           the  land  use  intensity  was  radically  increased  by  the  governmental           investments  in  the  soil  draining),  the  large-scale  farming  was  largely           dominated on the agricultural land, and the municipalities were significantly           rebuilt and modernized. Tractors replaced the horses and their pastures were           disrupted. Under less favorable conditions with limited agricultural prosperity,           the intensity of land use has fallen, a spontaneous afforestation and a grassing           of the land often occurred, while old buildings without modernization were           kept  by  the  inhabitants  of  cities  as  their  second-homes  for  recreation.  This           polarization was intensified even further after social, economic and political           changes  since  1990.  The  romantic  landscape,  as  it  was  presented  in  the           ancient  baroque  paintings  and  in  the  pieces  of  work  of  revival  landscape           painters was virtually disappeared in these waves of changes. Where to look           for  the  remnants  of  the  cultural  landscape  before  the  onset  of  intense           industrial  revolution  (app.  since  1850)?  In  favorable  areas,  it  was  probably           disappeared perhaps due to the introduction of the large-scale agriculture and           the urbanization of prosperous rural communities, and also due to the decline           in  interest  in  the  landscape  maintenance  and  due  to  the  “return”  of  the           nature. Therefore, it seems that the remaining segments of the pre-industrial           landscape in the Czech Republic could be best preserved at the border of the           territory  with  favorable  production  conditions  on  one  hand  and  poor           conditions for intensive agriculture on other hand. In such areas, it is expected           that suitable areas for agriculture “satisfied” the need for the efficient large-           scale  production  and  gave  time  and  power  to  fewer  remaining  locals  to           cultivate neighboring the less-suitable land, albeit not as intensively as before.           Such  municipalities  were  also  not  the  object  of  the  weekend  cottagers´           preference.  The  more  dissected  terrain  or  the  remaining  wet  areas  in  the           hinterland  of  the  municipalities  (not  the  ravines  directly  adjacent  to  the           buildings  of  the  municipalities)  predetermined  a  certain  degree  of           preservation of the old way of cultivation. The confirmation of this hypothesis           brings the experience from the region of Malá Haná in the west of Central           Moravia and it is the subject of this paper.                      2 THE TERM OF THE “PRE-INDUSTRIAL LANDSCAPE”           The issue of chronological classification is so far open to the public, at least           again in the Czech Republic. The pre-industrial landscape (PreIL) of the Czech           Republic may be dated before the main industrial revolution, before 1850. In           this  paper,  it  is  understood  as  the  “areas  of  the  present  landscape  with           a preserved  ancient  secondary  structure  of  the  landscape,  i.e.  with  the           distribution and representation of arable land, permanent crops, forest, roads           and trails, or mining, water and other areas that arose and developed in the           time before the formation of the industrial society after app. 1850s”. It has           signs of the relatively uninterrupted socioeconomic and cultural development           from the Thirty-years-war period with respect to the local natural conditions.           Above  all,  the  industrial  revolution  and  its  associated  technological,           population,  administrative,  or  protectional  events  often  conditioned  the           radical  transformation  of  landscape  structures,  especially  the  economic           structure. Nevertheless, relics from the previous period survived for various           reasons on the development periphery of that time, and this may not be the           result  of  complicated  natural  conditions.  Such  areas  of  diverse  sizes  and                                           174","contents, which have often been out of date, often fully or partially avoided             socioeconomic changes.             Preserved relics of the ancient landscape are not systematically recorded in             the Czech Republic, except on the declared and prepared landscape historical             zones. In some cases, such segments were registered during the preparation             of the planning documentation for the territorial system of ecological stability             at  the  municipality  level,  or  in  the  case  of  landscape  view  assessments.             A comprehensive study of similar issues was completed for the Novodvorska             and  Žehušice  landscape  area  in  the  Kutná  Hora  district  (Lipský,  Weber,             Stroblová,  et  al.,  2012)  and  for  the  significant  part  of  the  Ore  Mountains             (Karel,  Kratochvílová,  eds.,  2013).  In  connection  with  the  research  of  the             ancient landscape, the terms “historical landscape structure” (Brůna, Buchta,             Uhlířová, 2010) and the “material memory structure of the landscape” were             presented at the Czech Technical University in Prague. Back into the distant             history  went  the  “Academic  Atlas  of  Czech  History”  on  the  course  of  the             medieval landscapes (Semotamová, Cajthaml, et al., 2014) and also the Czech             non-invasive  archeology  (Gojda,  2000).  More  advanced  is  the  recording  of             “historical landscape structures” in Slovakia (Slámová, Jančura, 2012), for the             present at the regional level only. In the monograph “Representative Types of             Landscape of Slovakia” (Bezák, et al., 2010), a clear national map at the scale             of 1: 500,000  was published representing the four main  types of landscape             structures (vineyard landscape, landscape with scattered settlement, pastural             landscapes,  mining  landscape).  Interestingly,  among  these  types,  there  are             not  the  arable-woodland  landscapes  and  the  wodland-parture  lansdscapes             numerous in the Czech Republic. Similarly, the map “Types of landscape with             historical  landscape  structures”  is  included  in  the  Atlas  of  Representative             Geoecosystems of Slovakia (Miklós, Izakovičová, eds., 2006). The results of the             nationwide inventory of historical structures on a local level are published in             Slovakia (see Hreško, Petluš, eds., 2015; Hreško, Petrovich, Mišovičová, 2015).             Interest in old landscapes lasts in Western Europe. An example of a successful             inventory of the smaller pre-industrial landscape segments is represented by             the Flemish Community of Belgium, where the inventory and classification of             identified sites was carried out, but also incorporation of this issue into the             regional legislation and planning practice (van Eetwelde, Antrop, 2005). The             inventory process was based on the comparison of quality old maps from the                        th             end of the 18  century and the contemporary aerial photographs, followed by             the verification of selected areas in the field, the follow-up evaluations and             recommendations.  A  similar  inventory  was  carried  out  by  the  Walloon             Community of Belgium in its territory. The inventory of  old landscapes  was             carried  out  in  the  Bretagne  region  (bocage  records)  in  France,  in  Alentejo,             Portugal (forest-agricultural complex), in the Great Britain (Bunce, et al., 1996)             and  in  the  Netherlands  (Mücher  et  al.,  2003)  within  the  typology  of  the             European  landscapes.  UNESCO  also  considers  segments  of  the  ancient             landscapes as a valuable cultural heritage (e.g. Bandarin, ed., 2009). For the             present  time,  however,  the  legislative  or  conservation  standards  for  this             historic type of landscape are not finalized.                                                  175","3 MATERIALS AND IDENTIFICATION METHODS OF SEGMENTS OF THE                              PRE-INDUSTRIAL LANDSCAPE           The  search  for  segments  of  the  pre-industrial  landscape  is  based  on           a comparison  of  cartographic  documentss  of  different  character,  origin  and           quality. All necessary materials have the following key features: (1) to have           the resolution to identify similar land use patterns therein, (2) to be online           publicly accessible in the required amount and quality, (3) to be usable in the           common imaging technology.           The research starting point is based on the idea that the recent high-quality           maps allow to distinguish such land use structures that may be anachronistic           in the present landscape, especially after the periods of the industrial society           and  the  socialist  large-scale  farming  on  arable  land,  pastureland  or  in  the           forest. The most recent colorful orthophoto is best suited for these purposes.           An attention is naturally centered on the existing small parcels of the land.           Although  it  exists  even  in  the  vicinity  of  the  building  from  the  time  of  the           industrial and socialist society, but if it is immediately adjacent to the building,           its dating is easier. It is a typical accompaniment of individual houses. It arises           even today (although there is usually no stripped land  partition in modern           development zones). However, there may also be a situation where the pre-           industrial heritage can be represebter by large-scale parcels. An indicator of           such  a  situation  may  be  the  presence  of  large  farm  estates  directly  in  the           village or at its edge. In both cases, the pre-selection of the “suspicious” areas           for more detailed study needs the comparison with another key map, which is           represented by the maps of the Second (Franciscus´) military survey. It just           preceded the general industrial revolution on the territory of the Czech lands.           If a similar structure (albeit hintingly due to the quality of map Second military           survey and its 1:28 800 scale) occurs in the same place as on these old maps           and  present  aerial  imagery,  it  is  possible  to  go  to  the  detailed  data  source           represented by the indication sketches or the imperial map impressions at the           scale of 1: 2 880 and then the final decision about the area's status as a pre-           industrial landscape segment can be done.           The PreIL identification process is carried out according to the cadastral units           and can be divided into the sequence of steps:           1. The latest colour orthophoto is available online at https://mapy.com/. On           the page, the “Basic Map” appears first after opening the page. After the basic           map is displayed, the search tool will read the name of the municipality in the           given cadastral unit. The outline map of the selected cadastral area appears in           the  map  window.  The  same  outline  of  the  cadastral  area  will  be  displayed           after switching to a recent orthophotomap and the old map.           2. The search the aerial orthophoto is focused on the areas with small parcels           of agricultural land, or large-scale parcels around the isolated estates, and the           extent of the forest area is also registered in the selected cadastral area. If an           area with the present small parcels of land is found in the cadastral unit, this           reality is provisionally verified.           3.  The  next  step  of  the  verification  of  the  segment  of  the  pre-industrial           landscape is carried out by comparing the “small parcel areas” found usining           by the orthophoto with the  analogous territory on the  map of the Second.           military  survey  (it  is  also  available  online  at  https://mapy.cz/).  This                                            176","comparison serves to verify if thepresent landscape structure (the mosaic of             land use) seems to similar in the pre-industrial period (i.e. it was registered in             the old map of the Franciscus´ survey at the original scale 1:28 800). These             maps,  however,  have  a  fairly  low  resolution,  and  the  map  makers  have             neglected  small  parcels  by  generalization.  If  there  are  doubts  about  the             accuracy  of  the  segment  identification,  it  is  necessary  to  go  to  the  final             verification.             4. For the definitive assurance that the identified area has a similar structure             of land use already in the pre-industrial period, it is necessary to look at the             cadastral indication sketches (with the original 1: 2 880) from the first half of                   th             the  19   century  administered  by  the  Moravian  Land  Archive  in  Brno.  Such             data  source  is  also  available  online  on  its  website  (www.mza.cz).  A  given             cadastral unit can be found and the existing segment can be verified in the             image of the archivedc cadastral indication sketch.             5. The final output for archiving tentative PreIL segments is then represented             by  the  print-screen  with  the  centered  identified  area  over  the  recent             orthophoto. The MS Office tool “paint brush” served to draw out segment´s             outlines.  This  picture  was  georeferenced  and  the  segment´s  outline             vectorized. Then it represents the input into the database (the the definite             field verification).             6. Any segment is provided with a cadastral location code and a serial number             within the cadastre for archiving.             Possible  problems  in  identifying  segments  of  the  pre-industrial  landscape             include, among other things,             1.  Some  cadastral  territories  have  been  merged.  When  using  the  search                 engine on maps.cz for a given municipality, only the outline (in essence)                 of  the  built-up  area  of  the  given  municipality  and  not  its  cadastre  is                 displayed. It is possible to visualize the outlines of the cadastres of the                 neighboring municipalities or visually outline the cadastre in the GIS.             2.  Pre-industrial  landscape  heritage  is  also  forests.  In  particular,  their                 “facade” (the edge to the open landscape) forms part of the appearance                 of the country at that time. This edge and interior of the forest could be                 positionally stable, but could vary according to the species of the growing                 tree.  It  is  to  be  imagined,  however,  that  conifers  were  artificially                 propagated  in  the  unnatural  locations  in  the  territory  of  today's  Czech                 Republic  from  about  1780  (mainly  by  sowing)  and  their  share  in  lower                 positions could be higher than at present. As a standard of pre-industrial                 legacy segment recognition, the current dominance of the broad-leaved                 tree stands.                       4 THE INVENTORY IN WORKING REGION OF MALÁ HANÁ             The  inventory  of  existing  segments  of  the  post-industrial  landscape  in  the             historical territory of Moravia is supported by the project of the Ministry of             Culture  of  the  Czech  Republic  under  the  title  “The  Inventory  of  the  Pre-             Industrial  Landscape  of  Moravia  and  ensuring  public  awareness  of  its             existence  as  a  cultural  heritage”  (see  Acknowledgments  at  the  end  of  the             paper). The objectives of the project are as follows: (1) The inventory of pre-                                             177","industrial landscapes within historical boundaries of Moravia on the basis of           comparison  of  historical  map  documents  with  the  latest  cartographic           products;  (2)  The  classification  of  identified  areas  in  quantitative  and           qualitative categories; (3) The compilation of the text, visual (maps, images,           pictures)  and  tabular  documentation  for  each  registered  PreIL  unit  with           proposal for measures for the further maintenance and management; (4) The           electronic documentation publishing in a form accessible to municipalities and           the public with the consent of the Ministry of Culture; (5) The composition of           a  mobile,  regionally  adaptable  exhibition  on  “The  former  landscape  in  the           regions  of  contemporary  Moravia”;  (6)  The  elaboration  of  an  electronic           methodical and educational material for schools and the public.           A team of specialists was set up to solve the project tasks. Individual team           members process the assigned territory according to a uniform methodology.           For these purposes, the territory of the historical Moravia was divided into           working  regions.  The  first  task  was  to  precisely  define  the  territory  of  the           historical  Moravia  because  the  current  administrative  division  of  the  Czech           Republic into the modern regions and the districts does not respect the old           borders of Moravia. The definition of the historical territory of Moravia was           based on the digital map of the political districts of Czechoslovakia in 1921,           when  this  border  was  in  force.  The  Moravian  Land  as  one  of  the  top  self-           governing entities of the pre-war Czechoslovakia existed within these borders           until  1928.  The  distant  so-called  Moravian  enclaves  in  Silesia  were  not           included in the defined territory of Moravia (with the exception of the village           Butovice  in  the  Nový  Jičín  district,  practically  adjacent  to  the  coherent           territory  of  Moravia).  The  comparison  with  the  demarcation  of  political           districts  in  1930,  when  the  unified  Moravian-Silesian  Land  already  existed,           discovered some changes at the border with the Bohemian Land and/or with           the original Silesian Land. Relatively numerous detailed border irregularities           from 1921 were identified within the current demarcation of the cadastres of           municipalities  on  the  border  with  Bohemia  and  Silesia.  They  are,  however,           totally insignificant. Minor changes of borders with Slovakia took place after           the split of the Czechoslovak federation in 1993.           The actual regionalization of the defined territory of the historical Moravia is           based  on  the  ethnographic  regions  of  Moravia  presented  in  the  available           literature.  The  main  source  of  documents  is  the  Atlas  of  the  Landscape  of           Czech Republic (2009 – the map of the “Ethnographic Regions” of the authors           R.  Jeřábek,  J.  Vařeka,  J.  Woitsch).  There  are  other  sources  available:           (http://is.muni.cz/el/1431/podzim2009/Z5790/Etnografie_Moravy.pdf  -  The           Folklore Regions of Moravia;           https://dalsimoravak.wordpress.com/2013/11/16/etnograficke-oblasti-           moravy / - The Ethnographic regions of Moravia). The ethnoregions defined           within  them  are  basically  identical,  but  some  local  dissonances  and           differences  in  subdivisions  are  evident.  The  rrangement  of  the  cadastres  of           the Moravian municipalities into existing “ethnoregions” proceeded from the           nuclei of these regions towards their borders by assigning an attribute in the           form  of  the  name  “ethnoregion”  in  the  corresponding  column  of  the  ESRI           ArcView  attribute  table.  It  was  problematic  to  include  municipalities  at           unclear borders between existing “ethnoregions”. There it was necessary to           look  at  the  websites  of  the  affected  municipalities  and,  according  to  the           information  given  there,  the  ordering  was  made.  If  this  information  was                                           178","missing, the physio-geographic regionalization factors were applied. Then high             relief  objects  (ridges  and  mountains),  larger  rivers,  or  large  forest  areas             became the borders between “ethnoregions”. Large areas outside the existing             “ethnoregions”, remaining after the previous demarcation, were divided into             “working  regions”  and  obtained  names  of  the  geomorphological  or             hydrogeographic origin (e.g. Jeseníky Mts. area, Podyjí Area – after the River             Dyje, Brno Area, Letovice Area etc.). The result is represented by the division             of  Moravian  cadastral  units  into  12  working  regions.  They  differ  in  size,             especially  in  the  case  of  existing  “ethnoregions”.  Based  on  the  personal             interest of individual members of the project team, they were assigned them             for processing.             One of the defined regions is Malá Haná (Fig. 1). It includes both the physio-             geographical  unit  of  the  same  name  (as  part  of  the  Boskovice  furrow  –             according to the Geomorphological division of Czechoslovakia - Czudek, et al.,             1973), and the adjacent edges of the surrounding elevations, reached by the             margins  of  the  cadastral  areas  of  the  municipalities,  mostly  located  on  the             border of Malá Haná with the surrounding mountains.                                     Fig. 1. Location of the Malá Haná Working Region in the historical territory of             Moravia within the Czech Republic.             Source: own processing                                              2             The region has an area of  275.55 km  and belongs to the smallest working             regions of Moravia. It consists of 28 cadastral territories of 40 municipalities,             of which 6 are towns and cities (Figure 2 - left). It is divided geographically into             three diverse parts (Fig. 2 – on the right): a) the basic ethnoregion of Malá             Haná in the north between towns Chornice and Boskovice (it occupies about             2/3 of the area of interest); b) the basin near the railway crossing Skalice nad             Svitavou;  and  c)  the  Lysicko  Area  as  the  southernmost  part  covering             approximately 1/3 of the region from Skalice nad Svitavou to Černá Hora. For             explanation:  The  cadastral  areas  of  the  villages  Lazy,  Mezihoří  u  Městečka                                             179","Trnávky, Unerázka, Petrůvka u Městečka Trnávky and Pátíkov, and the town of           Trnávka,  interfering  with  the  geographical  region  of  Malá  Haná,  were           connected  to  the  ethnoregion  (and  the  working  region)  Hřebečsko  and           Zábřežsko,  as  there  was  a  strong  pre-war  German-speaking  population  (in           comparison  to  Czech-speaking  Malá  Haná).  Their  territory  was  occupied  by           Nazi-Germany after the Munich dictate in 1938.                                         Fig.  2.  The  internal  administrative  division  of  the  Malá  Haná           working region into the   cadastral   areas   of   the   municipalities.           (Key: 1 – alluvial plain of the Svitava River basin, 2 - predominantly flat bottom           of the Boskovice furrow, 3 - surrounding mountains of the Bohemian-Moravian           Upland, Brno Upland and Zábřežská vrchovina Highland)           Source: own processing            It is clear (see Fig. 2 - right) that the individual cadastral areas share both the           flat and fertile bottom of the Malá Haná furrow and their territorial stripes           extended into the adjacent mountains. At the bottom, in the warm climate           (T a  = 7-8°C), the soil cover consists of mollisols and luvisols developed on the           loess and Neogenic sediments, and cambisols originated on the outcrops of           hard  Permian  sedimentary  rocks.  Surrounding  steep  elevations  rising  up  to           200 m or more above the bottom of the firrow are built with old crystalline           rocks,  rarely  Cretaceous  sandstones,  and  they  are  covered  with  stony           cambisols  in  the  app.  to  1-2°C  colder  climate.  Only  the  floodplain  of  the           Svitavy River near Skalice nad Svitavou is covered with an extensive area of           fluvisols.  They  accompany  other  water  courses  of  the  region  with  narrow           strips only.                                            180","The field research inventory was carried out according to individual cadastres             in this region, in 2016 and 2017. The results are given below.                         5 RESULTS OF FIELD RESEARCH AND INVENTORY             The  field  research  consisted  of  two  phases.  The  first  one  included  the             identification suitable segments of the pre-industrial landscape according to             the  methodology  in  a  laboratory  environment  on  a  PC  with  an  Internet             connection. The second one took place directly in the field and was targeted             on the visit of all selected segments. It should be noted that such segments             surprisingly remained in very little number (only in 9 of the 41 cadastral areas             of the region – see Fig. 3).             While  the  arable  land  is  dominated  on  the  flat  and  fertile  bottom  of  the             furrow,  the  forests  cover  the  steep  slopes  of  the  adjacent  mountains.  The             built-up areas of the villages (except the very old Chornice) mostly developed             at the edge between the furrow the mountains. Probably already at that time,             the founders of villages had in mind the preferential protection of fertile soils             before  housebuolding,  also  the  location  at  a  source  of  water  and  building             materials  (clay,  stone,  wood).  The  identified  segments  of  the  pre-industrial             landscape of varying sizes and quality survived generally at a short distance             from villages located in the open valley mouths from the mountains to the             Malá Haná depression as part of the larger Boskovice furrow.                                                                              Fig.   3.   Malá   Haná.                                                        Cadastral   areas   with                                                        segments  of  the  pre-                                                        industrial   landscape                                                        marked in black.                                                        Source: own processing                                              181","The  main  parameters  of  the  identified  segments  of  the  pre-industrial           landscape are documented in Table 1.           The  field  research  demonstrated  unequivocally  that  segments  of  the  pre-           industrial  landscape  recruited  most  often  from  previously  intensively  used           arable land on terraced slopes, exceptionally from fields along the slope and           separated  by  distinct  edges.  Due  to  the  slope  and  usually  low-fertility  soils           (with the exception of the foothills with better soils), the collectivization had           not  affected  thesize  and  shape  of  land  parcels  here.  The  land  use  turned           rather  from  an  intense  to  an  extensive  farming  associated  with  “greening”           both  the  original  farmland  and  the  terrace  slopes.  The  edges  of  the  land           parcels were affected by intense succession of bushy and tree vegetation. The           joining of plots in flat terrain was partly avoided only in some  waterlogged           areas in the floodplain near the village of Sudice. However, in connection with           the land restitutions after 1989, some small parcels were restored in the flat           terrain (the slightly inclined plain) and partly on slopes near Drnovice.           The gradual degradation of pre-industrial landscapes runs in the Malá Haná           working region. The main degradation process is represented by the reduction           in  the  intensity  of  use  of  less  useable  plots  of  land,  first  of  all  followed  by           targeted and spontaneous grassing and gradual afforestation. The succession           of shrubs and trees started from the originally grassland on terraced slopes           and  edges.  These  are  now  practically  completely  overgrown  and  woody           vegetation spreads from the edges into the former arable land, nowadays the           meadows and pastures. The tree dissemination process is effectively slowed           down  where  plots  on  the  terraced  slope  are  accessible  for  agricultural           machines  (Borotin  –  Fig.  4).  The  conversion  of  the  arable  land  to  pastures           slows  down  the  succession  of  tree  species,  but  the  accompanying           phenomenon  of  the  change  in  land  use  is  the  erosion  of  soil  at  the  edges           (Jabloňany). The process of parcel overgrowing with trees already advanced           significantly  in  some  places  and  grass  in  these  areas  are  no  longer  mowed           (Sebranice, Bořitov). In the case of Bořitov, the most of the area of the pre-           industrial landscape segment enjoys a certain degree of protection of nature           as a significant landscape element (VKP Větrník). The subject of protection is           represented by dry thermophilous sites, which are threatened by the growth           of  shrubs  and  trees.  Some  old  orchards  were  preserved,  partly  used  and           renewed  in  the  cadastral  area  of  the  village  of  Zálesí  (now  part  of  the           Biskupice municipality). The succession of trees is held back by ongoing fruot           tree planting here. The long parcels along the slope are gradually afforested at           the village of Mladkov.           Tab.  1:  Main  natural  features  od  identified  segments  of  the  pre-industrial           landscape un the Malá Haná working region           PreIK   location           No.     cadastral area   slope   aspect      soil           1       Borotín       steep     NE-E         cambisol           2       Bořitov       steep     SW           haplic leptosol           3       Drnovice      flat      NE           luvisol/stagnosol           4       Jabloňany     gentle    W-SW         luvisol/cambisol                                             182","5        Jevíčko       gentle   SE           cambisol             6        Mladkov       steep    NW           luvisol/cambisol             7        Sebranice     gentle   SE-E         luvisol/cambisol             8        Sudice        flat     -            mollisol/fluvisol             9        Zálesí        steep    W            cambisol             Source: own processing                                        Fig.  4.  The  segment  of  the  preindustrial  landscape  south  of  Borotín  in  2017.             (Key:  1  -  forests,  2  -  bushes  and  trees,  3  -  abandoned  meadows,  4  -  mowed             meadows, 5 - gardens, 6 - orchards, 7 – arable land)             Source: own processing                                        6 CONCLUSION             There is a steady decline of segments of the pre-industrial landscape, initiated             in the post-war period by the collectivisation of agriculture in the Malá Haná             working region. The original varied agricultural landscape with a small plot of             land in the flat territory almost disappeared. An interesting exception is the             surroundings of the village  Drnovice,  where  small parcels form a significant             part of the land in the flat and gently inclined part of the cadastral area. South             of the center of the village Sudice is partly preserved a segment of the ancient             landscape  in  a  wide  humid  valley  along  the  creek  adjacent  to  the  estate             Sudický  Dvůr  (Pastvisko  –  Fig.  5).  However,  the  insertion  of  breeding  fish             ponds into the landscape disturbs the original appearance of the segment.                                                 183","Fig.  5.  The  segment  of  the  preindustrial  landscape  south  of  Sudice  in  2017.           (Key:  1  -  forests,  2  -  bushes  and  trees,  3  -  abandoned  meadows,  4  -  mowed           meadows,  5 - water  bodies, 6 - reed, 7  – farm courtyard, 8 – arable land, 9 -           buildings, 10 - paved roads, 11 - field roads)           Source: own processing            There are also areas of small land holdings outside the village Flintour (part of           the  of  Biskupice  municipality)  and  near  the  village  Jaroměřice  in  the  Malá           Haná working region. However, these can not be categorized as segments of           the  pre-industrial  landscape,  as  on  the  old  maps  of  the  first  half  of  the             th           19  century they had the form of large continuous plots and their partition           seems toik place later in connection with the division of large land holdings in           land reforms.           The  remnants  of  the  pre-industrial  landscapes  of  the  Malá  Haná  working           region thus mostly represent an atypical marginal original cultural landscape           with  dissected  terrain,  and  their  status  is  usually  not  a  guarantee  of  their           preservation to a more distant future. The promotion of this type of landscape           in the public and the increased attendance of sites as an important cultural           heritage may push the owners or users of these plots to keep them constantly           exploited and thus maintained and protected.            Acknowledgment: The inventory and research of the segments of the ancient           landscape  is  part  of  the  project  “Inventarization  of  the  Pre-Industrial           Landscape of Moravia and ensuring the public awareness of its existence as a           cultural heritage” supported by the Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic           under  No  DG16P02B042  for  the  years  2016-2020  within  the  Program  for           support  of  applied  research  and  experimental  development  of  national  and           cultural  identity  for  the  years  2016-2022,  with  Global  Objective  2:  Cultural           Heritage,  and  Specific  Objective  2.1  Research  and  its  Application  -  Cultural           heritage and areas with historical values.                                                 184","REFERENCES             BANDARIN,  F.,  ed.  World  Heritage  Cultural  Landscapes.  A  Handbook  for             Conservation and Management. 1. vyd., Paris: UNESCO, 2009, World Heritage             Papers 26.             BEZÁK,  P.,  et  al.  Reprezentatívne  typy  krajiny  Slovenska.  1.  vyd.,  Bratislava:             Ústav krajinnej ekológie Slovenskej akadémie vied, 2010.             BRŮNA,  V.,  BUCHTA,  I.,  UHLÍŘOVÁ,  L.  Identifikace  historické  sítě  prvků             ekologické stability krajiny na mapách vojenských mapování. Ústí nad Labem:             Univerzita  J.  E.  Purkyně,  2002,  Acta  Universitatis  Purkynianae,  Studia             Geoinformatica II.             BUNCE, R. G. H., BARR, C. J., CLARKE, R. T., HOWARD, D. C., LANE, A. M. J. ITE             Merlewood  Land  Classification  of  Great  Britain.  Journal  of  Biogeography.             1996,  roč.  23,  č.  5,  s.  625-634.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-             2699.1996.tb00023.x             CZUDEK,  T.,  et  al.  Regionální  členění  reliéfu  ČSR.  Mapa měřítka  1:500  000.             Brno: Geografický ústav ČSAV, 1973, Mapy regionálního členění ČSR.             VAN EETWELDE, V., ANTROP, M. The significance of landscape relic zones in             relation  to  soil  conditions,  settlement  pattern  and  territories  in  Flanders.             Landscape  and  Urban  Planning.  2005,  roč.  70,  č.  2,  s.  127-141.             https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2003.10.009             HREŠKO, J., PETLUŠ, P., eds. Atlas archetypov krajiny Slovenska. 1. vyd., Nitra:             Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa, 2015.             HREŠKO, J., PETROVIČ, F., MIŠOVIČOVÁ, R. Mountain landscape archetypes of             the  Western  Carpathians  (Slovakia).  Biodiversity  and  Conservation.  2015,             roč. 24, č. 13, s. 3269-3283.             KAREL  T.,  KRATOCHVÍLOVÁ,  A.,  eds.  Proměny  montánní  krajiny.  Historické             sídelní  a  montánní  struktury  Krušnohoří.  1.  vyd.,  Loket:  NPÚ,  ÚOP  v  Lokti,             2013.             LIPSKÝ,  Z.,  WEBER,  M.,  STROBLOVÁ,  L.,  et  al.  Současnost  a  vize  krajiny             Novodvorska a Žehušicka. 1. vyd., Praha: Karolinum, 2013.             MIKLÓS, L., IZAKOVIČOVÁ, Z., et al. Atlas reprezentatívnych geoekosystémov             Slovenska.  1.  vyd.,  Bratislava:  ÚKE  SAV  a  Ministerstvo  životného  prostredia             SR/Ministerstvo školstva SR, 2006.             MÜCHER, C. A., et al. Identification and Characterisation of Environments and             Landscapes  in  Europe.  1.  vyd.,  Wageningen:  Alterra,  2003,  Alterra  rapport             832.             SEMOTAMOVÁ,  E.,  CAJTHAML,  J.,  et  al.  Akademický  atlas  českých  dějin.  1.             vyd., Praha: Academia.             SLÁMOVÁ,  M.,  JANČURA,  P.  Typológia  historických  krajinných  štruktúr.  In:             Konferencia:  Krajina-človek-kultúra,  1.  vyd.,  Zvolen:  Technická  univerzita  vo             Zvolene, 2012, 15. 1-60.                                                185","Shrnutí           Části  území  se  zachovalou  druhotnou  (ekonomickou)  strukturou  krajiny,           vzniklou cca před polovinou 19. století, lze považovat za existující segmenty           předindustriální  krajiny.  Takové  území  si  zachovalo  podobný  charakter           parcelace  a  využití  pozemků  z této  doby.  Tyto  segmenty  byly  předběžně           identifikovány  v současné  kulturní  krajině  podle  recentního  barevného           ortofota. Srovnáním s mapou II. vojenského mapování a indikačními skicemi           katastrálního mapování z 1. pol. 19. st. byla existence toho kulturního dědictví           potvrzena, nebo vyloučena. Evidence probíhala systematicky po jednotlivých           katastrálních  územích  tzv.  pracovních  regionů  Moravy,  v tomto  případě           v regionu Malá Haná (obr. 1). Laboratorně zjištěné segmenty předindustriální           krajiny pak prošly terénním výzkumem, na který navazovalo stanovení jejich           vlastností a hodnocení stavu a ohrožení.           Terénní výzkum jednoznačně prokázal, že segmenty předindustriální krajiny se           nejčastěji  rekrutují  z dříve  intenzivně  využívaných  polností  na  terasovaných           svazích okolních pohoří lemujících sníženinu Malé Hané, výjimečně z bývalých           polí  vedených  po  spádnici  a  oddělených  výraznými  mezemi  (obr.  2).  Díky           sklonu svahu a zpravidla půdám nižší bonity (s výjimkou úpatí na úrodnějších           půdách)  se  kolektivizace  zásadně  nedotkla  parcelace  pozemků.  Spíše  zde           obvykle  došlo  k přechodu  od  intezivního  k extenzivnímu  hospodaření           spojeného  s  „ekologizací“  jak  vlastních  zemědělských  ploch,  tak  jejich           terasových  rozhraní  či  mezí.  Okraje  pozemků  podlehly  intenzivní  sukcesi           keřové a stromové vegetace. Spojování pozemků v rovinatém terénu se zčásti           vyhnuly  pouze  podmáčené  plochy  v  nivě  u  obce  Sudice.  V souvislosti           s restitucemi  však  místy  doslo  k  obnovení  drobné  parcelace  i  v rovinatém           terénu (mírně ukloněná rovina) a zčásti i na svazích v okolí Drnovic. Celkem           bylo v regionu zjištěno 9 hledaných segmentů (obr. 3).           V pracovním  regionu  Malá  Haná  probíhá  setrvalý  úbytek  segmentů           předindustriální  krajiny,  zahájený  v poválečném  období  kolektivivizací           zemědělství. Příkladem segmentu předindustriální krajiny v členitém terénu je           okolí  obce  Borotín  (obr.  4).  Původní  pestrá  zemědělská  krajina  s drobnou           parcelací pozemků v rovinatém území téměř vymizela. Zajímavou výjimkou je           okolí  Drnovic,  kde  drobná  parcelace  se  z významné  části  udržike  v ploché           i sklonitější části katastru. Jižně od centra Sudic je částečně uchován segment           starobylé krajiny ve vlhké sníženině kolem potoka v sousedství statku Sudický           Dvůr (Pastvisko – obr. 5). Vkládání dalších chovných rybníků do krajiny však           původní vzhled segmentu narušuje.           V pracovním  regionu  se  rovněž  vyskytují  areály  drobné  pozemkové  držby           mimo vlastní zónu záhumenků u obce Flintour (část obce Biskupice) a u obce           Jaroměřice.  Tyto  však  nelze  zařadit  do  kategorie  segmentů  předindustriální           krajiny,  neboť  na  starých  mapách  z 1.  poloviny  19.  století  figurují  v podobě           rozsáhlých  souvislých  pozemků  a  k jejich  parcelaci  zřejmě  došlo  pozdějí           v souvislosti  s dělením  velkostatků  při  pozemkových  reformách.  Rezidua           předindustriální  krajiny  Malé  Hané  tak  většinou  reprezentují  netypickou           původní  kulturní  krajinu  s členitým  terénem  a  jejich  stav  v současnosti           zpravidla není zárukou jejich uchování do vzdálenější budoucnosti. Propagace           toho  typu  krajiny  u  veřejnosti  a  tím  zvýšená  návštěvnost  lokalit  jako           významného  kulturního  dědictví  však  může  vlastníky,  resp.  uživatele  těchto           pozemků přimět k setrvalému využívání a tím k jejich údržbě i ochraně.                                           186","NATURAL ASPECTS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LANDSCAPE WITH                   DISPERSED SETTLEMENT (EXAMPLE OF THE HRUŠOV VILLAGE                                     CADASTRAL AREA)                                                         2                                           1                                   Ján Lacika  , Ján Hanušin              1                Department of Geography and Regional Development, FNS CPU in Nitra, Trieda                             A. Hlinku 1, 949 74 Nitra, Slovak Republic                                       j.lacika@ukf.sk                2                 Institute of Geography of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Štefánikova 49, 814 73                                   Bratislava, Slovak Republic                                      hanusin@savba.sk              Abstract: The landscape with hamlets represents a distinctive type of cultural             landscape with a relatively large spread in Slovakia characterized by very close             ties  between  humans  and  nature.  The  dispersed  type  of  settlement  was             formed  mainly  in  more  remote  regions  with  difficult  conditions  for  life,  in             certain specific types of the natural landscape of the Slovak Carpathians. This             paper focuses on research into the extent and nature of the impact of natural             conditions on the origin and development of the dispersed settlement in the             model territory of the cadastral area of the village of Hrušov (district of Veľký             Krtíš). Among other things results, we found that the dominant determinant             of the character of the dispersed settlement of the model territory is a relief.             Key  words:  dispersed  settlement,  cultural  landscape,  natural  landscape,             village Hrušov.                                       1 INTRODUCTION             The type of landscape with dispersed settlements is a distinctive and special             phenomenon  of  the  Slovak  Carpathians  with  its  own  building  culture  and             specific landscape structures that over the course of several centuries have             written  indelible  traces  on  the  Carpathian  landscape  and  have  become             a permanent  part  of  the  tangible  and  intangible  heritage  and  the             unrepeatable genius loci. Scattered settlements in Slovakia are a distinctive             type of settlement forming a distinctive type of landscape. They were created             during  certain  historical  periods,  forcing  part  of  the  population  to  settle  in             more remote and not easily accessible mountain areas and the cultivation of             the  surrounding  countryside  under  limited  natural  conditions.  Huba  (1989)             this type of settlement was characterized as a settlement until the by then             anecumene in the remote parts of the townships of older municipalities and,             to  a  certain  extent,  always  constituted  an  extreme  and  extemporary             residential  manifestation. According to Sitár (1967), in the establishment of             the dispersed settlements, it must be possible to carry out its basic function of             soil cultivation at the given site, even when the conditions at the boundary of             load  bearing  capacity  are  difficult.  Petrovič  (2006)  draws  attention  to  the                                             187","example  of  the  region  of  Nová  Baňa,  where  besides  pastors  and  hunters,           scattered  settlements  were  also  found  and  inhabited  by  woodcutters,           charcoal-burner, glassmakers and miners.           Despite the extreme nature of these natural conditions, the type of landscape           with  dispersed  settlements  within  Slovakia  cannot  be  understood  as  a           marginal  phenomenon  (marginal  =  10%).  Five  areas  with  scattered                                           2           settlements occupy a total of 4 640 km , which represents almost one tenth of           the territory of Slovakia. Nahálka (1966) states that in 1961 there were 2 899           dispersed settlements in 166 Slovak areas, in  which approximately 140 000           people  lived.  Although  the  population  in  these  dispersed  settlements  has           been reduced in the following decades, dispersed settlements in the country           have largely remained. The type of landscape with dispersed settlements is           still present in Slovakia, but increasingly in a neglected or degraded state.                                 2 STATE OF KNOWLEDGE           Mainly  geographers  and  ethnologists  acquit  of  themes  of  scattered           settlements in Slovakia well. For geographically focused research, a landscape           with dispersed settlements is an interesting phenomenon with a very specific           type  of  cultural  landscape,  closely  bound  and  determined  by  natural           conditions.  Ethnologists  are  attracted  to  the  inhabitants  of  dispersed           settlements with their own and unique way of life in the difficult conditions of           the remote corners of the landscape. The first ethnological work on this type           of  Slovak  country  emerged  during  the  inter-war  period  and  the  most           geographic  studies  were  created  completed  in  the  1980s.    The  agile  self-           government of the village issued a valuable edition of the monograph entitled           Traditional  Material  Culture  of  the  Village  of  Hrušov.  For  us  the  most           beneficial are the works about farming (Brada et al. 2014) and the traditional           folk architecture (Brada, Brloš 2013).                            3 METHODOLOGICAL BACKGROUND           In  the  literature,  we  have  found  two  inspirational  studies  dealing  with  the           localization of cultural landscape elements in the natural environment. Both           have  taken  advantage  of  the  comprehensive  integrated  STATISTICA  system.           The work of Izakovičova et al. (2016) used it to evaluate the localization of the           castles in Slovakia. It has worked with a set of statistical units with nationwide           expansion, which also corresponds to the diversity of natural landscape types.           The work of Petrovič (2006) has a more local aspect, worked with statistical           files  on  dispersed  settlements  and  their  positional  and  geomorphologic           properties.           Our  approach  is  methodologically  more  traditional  and  simple,  based  on           detailed typology of the natural landscape, simple statistical operations and           very  detailed  field  research.  Between  2015  and  2017,  we  performed           a detailed mapping of the basic elements of the natural and cultural landscape           recorded in a basic topographic map at a scale of 1:10 000 and a modified           map  provided  by  the  EUROSENSE  aerial  photography  published  on  the           Mapy.cz web portal (2012). In the framework of research on the dynamics of           changes in the historical cultural landscape of the model territory, we applied                                            188","the method of analysis of the available cartographic data, historical maps of             military mapping (National Geoportal SR 2014) and historical orthophotomaps             of Slovakia from 1950 (Geodis Slovakia, TU Zvolen et al.).                                     4 MODEL TERRITORY             Before 1918, the village of Hrušov had (Fig. 1) a very peripheral position, lying             on  the  eastern  edge  of  Hont  region  far  from  the  regional  centres  Šahy,             Krupina  and  Modrý  Kameň.  Its  periphery,  after  the  collapse  of  the  Austro-             Hungarian monarchy, was further accentuated by the loss of relatively good             accessibility to Budapest and in the new Czechoslovak state it developed as             part  of  a  neglected  and  economically  unsupported  region.  At  present,  the             village of Hrušov is incorporated into the district of Veľký Krtíš, 31 km from its             centre. The peripheral location and the low degree of economic development             of the region causes the village of Hrušov to be depopulated. Of the 1 200             inhabitants in 1970, the population dropped to 849 in 2016.                                        Fig. 1 Position of the model territory                            4.1 Development of the natural landscape             The memory of the present natural landscape of Krupinská planina dates back             to  the  period  of  the  Lower  Baden,  when  activated  the  volcanoes  of  the             Šahansko-lysecka volcanic-tectonic zone (Vass et al 1979 and 1983). The result             of their activity is a volcanic complex, which in the studied area is dominated             by tuff and tuffitic sands. Since the Sarmat period, the terrestrial development             has been free of volcanism. In the form of break tectonics and cyclical changes             of  the  climate,  the  non-karst  plane  and  the  erosion-tectonic  basin  have                                             189","gradually been individualized. The model territory is located in the transition           zone  between  the  two  geomorphological  different  environments.  The           southern part is part of the southernmost part of the Modrokamenské úboče           Slopes  (Mazúr  and  Lukniš  1978)  on  the  northern  part  of  the  bounds  which           reaches  the  edge  of  the  Dačolomská  planina  Plain.  The  geomorphologic           boundary location of this area is determined for the nature of the local natural           landscape.  The  relief  along  with  the  subsoil  are  relevant  components           determining  the  properties  of  its  other  components  (air,  water,  soil  and           vegetation) which significantly affect the human activities in it.                           4.2 Development of cultural landscape           The archaeological artefacts of the settlement of Baden's culture, exposed by           plowing, and the historical references of two medieval settlements suggest,           that the historical cultural landscape began in the territory of Hrušov in the           very past. The clearer contours of its possible form, however, can be found in           our early years. From the 18th century, we can identify it more closely from           the historical maps of the military mapping of the monarchy.           On the map of the 1st Military Mapping (1764-1787), the state of the cultural           landscape  is  roughly  similar  to  that  of  today.  Part  of  it  was  a  mass  village           connected by a road with the neighbouring Vinica village, which continues to           the  north,  ramifying  to  the  local  network  of  access  roads  to  about  thirty           settlements in a similar layout as today's dispersed settlements. According to           Brada and Brloš (2013), the scattered settlements were created from the so           called  barns  built  outside  the  built-up  area  which  became  the  temporary           dwellings  of  shepherds  and  later  also  the  farmers  farming  the  expansive           arable  land  on  the  plains.  Unlike  the  northernmost  lying  dispersed           settlements  inhabited  by  pastors  coming  from  other  regions,  the  domestic           population moved to the Hrušov territory Švecová (1984).                           nd           The  map  of  the  2   military  mapping  (1810-1869)  shows  the  status  after           a large splitting of parcels land in the built-up area that was caused by fires. In           the area outside the built-up area, we can find several, nowadays used place           names of local places. Changes in the cultural landscape, particularly in the           non built-up areas on the map of the 3rd Military Mapping (1875-1884), were           caused  by  land  merging.  Soil  consolidation  created  new  large  land  plots  of           estates  that  remained  internally  differentiated,  just  with  an  altered  ground                                                          th           plan. The decline of large estates in the first half of the 20 century began the           unprecedented  boom  of  the  Hrušov  area.  Besides  the  increasing  of  the           number of small settlements and their inhabitants they were also rebuilt to           adapt to year-round living. The inhabitants of small dispersed settlements in           Hrušov  area  began  to  use  so-called  double-residency  housing  to  such  an           extent like nowhere else in Slovakia (1980 and 1988). The Reeves and their           family lived in a settlement outside of a village in the week and only stayed           a short time on Sunday in the second house in the village. This way of life was           the driving force behind the development of the Hrušov landscape, when it           enabled its inhabitants to intensify and better farm on the land while keeping           the link between dwellings in and outside the village.           The cooperative farms operating in Hrušov until 1979 were able to develop           only some forms of collective agriculture transforming the original landscape.                                            190","The most striking intervention in the landscape structure was the destruction             of  the  orchards  of  the  renowned  Hrušov  fruit  farmers.  The  dispersed             settlement country was negatively affected by the forced radical changes in             land ownership forcing ex-private farmers to leave the dispersed settlements,             which  ceased  to  play  the  role  of  remote  points  of  farming.  The  rate  of             desolation of the dispersed settlement country in Hrušov in the years 1950 to             2010 is documented in the works of Hanušin and Lacika (2017 in the print).             The resulting state captures the map of land cover (Fig 2).                                                          Fig. 2. Land cover in 2010.             1 arable land, 2 degraded area, 3 compact build-up area, 4 forests, 5 meadows and pasture             land, 6 fruit grow, 7 agricultural technologic area, 8 agricultural mosaic, 9 vineyard, 10 water             reservoir, 11 area of dispersed settlement                                              191","The current state of the settlement was determined by field research using           local government data. In 2016, outside the built-up areas of Hrušov, there           were  205  dispersed  settlements,  of  which  86  were  occupied  and  110  were           used for occasional housing, especially as a holiday cottage. A positive trend in           recent  years  has  been  the  arrival  of  the  so-called  homesteaders  from  the           ranks of immigrants who mostly develop beneficial landscaping activities.                                       5 RESULTS           The geomorphological conditions in the given area of the village of Hrušov are           created by the basic features of its natural landscape. Climatic, hydrological,           soil  and  vegetation  ratios  are  also  being  adapted  to  the  local  scale.  The           geological base here appears to be a relatively homogeneous component of           the natural landscape with a local impact on its overall heterogeneity. From           the given facts, our classification criterion for the exclusion of the types of the           natural landscape of a given territory are the morphometric, morphographic           and morphogenetic properties of the relief.                   5.1 Types of natural landscape and dispersed settlements           The  relevant  territory  of  the  cadastral  village  of  Hrušov  is  part  of  the           geomorphological  complex  Krupinská  Planina  Plain,  which  has  developed           throughout its territory a natural type of landscape of a non-karst plain. It is           possible to single out two types of a lower grade natural landscape (Fig. 3),           namely the type of plain (A) and the type of plain slopes (B). This breakdown is           based on the fact that the plains are generally made up of plateaus and slopes           with which these plateaus are bound.                                                                        192","Fig. 3. Types of the natural landscape.             A type of plain plateau: A1 subtype of plateaus, A2 subtype of shallow valleys.  B type of plain             slopes: B1 subtype of isolated elevations, B2 subtype of isolated plateaus, B3 subtype of flat             ridges, B4 subtype of slope and saddle plateaus, B5 subtype of steep valley slopes, B6 subtype             gentle valley slopes, B7 subtype of valley bottoms. C Other marks: 1 type border, 2 subtype             border, 3                                  5.1.1 Type of plain plateau A             Type A occupies about a quarter of the bounds. It is made up of a fairly entire             flat  plateau  (subtype  A1)  divided  by  relatively  short  and  shallow  valleys             (subtype  A2).  The  subtype  of  plateaus  A1  is  characterized  by  the  least             dissected  relief  within  the  given  territory,  and  according  to  the  relative                                             193","altitude it is a wavy plane to the lower hills. From a topical point of view, this           subtype has the highest potential for the development of economic activities           and  the  formation  of  the  settlement  and  communication  network.  It  is  the           territory with the lowest degree of internal barriers. Taking into account the           choral aspects of the morphographical type of relief according to URBÁNEK           (1981)  we  must  also  take  into  account  the  so  called  external  barrier           expressing  the  remoteness,  inaccessibility  and  isolation  of  the  territory           thereby reducing the potential output. Subtype A1 is divided into two plain           plateaus. The more compact northwest plateau is a wavy plane with distinctly           rounded and convex relief shapes. The integrity of the northeast plateau is           disturbed  by  the  shallow  valley  bent  into  a  U-shaped  plan.  Its  presence           provides relief in the highlands with many occurrences of concave shapes.           Subtype of shallow valleys A2 is inserted between subtype A1 plateaus. It has           more  dynamic  morphographic  parameters  than  the  subtype  A1.  The  flat           bottom of the valley, with a channel of the permanently flowing Olvár stream,           is bordered on both sides by steeply forested slopes up to 60 m high. On the           bottom of the valley runs the main road.                                5.1.2 Type of plain slopes B           The  landscape  type  of  plain  slopes  B  occupies  the  southern  part  of  the           territory of the cadastral area of the village of Hrušov (75% of the area). It is at           first  glance  different  from  landscape  type  A.  It  also  has  built-in  plateaus           dominating in type A, but they are much smaller and do not specify the overall           landscape.  The morphometric parameters of Type B relief are more spatially           heterogeneous. This corresponds to the different use of the land with a higher           representation of forests and a greater defragmentation of other components           of the cultural landscape. The landscape type B is divided into 7 subtypes.           The subtype of isolated elevations B1 has the highest elevation position in the           model area. It consists of 7 small insulated elevations protruding above the           plateaus and plateau ridges of the wold slopes. The B2 isolated subtype forms           a set of isolated plateaus on the backs of the plain slopes. The subtype of flat           ridges  B3  differs  from  the  subtype  B2  in  that  its  flattened  relief  parts  are           tapered into long longitudinal wold backs. The subtype of slope and saddle           plateaus B4 is significantly divided into 6 small isolated areas. The subtype of           steep valley slopes B5 is the dominant element of the natural landscape of the           wold slope, which determines their overall landscape character. It is the result           of the recessed valley network of the southern part of the model territory. It is           characterized  by  the  high  slopes  with  a  local  occurrence  of  small  scale           landforms  and  within  the  studied  area  the  highest  degree  of  afforestation.           The subtype of gentle valley slopes B6 is located in parts of slopes with a less           dissected relief than the subtype B5. We have set them apart because of the           differences in economic use.  In the subtype of valley bottoms B7 we find in           two areas of very small arrays a significantly elongated ground plan. Both are           the lowest lying segment within the local natural landscape.                  5.1.3 Layout of dispersed settlements in a natural landscape           By overlaying a map of the spacing of remote dispersed settlements on a map           of natural landscape types, we have gained an image of the natural conditions           in  which  the  dispersed  settlement  country  of  Hrušov  was  created  and           developed.  We  have  identified  what  natural  conditions  their  builders                                            194","preferred and to which they, on the contrary, avoided. Table 1 shows that the             most favourable natural conditions were provided by the type A that occupies             the northern quarter of Hrušov bounds. There are 78 dispersed settlements             (38%),  at  a  density  of  13.5  dispersed  settlements  per  100  ha.  Type  A  has             optimal conditions for various agricultural activities corresponding to climatic             conditions at an altitude of over 400 meters and does not create any major             barriers  for  the  local  road  network.  Interestingly,  quite  a  lot  of  dispersed             settlements lie on the edges of the plains so that there is enough space for             agricultural  activity.  Within  two  subtypes,  there  are  more  dispersed             settlements in subtype A1 (64) than in subtype A2 (14) with less appropriate             morphometric relief parameters. One is at the bottom of the valley, one on             the slope, and 11 dispersed settlements are linearly positioned on the relief             edge between the western plateau and the western slope of the valley.             Tab.  1:  Distribution  of  the  dispersed  settlement  in  types  of  natural  landscape             areas               Type of                       Number of     Relative number of               natural   Area (ha)   Share of   dispersed   dispersed settlements in              landscape            area (%)   settlements   type/subtype (per 100 ha)             A             577       24.7       78              13.5             B              1 754      75.3    127               7.2             Subtype of             natural             landscape             A1            455       19.5       64              14.07             A2            122       5.2        14              11.48             B1            31        1.3        0                0             B2            291       12.5       32              11.00             B3            107       4.6        24              22.43             B4            67        2.9        5               7.46             B5            616       26.5       3               0.49             B6            609       26.1       63              10.34             B7            33        1.4        0                0             Cadastral    2 331      100       205              8.79             area              In  Type  B,  the  natural  conditions  for  the  establishment  of  dispersed             settlements are worse and on top of that internally more diverse. There are             a total of 127 dispersed settlements, but for a larger area of 1 754 ha (75.3%             of  the  land  area)  which  means  almost  half  the  density  (7.2  dispersed             settlement for 100 ha). The ridges of the plains subtype B3 provide a smaller             area  for  fields,  meadows  and  pastures,  but  are  not  limiting  for  dispersed             settlements  and  the  local  road  network.  Therefore,  there  are  24  dispersed             settlements with the highest density of 22.4 dispersed settlements per 100             ha. In the areas of subtype B2 with similar natural conditions as subtype A1,             there are 32 dispersed settlements at a density of 11 for 100 ha. In the areas             of subtype B4 there are 5 dispersed settlements. Their isolation and impaired             access  negate  locally  better  morphometric  parameters,  which  ultimately                                             195","limits their more intensive economic use. This also applies to the B7 subtype           without  dispersed  settlements.  Suitable  morphometric  parameters  did  not           play a role in the location of the dispersed settlements. The decisive factor           was the markedly peripheral and isolated position in an inversely organized           cultural landscape. One area lies on the flat wide bottom of the Olvár creek           valley  pointing  out  of  the  region  and  the  area  at  the  bottom  of  the  Veľky           Potok Valley is isolated on the edge of the bounds by the great natural barrier           of  the  steep  slopes  of  the  valley  of  subtype  B5.  The  B1  subtype  has  no           dispersed  settlements  either  because  small  insulated  hillocks  are  less           attractive for building dispersed settlements and economic activities.           Although the B6 subtypes have generally worse natural conditions than the           areas of plateau subtypes, they are attractive to the inhabitants of dispersed           settlements.  There  are  63  dispersed  settlements  with  a  density  of  10.3           dispersed  settlement  for  100  ha.  The  morphometric  parameters  of  this           subtype have almost limited values for agricultural activities as well as road           network building. Areas of the B5 subtype with the most unfavourable natural           conditions  occupy  more  than  a  quarter  of  the  territory,  but  there  are  only           three abandoned dispersed settlements.                          5.2 Natural landscape and road network                             5.2.1 Road network development           Krupinská  Planina  Plain  is  a  specific  geomorphological  environment  that           significantly  influences  the  communication  network  of  the  region.  From           a topical point of view, according to Urbánek (1981) the relief of the upland           plains within the plain appears to be suitable for building communications but           the slope of the plain is less suitable. Taking into account the choric aspect,           everything may seem different to us. If we look at the Krupinská Planina Plain           in relation to the neighbouring geomorphological units, this territory, with its           geomorphological  nature,  appears  to  be  a  significant  natural  barrier  that           makes  the  communication  link  between  the  Southern  Slovak  and  Central           Slovak  regions  difficult.  This  barrier  involves  not  only  the  hills  but  also  the           plateaus within the plain.                             5.2.2 Barriers of natural landscape           In Hrušov borders, an over-dense network of local roads had to be created,           ensuring the connection of individual dispersed settlements with a compact           part  of  the  village.  Analysing  its  ground  plan  properties,  we  realize  that  its           builders  fully  respected  the  natural  conditions  determined  by  the           geomorphological characteristics of the natural landscape.           Particular segments of the country are a barrier or connection for this road           network.  According  to  Urbánek  (1981)  the  barrier  and  forms  of  relief  are           perceived  as  natural  obstacles  making  it  difficult  to  interconnect  points           coupled with the road network while  connections are  forms  facilitating the           construction  and  use  of  transport  communications.  In  the  conditions  of           Slovakia, where the settlement-communication network concentrates on the           depressed parts, there are barriers to mountain ridges while the connections           are valleys and saddles in mountain ridges. In the model territory, however, a           more rare, inverse type of land use has developed, with the headquarters and                                            196","communications centre on the backs and plateaus, while the valleys are part             of a country with a low economic use. In the inverse country of Hrušov the             plateaus and plain ridges, there are connections for the road network and the             lower lying valley network are barriers. The only main access road from Vinica             to Hrušov is out of this scheme where it is built into the steep valley of the             Hrušov Creek.                                                           Fig. 4. Accessibility of the dispersed settlements to central village Hrušov.             A Degrees of barrier of natural landscape: 1 very low, 2 low, 3 medium high, 4 high, 5 very high.             B  quality  of  access  roads:  1  asphalt  road.  2  macadam  road,  3  road  with  unpaved  or  barely             reinforced surfaces.4 narrow walkways overgrowing paths. C Other marks: 1 village built up             area, 2 dispersed settlement, 3 extension coefficient, 4 cadastral area border             Analysing the topical and choral properties of the relief, which determine the             distribution of the joints and barriers in the country, we  have  set up areas                                             197","with five degrees of barrier in the model area (Fig. 4). Very low barrier rates           have  plateau  plates  that  allow  easy  communication  between  dispersed           settlements in almost all directions. The shallow valley of the plains as well as           the  flat  bottoms  of  the  larger  valleys  have  low  barrier  rates  allowing  easy           communication links only in the direction of the axis of the given valley. We           have assigned a moderate degree of barrier to the area of the local plateaus           which are surrounded by areas with a higher degree of barrier. A high and           very high degree of barrier is found on the more rugged valley slopes of the           Krupinská Planina Plain slope, which, with its geomorphological parameters,           makes the communication between the dispersed settlements more difficult.                         5.2.3 Accessibility of the dispersed settlements           The natural landscape is largely influenced by the availability of the dispersed           settlements  from  the  built-up  area  of  the  village,  especially  through           geomorphological properties. To determine accessibility, we used three basic           parameters  of  access  paths  to  dispersed  settlements,  which  determine  the           degree of their availability. They are: distance from the village, height profile           and technical quality           In the territory of Hrušov, we find up to 65 km of local roads and paths, which           corresponds to the fact that the model territory is a dispersed settlement type           of  cultural  landscape.  Over  200  dispersed  settlement  settlements  need           a connection  with  the  built-up  area  of  the  village,  with  many  necessary           services (shops, offices, church and school). The distances that the inhabitants           of each of Hrusov's dispersed settlements have to covering the road to the           village ranges from 0.4 to 5.8 km. Less than 1 km from the centre of the village           there  are  19  dispersed  settlements.  The  most  numerous  group  of  75           dispersed  settlements  is  located  within  a  distance  of  1  to  3  km  from  the           village, up to 68 dispersed settlements separates from the village 3 to 5 km of           local  roads  and  up  to  43  dispersed  settlements  lay  from  the  centre  of  the           village  over  5  km.  The  most  distant  is  the  dispersed  settlement  Ostrý  vrch           locality.           Interesting  knowledge  about  the  barrier  of  the  landscape  is  obtained  by           calculating the extension coefficient, which is  expressed by the ratio of the           real  distance  of  the  dispersed  settlement  along  the  local  roads  and  the  air           distance  of  the  dispersed  settlement  from  the  middle  of  the  village.  The           higher  the  coefficient,  the  greater  the  degree  of  barrier  between  the           dispersed settlement and the village. The measured value of the coefficient is           from  1.14  to  2.21.  Low  values  are  achieved  by  dispersed  settlements  lying           near the main road, which passes relatively straight through the middle of the           cadastre  from  north  to  south.  High  values  were  found  in  the  dispersed           settlements on the edges of the cadastre accessible on the roads leading to           the plateaus and the plateau ridges bypassing by the larger valleys.           The expansion coefficient helps identify horizontal barriers in a country where           roadways  need  to  be  avoided.  However,  the  barriers  in  the  country  have           a vertical dimension, they have a certain height that the road must overcome.           This property of the natural landscape is obnoxious by profiling, made by the           altitudinal profiles of roads (Fig 5). Paradoxically, the highest barriers are on           the main road. From the turning from the road from Vinice to Čelovce to the                                            198","centre of Hrušov, the road outclasses the height of 170  m, the steep slope             north of the village is 85 m high.  The altitude of the village centre is 370 m.             Up to 163 dispersed settlements are higher, so the settlers come down to the             village  and  have  to  climb  up  from  the  village.  The  highest  dispersed             settlements  are  situated  in  Zabukovina  locality,  they  are  scattered  along             a plateau at an altitude of 490 to 510 m. The 46 Hrušov dispersed settlements             are situated at an altitude similar to the built-up area of the village but to the             13  settlements  the  road  leads  down.  The  lowest  settlements  on  the  Stará             Hora and Pliešky localities are already abandoned.                              Fig.  5.  Altitudinal  profile  of  road  connected  the  Husárska  Pustatina  dispersed             settlement central village Hrušov.              The  quality  of  access  roads  is  an  important  criterion  for  the  availability  of             dispersed  settlements.  According  to  historical  maps,  the  network  of  these                                                                     th             paths formed together with dispersed settlements, at least in the 18  century,             and  according  to  1950  aerial  photography,  the  underlying  ground  plan  of             roads  has  not  changed  in  60  years.  However,  the  quality  of  the  roads  has             undergone  radical  improvements,  which,  famously  speaking,  the  dispersed             settlements  have  approached  the  village  which  also  makes  more  attractive             the relatively remote settlements on the real estate market. Up to 22 km of             roads (including streets in the city) have asphalt surfaces. Another 14.5 km             have  a  strong,  mostly  macadam  surface  and  is  also  accessible  by  regular             motor vehicles. The use of off-road vehicles requires traveling over 12.6 km of             local roads with unpaved or barely reinforced surfaces. Part of the 14.9 km             long  communications  network  is  not  maintained  and  there  are  narrow             walkways  overgrowing  paths  passable  on  foot  only.  Dispersed  settlements             with access by such a road or path are essentially condemned to extinction.                                                       199","6 CONCLUSION           We  had  come  to  this  project  with  the  knowledge  that  the  dispersed           settlement landscape represents a distinctive type of cultural landscape with           very  close  ties  between  man  and  nature.  Our  research,  however,  aims  to           show  this  connection  in  more  details  and  concrete.  The  results  achieved           confirm that the model territory of Hrušov village meets this goal very well. In           the plain type of natural landscape in Slovakia a relatively rare, inverse type of           cultural landscape with a long-lasting scattered settlement has been formed.           We  have  found  that  the  specificity  of  the  development  of  the  Hrušov           dispersed  settlements  is  related  to  their  peripheral  position  within  the           Krupinská Planina Plain, at an accessible distance from the neighbouring basin           natural  landscape  with  much  better  conditions  for  the  emergence  and           development of a cultural landscape with a compact type of rural settlements.           After  collecting  very  detailed  data  on  the  settlement  land  from  the  model           territory, we want to continue the research by collecting comparative material           about the type of cultural landscape of other villages in the Krupinská Planina           Plain area as well as from the more remote regions of Slovakia with dispersed           settlements or hillside settlements. By detailed research of other model areas,           we  would  like  to  develop  a  wider  conceived  typology  of  the  dispersed           settlement  landscape  in  relation  to  the  given  natural  conditions  in  another           geological and geomorphological environment.            This  article  was  written  with  the  support  of  the  research  project  VEGA  No.           2/0016/18.                                      REFERENCES           BOTÍK, J. 1980. Dvojrezidenčnosť ako dôsledok lazového osídlenia. Slovenský           národopis, 28, 1, pp. 78-83.           BRADA P., BRLOŠ, J. 2013. Tradičné staviteľstvo v Hrušove. Obec Hrušov, 288           pp.           BRADA, P., ZRNÍKOVÁ, K., BRLOŠ, J. 2014. Roľníctvo v Hrušove. Obec Hrušov,           334 pp.           HANUŠIN,  J.,  LACIKA,  J.  2017.  Vybrané  environmentálne  súvislosti    zmien           historickej  lazníckej  krajiny  (na  príklade  obce  Hrušov  okres  Veľký  Krtíš).  in           print.           HUBA,  M.  1989.  O  niektorých  otázkach  genézy  a  súčasného  stavu           kopaničiarskeho  osídlenia  na  území  Slovenskej  socialistickej  republiky.           Geografický časopis, 41, 2, pp. 138-155.           IZAKOVIČOVÁ, Z., PETROVIČ, F., RYBANSKÝ, Ľ. 2017. The Assessment of Slovak           Castles in Terms of Land and Ecology. In DUCHOŇOVÁ, Diana, FUNDRÁKOVÁ,           Anna, eds. Hrady a hradné panstvá na Slovensku. Historický ústav SAV, Veda           Bratislava, pp. 163-168.           MAZÚR,  E.,  LUKNIŠ,  M..  1978.  Regionálne  geomorfologické  členenie           Slovenska. in Geografický časopis, 30, 2. Bratislava: VEDA SAV,   pp. 101-124.                                             200","NAHÁLKA,  P.  et  al.  1966.  Výskum  rozptýleného  osídlenia  na  Slovensku.             Bratislava, VÚPS SF SVŠT, 144 pp.             PETROVIČ,  F.  2006.    Relationship  between  dispersed  settlement  and             morphometric-position  attribute  of  the  relief.  Acta  Environmentalica             Universitatis Comenianae 14, 1, 2006, pp. 105-113.             SITÁR,  E.  1967.  Kopaničiarske  osídlenie  na  Slovensku  (Niektoré  otázky             súčasného stavu). Vlastivedný časopis, 16, 3, pp. 125-135.             ŠVECOVÁ, S. 1984. Lazy v 19. a 20. storočí. Vývoj roľníckych chotárnych sídiel v             oblasti Krupinskej planiny. Univerzita Karlova, 148 pp.             URBÁNEK, J. 1981. Vhodnosť reliéfu pre výstavbu komunikácií. In MAZÚR, Emil             ed.  Funkčná  delimitácia  reliéfu  pre  hospodárske  využitie  na  príklade  SSR.             Náuka o Zemi, geographica 4, Veda, 170 pp.             VASS, D., KONEČNÝ, V., ŠEFARA, J., PRISTAŠ J., ŠKVARKA L. 1979. Geologická             stavba  Ipeľskej  kotliny  a Krupinskej  planiny.  Bratislava:  Geologický  ústav             Dionýza Štúra, 277 pp.             Historická  ortofotomapa  ©  GEODIS  SLOVAKIA,  s.r.o.,  Historické  LMS  ©             Topografický  ústav  Banská  Bystrica,  Ortofotomapa  ©  EUROSENSE,  s.r.o.  a             GEODIS  SLOVAKIA,  s.r.o.,  mapové  podklady  ©  Topografický  ústav  Banská             Bystrica, © TU Zvolen             Mapy.cz.  2102.  Letecké  snímky  zo  zdroja  ©  Eurosense.  Accessible  on:             Zhttps://mapy.cz/zakladni?x=19.0865350\&y=48.1651196\&z=13\&source=muni             \&id=20071             Historické  mapy  vojenských  mapovaní.  2014.  ©  SAŽP.  Accessible  on:             http://geoportal.gov.sk/sk/map?permalink=85fee94730605ec9aad47e531552             ea54                                           Zhrnutie             Laznícka krajina predstavuje osobitý typ kultúrnej krajiny s pomerne veľkým             rozšírením na Slovensku, pre ktorý je charakteristický veľmi tesnými väzbami             medzi  človekom  a prírodou.  Rozptýlený  typ  osídlenia  sa  sformoval             predovšetkým v odľahlejších regiónoch so sťaženými podmienkami pre život,             v určitých  špecifických  typoch  prírodnej  krajiny  slovenských  Karpát.  Tento             príspevok  je  zameraný  na  výskum  miery  a povahy  vplyvov  prírodných             podmienok na vznik a vývoj lazníckeho osídlenia v modelovom území katastra             obce  Hrušov  (okres  Veľký  Krtíš).  Okrem  iného  zistil,  že  dominantným             determinantom charakteru lazníckej krajiny modelového územia je reliéf.             Dosiahnuté výsledky nám potvrdili, že modelové územie chotáru obce Hrušov             sa na naplnenie tohto cieľa veľmi hodí. Na planinovom type prírodnej krajiny             sa sformoval na Slovensku pomerne zriedkavý inverzný typ kultúrnej krajiny             s dlhodobo sa rozvíjajúcim rozptýleným osídlením. Zistili sme, že špecifičnosť             vývoja  hrušovských  lazov  súvisí  s ich  okrajovou  polohou  v rámci  Krupinskej             planiny, relatívne blízkej vzdialenosti od susednej kotlinovej prírodnej krajiny             s oveľa  lepšími  podmienkami  pre  vznik  a rozvoj  kultúrnej  krajiny             s kompaktným typom vidieckych sídel. Po zhromaždení veľmi detailných  dát             o lazníckej  krajine  z modelového  územia  chceme  pokračovať  vo  výskume             zbieraním komparatívneho materiálu o lazníckom type kultúrnej krajiny iných                                             201","lazníckych obcí v oblasti Krupinskej planiny ako aj zo vzdialenejších regiónov           Slovenska s kopanicami, lazmi, štálmi či raľami. Detailným výskumom ďalších           modelových  území  by  sme  chceli  dospieť  k vytvoreniu  širšie  koncipovanej           typizácie lazníckej krajiny vo vzťahu k daným prírodným podmienkam v inom           geologickom a geomorfologickom prostredí.                                                                                                   202","NEW APPROACHES TO STUDIES OF EXTINCT PONDS                                       1                                                  2                      1                                                                           4                                                                3              Aleš Létal , Renata Pavelková , Patrik Netopil , Marek Havlíček , Václav David ,                                     3                                                  1                                                                  2                        Hana Skokanová , Jindřich Frajer , Bořivoj Šarapatka                 1                  Palacky Univerzity in Olomouc, Faculty of Nature Science, Department of                     Geography, 17. Listoapdu 12, Olomouc 771 46, Czech Republic                     ales.letal@upol.cz, r.pavelkova@upol.cz, jindrich.frajer@upol.cz              2               Palacky Univerzity in Olomouc, Faculty of Nature Science, Department of Ecology,                          17. Listoapdu 12, Olomouc 771 46, Czech Republic                          patrik.netopil@upol.cz, borivoj.sarapatka@upol.cz               3                The Silva Tarouca Research Institute for Landscape and Ornamental Gardening,                             Lidická 25/27, Brno 602 00, Czech Republic                         marek.havlicek@vukoz.cz, hana.skokanova@vukoz.cz               4               Czech Technical University in Prague, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of                Irrigation, Drainage and Landscape Engineering, Thákurova 7, Praha 166 29                                    vaclav.david@fsv.cvut.cz              Abstract:  The  article  deals  with  applying  modern  methods  and  related             methodical  approaches  to  spatial  data  and  information  collection  in  the             research of extinct ponds in selected catchment areas in Bohemia, Moravia             and  Silesia.  The  paper  demonstrates  an  application  of  modern  methods  in             cabinet  and  field  research  using  selected  examples.  The  methodical             approaches concern mostly the processes of vectorisation and processing of             database  verification  from  archive  map  sources,  spatial  modelling  and             applications of lidar data, modelling and applications of RPAS. The results help             to complete the missing information within the complex study of landscape             development with special respect to water management of the catchment in             the past. The acquired facts are the valuable source of data used in studies             focusing  on  the  improvement  of  water  management  in  the  current             troublesome times.             Key words: lidar data, extinct ponds, Remotely Piloted Aircraft System, small             catchment, landscape development                                       INTRODUCTION             The study of the land use development is important for understanding current             and historical relationships between landscape components. Various methods             for acquisition, storing, searching and analyzing historical records of landscape             changes using electronic data processing were dealt with by Kienast (1993). In             order  to  determine  the  former  location  and  range  of  elements  in  the             landscape,  it  is  an  ideal  use  of  old  maps  of  significant  information  sources                                             203","about  the  historical  landscape  (Bas,  Pedroli,  Borger,  1990;  De  Boer,  2010;           Baily,  Riley,  Aucott,  Southhall,  2011).  One  of  the  basic  prerequisites  for           assessing  the  long-term  use  of  landscape  and  the  development  of  aquatic           areas  in  a  coherent  catchment  area  is  the  study  of  old  topographic  maps,           preferably the medium scale (Haase et al., 2007, Swetnam, 2007, Palang et al.,           1998; Havlíček et al., 2012)., Medium-scale topographic maps allow relatively           accurate tracking of changes in the landscape of Central Europe since the mid-           19th century. The oldest more or less usable map sets on the territory of the                                                   st                                                                         nd           Czech Republic, the topographical maps of the 1  and, in particular, of the 2           Austrian  Military  Mapping  Survey  made  the  UIEP  Laboratory  of                                                                  rd           Geoinformatics  (UJEP)  in  Most,  similar  to  mapping  from  the  3   Austrian           Military Mapping Survey (see Brůna et al., 2002). The applicability of map data                  st           of the 1  Austrian Military Mapping Survey for detailed analysis of land use           changes  is  limited  by  their  lack  of  field-level  accuracy  (Brüna  et  al.,  2002;           Frajer, Geletič, 2011). However, it is possible to use these mappings for the           indicative discovery of the development of some land use categories. The first           study on the development of water bodies in South Moravia was based on           older map data such as Müller's maps of Moravia from 1716 (Koláček, 1930).           Aerial images and their combination with the old maps were used by Kolejka,           Petch  (1989),  Skaloš  et  al.  (2011)  for  the  analysis  of  the  long-term  use  of           landscape changes in the Czech Republic.           Remote  Sensing  of  the  Earth  is  also  an  attractive  technique  for  obtaining           relevant information about current and past landscapes. Aerial images, lidar           data  and  satellite  imagery  are  used  in  many  landscape  surveys.  A  suitable           combination of these remote sensing data can be used in research of various           landscape components such as fluvial geomorphology (Winterbottom, Gilvear,           1997),  wetland  study  (Harvey,  Hill,  2010),  forestry  (Suaréz  et  al,  2005)  or           archaeology (Cox, 2010).           RPAS (Remote Piloted Aircraft System) technology is a new remote  sensing           that can extract high-resolution spatial data not only for military purposes but           also for civilian use and scientific research. Remote sensing with RPAS has the           potential to provide images of unprecedented spatial and temporal resolution           capabilities.  Their  use  in  the  current  research  of  the  landscape  grows  and           spreads to various objects of exploration. For example, d'Oleire-Oltmanns et           al. (2012)  monitored soil erosion in Morocco, other authors combined  with           the digital terrain model surveyed coastal development in Italy (Mancini, et           al., 2013), or research focused on the collection and processing of field data in           low-cost agriculture (Xiang, Tian, 2011).           Lidar data is now a new landmark in the complex knowledge of the landscape.           LIDAR's  technology  has  provided  mapping  and  analysis  capabilities  in  the           necessary  detail  in  wooded  or  inaccessible  areas.  The  use  of  lidar  data  is           presented in our case for the reconstruction and mapping of relics of water           management structures in the forested Šumice valley around close to Náměšť           na Hané city in the Central Moravia Region.  Interpretation of mapped shapes           and elements of the relief is based on detected structures on processed DTM           (Digital Terrain Model) outpouts with the necessary field research, which is           focused  on  exodynamic  analysis  of  relief  development  and  mapping  of           preserved relics of water management structures or interesting relief shapes           with  anthropogenic  activity  in  the  river  basin.  The  following  examples                                            204","demonstrate  the  use  of  modern  technologies  for  extinct  ponds  or  water             surface objects research.               MODERN METHODS APPLIED FOR EXTINCT PONDS AND WATER AREAS                                          SURVEY                          Remote Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS) usage             The  RPAS  technology  (Remotely  Piloted  Aircraft  System)  currently  provides             a wide  and  growing  selection  of  applications  and  experiences  a  rapid             development. Its applications are numerous in research as well. The research             aim is always important depending on the selection of the scanner placed in             the  aircraft.  This  article  presents  RPAS  applications  in  the  creation  of             a detailed Digital Surface Model (DSM) in areas with remnants of pond dams             which disappeared in the past. Interest localities are located near the town of             Blížkovice and Pavlice village (Fig. 1). Specialised scanners are not necessary in             such cases and a common camera with an RGB scanner can be used to create             a DSM (Digital Surface Model).             The  research  presented  in  this  article  used  the  Phantom  4  aircraft,  an             instrument  which  is  commonly  available  and  which  does  not  require  any             technical  modifications.    The  four  rotors  drone  has  integrated  12.4  Mpx             camera (4000x3000 pixels). The images were taken in an orthogonal network             that covered the dam remnants. The stereo-photogrammetry technique was             applied in the Agisoft PhotoScan software to evaluate the acquired images.             A point cloud was created based on the evaluation of the images which was             then  applied  in  the  calculation  of  a  vector  3D  model  and  a  raster  surface             model (Tab. 1).             Tab. 1: Overview of RPAS mapping parameters                            Locality                  Pavlice      Blížkovice                    Number of slides total / used     212/205      276/269                 Flight altitude above the ground (m)   44.4         42.2               Number of points of the cloud/dense cloud   253 599   415 099                        Surveyed area (ha)             2.94          3.76                              Fig.  1.  Blížkovice  locality  –  Digital  Surface  Model  (DSM)  a  orthophotomap             (on the right).                                             205","Fig.  2.  Pavlice  locality  –  Digital  Surface  Model  (DSM)  a  orthophotomap           (on the right).            The  resulting  model  captures  the  visible  ground  in  detail  and  with  relative           precision in that it also includes vegetation and does not describe the ground           itself. Nevertheless, it can be used to analyse the general shape of the earth           body, which used to form the pond dam, as can be seen from the previews of           the obtained digital layers (Fig. 1, Fig. 2).                                 Applications of lidar data           Lidar  data  now  present  a  new  milestone  in  complex  landscape  recognition.           LIDAR technologies have introduced possibilities of mapping and analyses in           the required detail in forested or inaccessible areas (Kolejka 2002, 2003). The           interpretation of the mapped forms and elements of the relief follow from the           detected  structures  on  lidar  images  with  necessary  field  research  which           focuses on an exodynamic analysis of relief development and mapping of the           surviving remnants of water management structures, or interesting forms of           relief connected with an anthropogenic activity in the catchment.                                     Area of interest           The  results  of  the  analyses  focused  on  the  location  Kruhovský  mlýn  mill.           Kruhovský mlýn on the Šumice River is presently a seriously damaged object           with preserved outer walls. An important element in the valley of the area of           interest  (Fig.  3)  is  the  mill  race  and  the  storage  reservoir  serving  the           technological needs of the mill. The Šumice valley is carved deep in the area           and  belongs  into  the  subunit  of  the  Bouzovská  vrchovina  (Highlands).  The           predominant  rocks  are  carboniferous  offal  and  slate  in  combination  with           conglomerates.  Pleistocene  loess  can  be  found  on  the  tfoot  of  hills.  The           structural conditionality of the relief is manifested on the slopes of the valley.           Outcrops of more resistant rocks on erosive slopes were mined in the past.           Small  mining  shapes  give  evidence  of  the  fact.  The  less  durable  parts  have           relatively thick layers of colluvium, which erode easily as evidenced by distinct           ravines, hollow ways, or bundles of hollow ways. The meadow of the Šumice           itself is predominantly a flat relief formed by poly-genetic filling of fluvial and                                            206","deluviofluvial sediments. Specific features are areas of right-sided tributaries             of  the  Šumice,  which  have  the  character  of  wild  water  courses  with  vast             gravelled positions significantly impacting the course of the main stream bed.                                 Fig. 3. Area of interest of the “Kruhovský mlýn” mill near the village Krakovec.                              Fig. 4. Area of interest in the map of the Stable Cadastre (1834) with the stone             step marked.             Source: Moravský zemský archiv v Brně, Krakovec 1834                                                          207","Fig. 5. Important elements and objects displayed using visualisation methods of           a digital terrain model in resolution of 1 m.           From the left: Cluster Hillshade – Terrain Analyst 1.1; Local Relief according to Hess – low pass           filter mask 10 m; Hill slopes – ArcGIS Spatial Analyst                      Airborne laser scanning technology and its processing           Airborne  laser  scanning  technology  LIDAR  –  LIght  Detection  And  Ranging  is           based on the principle of measuring the distance using a band of laser beams.           Airborne laser scanning has an active sensor on board a plane, helicopter or           UAV from which the ground is captured in a specific manner (more detail in           Šponer  2013  or  Dolanský  2004).  The  acquired  measured  data  are  so-called           clouds of points which have to be filtered using specific robust algorithms so           that  the  most  precise  image  of  the  ground  or  objects  on  the  ground  is           acquired.  The  resulting  quality  is  influenced  mostly  by  the  quality  of  the           filtering algorithms which process the primary data. The period of scanning is           significant; it has to be carried out prior to the vegetation development (tree           and shrub foliage, growth of grassland). The real imaging of the objects on the           resulting  product,  the  digital  terrain  model  (DTM),  or  the  digital  sourface           model  (DSM)  depend  on  the  method  of  point  cloud  interpolation  which           calculates the missing data. Calculations of a high number of elements (tens of           millions of points) are very demanding hardware-wise.           Routine  procedures  and  algorithms  were  used  in  analysing  the  lidar  data,           which are part of standard tools of the ESRI ArcGIS ArcMAP 10.4.1. software.           A set of tools of “TerrainTools 1.1” was also used. The calculation of the local           relief was accomplished using the procedure of creation of the so-called Local           Relief Model published by R. Hess in 2010 (2010). Analyses of a digital relief           model,  landscape  visualisation  and  capturing  existing  water  management           objects were dealt with over lidar data from two resources. The first resource                                           208","was the data set CDV–NAKI I acquired within the NAKI project: “Research of             historical  roads  in  North-West  Moravia  and  East  Bohemia”.  The  second             resource was the data set DMR5G from the database “A digital relief model of                  th             the 5  generation” of the Czech Office for Surveying, Mapping and Cadastre             (ČUZK). The lidar data of the CDV set in the GeoTIFF format were created by             interpolation using the IDW method for analyses of areas of interest by Mgr.             Jan Martínek of CDV, a public research institution. These data were acquired             within the NAKI I project in 2013. The measurement was realised using the             Riegl  LMS-Q680i  scanner  in  an  approximate  altitude  of  600-900  m  with  an             average  density  of  points  of  3-5  points  per  m2.  (further  in  Martínek  et  al.             2014).  The  lidar  data  of  the  DMR5G  set  were  interpolated  using  several             methods (IDW, ANUDEM, Natural Neighbour). The Natural Neighbour method             provided the most useful results. Further on the limits of data applicability of             the new altimeter model of the Czech Republic acquired from the lidar data             (Holata, Plzák, 2014).                                        Detected forms             The results of the digital relief model analyses from the lidar data were carried             out from the CDV-NAKI data, whose degree of detail is much higher (compare             Fig.  5).  It  is  possible  to  reconstruct  the  principles  of  function  of  a  water             management  set  as  well  as  to  verify  the  energy  performance  of  the  set.             Identifications  of  geomorphological  forms  which  help  complete  the  missing             information  of  the  dynamics  and  development  of  landscape  in  a  given             segment are of an equal importance.             The  number  of  anthropogenic  forms  like  hollow  ways,  small  qarriescan  be             identified in the area of interest, which can be used to extract the required             information. A mill race running the length of the foot of the hill is a water             management  element  which  can  be  identified  without  doubt.  It  is             a derivational water work which conducted water to run the mill away from             the main course. The race was regulated by a dam or a weir clearly detectable             in the map of the stable cadastre (Fig. 4). The natural conditions of the race             conduct  were  facilitated  by  the  existence  of  the  wild  Pilávka  in  flood             conditions. The waste channel enters the Šumice about 250 m from the mill             (Fig. 6). The channel had to be maintained regularly and rid of sediments with             respect to the position of the race at the foot of the erosive slope. Especially             risky  were  the  short  episodes  connected  to  water  erosion  from  the  source             area of the fields below the village Krakovec. This is proven by the existence of             ravines  partly  filled  with  deluviofluvial  accumulations  on  the  erosive  slope             between the former stone embankment in the bed and the storage reservoir.             The race can be activated by the flood water from the Šumice or the Pilávka             during higher watering.                                                       209","Fig. 6. Visualisation of the DTM created on the basis of available data sets.           A) NAKI–CDV B) DMR5G ČUZK using the Cluster Hillshade method (ESRI Terrain Analyst 1.1).            The shallow storage reservoir is a truly striking element. Using the lidar data,           we managed to reconstruct its parameters (Fig. 8). As the Šumice has a flat           bed, it was necessary to build a massive lateral embankment of the maximum           width 18 m at the base and 10 m at the crown. The reservoir is shallow with           the maximum depth of 1.5 m at the draining embankment. The bottom of the           reservoir  could  not  be  deepened  to  the  level  of  the  main  course  as  it  was           necessary to maintain the flow to facilitate the mill´s operation. The drainage           was achieved through a (floodgate) which enabled complete draining of the           reservoir. There is a stone race of 0.3 x 0.6 m next to the floodgate, which was           used to conduct water to the water wheels. The stone race was placed in the           feed channel and secured the functionality of the mill even when the reservoir           was  drained.  The  calculated  maximum  retention  capacity  of  the  storage                                         3           reservoir  is  approximately  2,300  m which  might  secure  3.5-4  hours  of  full                                                                   2           operation  during  the  maximum  use  of  the  flow  profile  (0.18  m ).  At  the           regular  occasions  of  low  flow,  the  mill´s  operation  was  secured  by  the  so-           called cascade waves which were facilitated by 4 mills with storage reservoirs           in the catchment above the Kruhovský Mlýn watermill and which had similar           parameters.                                                       210","Fig.  8.  DTM  of  the  Kruhovský  mlýn  watermill  storage  reservoir.  Ground             Resolution 1 m.              The other elements which are well identifiable are the communication routes             in the area of interest. The main access road from Krakovec does not exist any             longer; it is detectable in old maps, in an aerial geodetic image from 1953, as             well as from vegetation signs of the current orthophotos. The hollow way (the             main  access  road  to  the  mill),  which  is  carved  deep  in  the  slope  over  the             Kruhovský  mill  (Fig.  6),  is  a  clear  remnant.  There  is  a  small  local  mine  of             building  stone  (gray  wacke)  clearly  visible  on  the  left  slope  of  the  valley             around St. Anthony´s chapel. Similar small mines can be found in the south-             west  part  along  the  right  valley  slope  of  the  Šumice.  The  riverbed  of  the             Šumice can be crossed at two fords (Fig. 6). There are significant bundles of             exits,  which  prove  the  existence  of  a  local  transport  route  from  Kandie  to             Raková near Konice on the western (right) slope of the Šumice valley. There is             also  a  clear  set  of  ravines  on  the  adjacent  slope  above  the  mill,  which  are             conditioned  by  anthropogenic  activities.  The  distinct  ravine  above  the  mill             might be a remnant of a path way (a shortcut) or a remnant of an erosive             episode. The noticeable S-shaped bend is caused by a fallen tree. A distinct             loess is visible along the foot of the left valley slope which sediments in the             race.                                        CONCLUSIONS             The paper demonstrated the use of modern technologies in the extinct ponds             and water areas survey. For these activities, it is of course the most important             choice of methods that help us get detailed spatial data that are important for             modelling and deriving the size of mapped objects, as well as identify other             landscape  structures  that  directly  relate  to  or  affect  their  functions.  The             presented  results  show  trends  in  the  use  of  technology  to  obtain  detailed             digital  terrain  models  (DTM)  and  digital  surface  models  (DSM)  that  are             necessary for modelling of hydrological parameters of landscape. For mapping             of  relief  microforms  such  as  dyke  bodies  or  extinct  water  areas,  it  is             advantageous  to  use  RPAS  technology,  which  at  current  prices  is  an             interesting  alternative  to  significantly  more  expensive  aircraft  lidar  data             acquisition technology. The lidar data itself and its quality are influenced by a                                              211","number  of  factors.  The  key  factor  affecting  the  precision  and  detail  of           mapping  is  the  right  timing  of  the  measurements  during  the  rest  in  the           growing  season  and  in  spring  months,  if  possible,  when  the  penetration  of           a cloud of laser beams is not obstructed by leaves of not only the tree layer           but  mainly  the  shrub  and  herbaceous  layers.  To  provide  a  complex           assessment and evaluation of analyses, it is necessary to analyse the area of           interest of all available map and data resources. It is advantageous to analyse           the aerial geodetic images and maps of the stable cadastre or land maps with                                                                          th           respect to the changes of landscape structures in the second half of the 20           century. Although the advantage of the lidar data is indisputable and provides           us  with  the  much  needed  detail  in  forested  areas  as  well,  the  traditional           research methods such as field mapping and prospecting cannot be neglected.           A  correct  interpretation  of  the  analysed  forms  and  processes  is  impossible           without this component. However, the conclusions and results of analyses of           the lidar data may not reveal all connections and developmental stages. The           fluvial systems are dynamic systems whose distinct changes occur in episodes           whose  impact  is  relatively  soon  covered  with  the  development  of  the           vegetation cover which has optimum conditions in the floodplain areas.            Acknowledgments:  The  authors  of  the  paper  thank  the National  Agency  for           Agricultural  Research,  which  supported  the  project  NAZV  KUS  QJ1620395           entitled  “Restoration  and  building  of  ponds  in  forest  areas  as  a  part  of           sustainable water resources management in CR Czech Republic”, under which           this contribution was also drafted.                                      REFERENCES           BAILY, B., RILEY, M., AUCOTT, P. \& SOUTHALL, H. Extracting digital data from           the  First  Land  Utilisation  Survey  of  Great  Britain  e  Methods,  issues  and           potential.   Applied    Geography,     2011,     31,    959–968.           https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2010.12.007           BAS, G., PEDROLI, M. \& BORGER G. J.  Historical land use and hydrology. A           case  study  from  eastern  Noord-Brabant.  Landscape  Ecology,  1990,  4,  237–           248. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00129831           BRŮNA,  V.,  BUCHTA,  I.,  UHLÍŘOVÁ,  L.  Identifikace  historické  sítě  prvků           ekologické stability krajiny na mapách vojenských mapování. Vyd. 1. Ústí nad           Labem: Univerzita J.E. Purkyně, 2002. Acta Universitatis Purkynianae, Studia           Geoinformatica II., 81, 46 p.           COX, C. Satellite imagery, aerial photography and wetland archaeology. World           Archaelogy, 2010, 24 (2), 249–267.           DE BOER, A. 2010, Processing old maps and drawings to create virtual historic           landscapes. e-Perimetron, 5, 49–57.           DOLANSKÝ,  T.  Lidary  a  letecké  laserové  skenování.  Vyd.  1.  Ústí  nad  Labem:           Univerzita  J.E.  Purkyně,  2004.  Acta  Universitatis  Purkynianae.  Studia           geoinformatica; 99, 100 p.                                              212","D´OLEIRE-OLTMANNS,  S.,  MARZOLFF,  I.,  PETER,  K.  D.  RIES,  J.  UNMANNED             Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for Monitoring Soil Erosion in Marocco. Remote Sensing,             2012, 4 (11), 3390–3416.             DONEUS, M. Openness as Visualization Technique for Interpretative Mapping             of Airborne Lidar Derived Digital Terrain Models, Remote Sensing, 2013, 5(12),             6427-6442.             FRAJER, J., GELETIČ, J. Research of historical landscape by using old maps with             focus   to   its   positional   accuracy.   Dela,   2011,   36,   49–67.             https://doi.org/10.4312/dela.36.3.49-67             HAASE,  D.,  WALZ,  U.,  NEUBERT,  M.,  ROSENBERG,  M.  Changes  to  Central             European  landscapes  –  Analysing  historical  maps  to  approach  current             environmental  issues,  examples  form  Saxony,  Central  Germany.  Land  Use             Policy,         2007,          24           (1),         248-263.             https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2005.09.003             HARVEY, K.R., HILL, G.J.E. Vegetation maping of tropical freshwater swamp in             the  Northern  Territory,  Australia:  A  comparison  of  aerial  photography,             Landsat  TM  and  SPOT  satellite  imagery.  International  Journal  of  Remote             Sensing, 2010, 22 (15), 2911-2925. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160119174             HAVLÍČEK,  M.,  KREJČÍKOVÁ,  B.,  CHRUDINA,  Z.,  SVOBODA,  J.  Long-term  land             use development and changes in streams of the Kyjovka, Svratka and Velička             river basins (Czech republic). Moravian Geographical Reports, 2012, 20 (1), 28-             42.             HESSE, R. LIDAR-derived Local Relief Models – a new tool for archaeological             prospection.  Archaeological Prospection, 2010, 18, 67-72.             HOLATA,  L.;  PLZÁK,  J.  Examinace  procesu  optimalizace  „archeologicky             korektních“  způsobů  vyhodnocení  dat  z  leteckého  laserového  skenování             zalesněné krajiny: Potenciál filtrace surových dat, problematika interpolačních             algoritmů a způsobů vizualizace antropogenních tvarů v digitálních modelech             reliéfu. In: Gojda, M., John, J. (eds). Archeologie a letecké laserové skenování.             Západočeská univerzita v Plzni. 2014, 49-78.             JONES, A.F., BREWER, P.A., JOHNSTONE, E., MACKLIN, M.G., High-resolution             interpretative geomorphological mapping of river valley environments using             airborne LiDAR data. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 2007, 32, 1574–             1592.             KOLEJKA,  J.,  PETCH,  J.  Geografické  vyhodnocení  digitalizovaných  leteckých             snímků vodních objektů. Geografie, 94, 1989, 241–248.             KOLEJKA,  J.  Třírozměrný  svět  hned  na  monitoru.  Laserové  snímání  v praxi.             Computer Design, 2. 2002, 50–51.             KOLEJKA,  J.  Laserové  snímání  krajiny  jako  zdroj  přesných  třírozměrných             vstupních dat do GIS. Geografie – Sborník ČGS, 108, 1. 2003, 92–93.             MARTÍNEK, J a kol. Identifikace starých cest a dalších objektů za pomoci LLS.             In:  Gojda,  M.,  John,  J.  (eds).  Archeologie  a  letecké  laserové  skenování.             Západočeská univerzita v Plzni., 2014, 228-241.             KIENAST,  F.  Analysis  of  historical  landscape  patterns  with  a  geographical             information systems. Landscape Ecology, 1993, 8, 103–118.                                              213","KOLÁČEK, F. O vypuštěných rybnících jihomoravských. Sborník Československé           společnosti zeměpisné, 1930, 158-164.           MANCINI, F. et al.  Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) for High-Resolution           Reconstruction  of  Topography:  The  Structure  from  Motion  Approach  on           Coastal Environments. Remote Sensing, 2013, 5 (12), 6880-6898.           Ministerstvo  veřejných  prací:  Seznam  a  mapa  vodních  děl  republiky           Československé:  stav  koncem  roku  1930.  Sešit  Olomouc.  Ministerstvo           veřejných prací, Praha 1933. 40 s.           PALANG, H., MANDER, U., LUUD, A. Landscape diversity changes in Estonia.           Landscape   and   Urban   Planning,   1998,   41   (3-4),   163-169.           https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(98)00055-3           SKALOŠ,  J,  WEBER,  M.,  LIPSKÝ,  Z.,  TRPÁKOVÁ,  I.,  ŠANTRŮČKOVÁ,  M.,           UHLÍŘOVÁ, L., KUKLA, P. Using old military survey maps and orthophotograph           maps to analyse long-term land cover changes – Case study (Czech Republic).           Applied      Geography,     2011,      31       (2),     426-438.           https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2010.10.004           SWETNAM,  R.  D.  Rural  land  use  in  England  and  Wales  between  1930  and           1998: Mapping trajectories of change with a high resolution spatio-temporal           dataset.  Landscape  and  Urban  Planning,  2007,  81  (1-2),  91-103.           https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2006.10.013           SUARÉZ, J. C., ONTIVEROS C., SMITH, S., SNAPE, S. Use of airborne LiDAR and           aerial  photography  in  the  estimation  of  individual  tree  heights  in  forestry.           Computers\&Geosciences, 2005, 31, 253 -262.           ŠTĚPÁN, L. a kol. Dílo mlynářů a sekerníků v Čechách II. Praha: Argo, 2008, 316           s.           ŠTRONER, M. et al. 3D skenovací systémy. Vyd. 1. Praha: České vysoké učení           technické v Praze, 2013. 394 s.           WINTERBOTTOM,  S.,J.,  GILVEAR,  D.,  J.  Quantification  of  channel  bed           morphology in gravel – bed rivers using airborne multispectral imagery and           aerial photography. River Research and Applications, 1997, 13 (6), 489-499.           XIANG, H., TIAN, L.  Development of a low-cost agricultural remote  sensing           system based on an autonomous unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Biosystems           Engineering,       2011,         108         (2),        174-190.           https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2010.11.010           Internet sources           Czech National Geoportal (2015): Metadats (2nd Military Survey). Retrieved           from: http://geoportal.gov.cz/web/guest/catalogue-client           Historické  stezky  Čech,  Moravy  a  Slezska.  Mapserver  CCDV,  project  NAKI.           Retrieved from http://naki.vectormap.cz           Indicator  Sketches  –  Moravský  zemský  archiv  v Brně.  Retrieved  from           http://www.mza.cz/indikacniskici/           Kruhovský mlýn. Portál zaniklé obce. Retrieved from:           http://www.zanikleobce.cz/index.php?obec=10939           http://vodnimlyny.cz/poznavame-vodni-mlyny/                                            214","“Základní  mapy  ČR”.  ESRI  ArcGIS  Server  ČÚZK.  Retrieved  from:             http://ags.cuzk.cz/arcgis/services             Kruhovský mlýn. Portál zaniklé obce. Retrieved from :             http://www.zanikleobce.cz/index.php?obec=10939             http://vodnimlyny.cz/poznavame-vodni-mlyny/             http://altigator.com/drone-uav-uas-rpa-or-rpas/                                           Shrnutí             Příspěvek je zaměřen na praktické ukázky využití moderních technologií a na             ně  navázaných  metodických  přístupů  určených  ke  sběru  dat  a  informací             v oblasti  výzkumu  zaniklých  vodních  ploch.  Využití  dálkově  pilotovaných             létajících systémů (RPAS – Remotely Piloted Aircraft System) má uplatnění při             získávání  detailních  výškopisných  dat  a  modelů  povrchu  na  lokální  úrovni.             Dynamika vývoje daného segmentu a snižující se pořizovací náklady činí z této             technologie velmi efektivní a dostupný nástroj pro mapování krajiny na lokální             úrovni. Mapování širších souvislostí (regionální měřítko), ale zejména získání             detailních  modelů  terénu  i  povrchu  v zalesněných  oblastech  nabízí             technologie lidarových dat. Jejich pořízení a zpracování je limitováno výrazně             vyšší cenou. Dostupná data DMR5G sice pokrývají souvislé území ČR, kvalita             a zobrazovaný  detail,  ale  v jistých  ohledech  pro  potřeby  výzkumu  lokální             úrovně  nestačí.  I  přes  negativa  představují  lidarová  data  a  jejich  využití  při             současném  výzkumu  vývoje  krajiny  neocenitelný  zdroj  prostorových             informací. Umožňuje totiž získat potřebnou detailní informaci o vývoji využití             krajiny, která je zakonzervovaná pod lesními porosty 50, 100, někde i více než             200 let.              Poděkování:  Autoři  článku  děkují Národní  agentuře  pro  zemědělský  výzkum,             která podpořila projekt NAZV KUS QJ1620395 s názvem „Obnova a výstavba             rybníků v lesních porostech jako součást udržitelného hospodaření s vodními             zdroji v ČR“, v rámci něhož byl vypracován i tento příspěvek.                                                                 215","WETLAND – YES OR NO (THE PARÍŽ WETLANDS NATIONAL NATURE                                  RESERVE - SLOVAKIA)                                       1                                                 2                                                                3                      František Petrovič , Matej Mojses  , Zlatica Muchová            1              Department of Ecology and Environmental Studies, Faculty of Natural Sciences,             Constantine the Philosopher University, Tr. A. Hlinku 1, 949 01 Nitra, Slovakia                                    fpetrovic@ukf.sk               2               Institute of Landscape Ecology SAS, Branch Nitra, Akademick 2, P.O.Box 22,                                   949 10 Nitra, Slovakia                                  matej.mojses@savba.sk                3  Department of Landscape Planning and Land Consolidation, Faculty of            Horticulture and Landscape Engineering Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra,                                   949 76 Nitra, Slovakia                                zlatica.muchova@gmail.com            Abstract:  Wetlands  are  generally  considered  to  be  the  most  vulnerable           ecosystems  in  the  landscape.  Over  recent  years,  characterized  by  their           continued decline, specific attention is paid to their protection. There are a lot           of  domestic  and  international  projects,  which  are  focused  on  ensuring           effective protection of wetland ecosystems, based on a thorough knowledge           of their internal structure and functionality.           The aim of this paper is to point to the current landscape development of this           protected  site,  focusing  on  an  open  water  area,  the  existence  of  which  is           a prerequisite for preserving the biodiversity and conservation of this site.                                     INTRODUCTION           The  Paríž  wetlands  National  Nature  Reserve  (NNR)  is  a  significant  wetland           with  wetland  biocenoses  and  is  a  significant  biotope  of  aquatic  birds.           Wetlands  are  considered  to  be  the  most  important  habitats  and  most           productive  ecosystems.  In  addition  to  their  other  functions,  the  main           functions are water accumulation and retention, water purification, nutrient           retention and accumulation of sediments and pollutants. In this context, they           also fulfill a significant environmental function in the landscape.           Wetland  is  also  a  biocentrum  of  national  importance  and  a  part  of  the           National  Ecological  Network  –  NECONET.  The  NNR  lies  at  an  altitude  of           125 metres  above  sea  level  and  extends  about  5  km  between  the  villages           Gbelce and Nová Vieska.  At the beginning of the 19th Century, the floodplain           of  the  Paríž  stream  was  represented  by  large  areas  of  wetlands  and  lakes,                                           216","which were gradually regulated by an artificial drainage channel - “Parisian”,             named after the French engineer who designed it. Due to the reduced water             level  in  the  NNR,  a  dam  was  constructed  which  maintains  the  wetland’s             relatively good hydrological conditions, but the height of the column does not             exceed 1.5 m.             For the purpose of planning nature and landscape conservation, it is necessary             to know the development of land use changes in order to identify the areas’             conflicts  with  economic  use.  The  spatial  structure  of  the  landscape,  thus             defining  its  shape  and  distribution,  provides  specific  characteristics  which             enable characterization of any chosen part of the landscape.                                         BASIC DATA             The Paríž wetlands National Nature Reserve is located in the Nitra region, the             Nové Zámky district, in the cadastral territories of Gbelce and Nová Vieska.             The Paríž stream drains the territory. The Paríž stream's catchment area lies in             the  southern  part  of  the  Hronská  pahorkatina  Hills,  which  according  to  the             regional geomorfological division of Slovakia Mazúr, Lukniš (1978) belongs to             the  Podunajská  pahorkatina  Hills  within  the  area  of  Podunajskej  nížina             Lowland. The Paríž stream is a right tributary of the Hron river. The catchment             area  lies  in  a  warm  and  dry  climate  area  with  an  average  annual  air             temperature  of  about  9.5  °  C,  the  average  precipitation  (mostly  rainfall)             ranges  from  550  to  650  mm,  during  the  vegetation  period  from  320  to             380 mm, and in the winter from 230 to 270 mm.             An area of 140.59 ha was declared protected by the National Council of the             Slovak  Republic  for  Education  and  Culture,  No.  30  of  25  May  1966.  The             protected  site  was  pre-categorized  into  a  national  nature  reserve  and             expanded  to  an  area  of  184,0464  ha  under  the  Ministry  of  Culture  of  the             Czechoslovak Socialist  Republic Order No. 1160 / 1988-32 of 30  June 1988.             The  State  Nature  Reserve  was  pre-categorized  into  the  National  Nature             Reserve  (NNR)  according  to  the  Act  of  the  National  Council  of  the  Slovak             Republic  No.  287/1994  Coll.  on  Nature  and  Landscape  Protection.  At  the             present  time,  the  4th  degree  of  protection  is  valid  in  the  National  Nature             Reserve's territory, which was appointed by the Decree of Department for the             protection of environmental elements in Nitra No. 1/2004 of 10 May 2004.             The  Paríž  wetlands  represent  an  important  ornithological  site  for  the             occurrence and nesting of many marsh species of birds, many of which are             forming the largest concentrations of individuals (pairs) in Central Europe. At             the  same  time,  the  site  is  their  important  migratory  stop.  The  site  was             included  on  the  List  of  Wetlands  of  International  Importance  under  the             Wetlands  Convention  (the  Ramsar  Convention)  under  No.  499             (https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/499) on 2 July 1990  with a total area of 184 ha.             The site was declared protected as an internationally important site for marsh             birds  and  waterfowl,  rare  marsh  biocenosis,  and  as  an  important  Central             European nest of marsh birds and waterfowl.             The site as a part of the Paríž wetland-SKCHVÚ020 is included in the National             List of Special Protection Areas (area of SPA - 376.58 ha) by the Government             Resolution  No.  636  of  9  July  2003  and  the  Decree  of  the  Ministry  of             Environment of the Slovak Republic No. 23/2008 of 7 January 2008.                                             217","Three types of habitats of European importance were recorded in the area           (Gajdoš, David, Petrovič (eds.) 2005, Gajdoš et al. 2014):           -Biotope  3150  Natural  eutrophic  and  mesotrophic  standing  water  with           vegetation  of  floating  or  submerged  vascular  plants  is  found  mostly  on  the           edge  of  the  reservation  and  was  also  recorded  on  water  areas  which  have           been  preserved  in  the  area.  They  are  made  up  of  submerged  or  floating           aquatic  plants  floating  freely  on  water  (for  example:  Lemna  minor,  Lemna           trisulca, Utricularia vulgaris), or rooted on the muddy bottom (for example:           species of Potamogeton).           -Biotope  6510  Lowland  and  submontane  mowed  meadows  /Lowland  hay           meadows, presented by the alliance Arrhenatherion elatioris, is found on the           northern edge of the reserve in smaller areas, and in larger areas near the           village of Nová Vieska there are connections to large Carex beds and reeds.           The  Cirsio  cani-Festucetum  pratensis  community  was  recorded  in  the           territory. The population of critically endangered plant species Senecio doria           was found in this biotope.           - Out of the biotope 91E0 Mixed ash-alder alluvial forests of temperate and           Boreal   Europe/Alluvial   forests   with Alnus   glutinosa and Fraxinus           excelsior (Alno-Padion, Alnion  incanae, Salicion  albae  only  smaller,  often           unrelated vegetation was recorded, which has probably grown on a secondary           basis.           Biotopes of national importance were also recorded here:           -Lk10 Large Carex beds, which are mainly Carex elata, Carex acutiformis, Carex           riparia, Carex vesicaria, with the occurrence of these species: Iris pseudacorus,           Lysimachia vulgaris, Mentha longifolia.           -Kr8  Willow  carrs  and  fen  scrubs  –  widespread  in  this  area,  the  dominant           species are grey willow (Salix cinerea) in the scrub stage, and reed (Phalaris           arundinacea) in the herbaceous plant stage.                                       METHODS           Spatial data that defines land use was digitalised manually according to the           visual  interpretation  of  aerial  orthophotos  (from  the  years  1949,  2007  and           2015) in the ArcView geographic information system (GIS) environment. We           used ArcGIS 9.3 software and a field survey for the years 2005 and 2015 for           processing map layers obtained from orthophoto maps. The mapping scale is           1:5,000. Orthophoto maps from 2007 and 2015 were provided by EUROSENSE           Slovakia and GEODIS Slovakia. Historical black and white (panchromatic) aerial           photos from 1949 were utilized for the first period. These were provided by           the Topographic Institute of the Slovak Army in Banska Bystrica. Unlike the           processes used in historical maps, ortho-rectification here was performed in a           digital photogrammetric system (“Orthobase” module of ERDAS IMAGINE 8.4           program) environment, using the affinity transformation method.           The  methodology  and  its  accuracy  are  verified  in  assessments  of  different           types  of  landscape  from  lowland  (Kopecká  et  al.  2015;  Opršal  et  a.  2016;           Skaloš et al. 2012), to highland (Konc, 2008; Machar et al. 2016; Opršal et al.           2018; Pazúr et al. 2014;  Skaloš et al. 2010; Súľovský, Falťan 2015) to alpine           (Boltižiar, 2005). Its subsequent application was reflected in the identification                                           218","of the major drivers in the landscape (Druga, Falťan 2014; Falťan, Bánovský,             Blažek 2011; Havlíček, Chrudina, 2013; Húska et al. 2017; Kolejka, Klimánek             2015; Mišovičová 2008; Munteanu et al. 2014; Olah et al. 2009; Sklenička et             al. 2009; Skokanová et al. 2012; Skokanová et al. 2016) and in the proposals             for  the  management  of  these  territories.  (Bezák  et  al.  2017;  Boltižiar,  Olah             2013, Havlíček et al. 2014; Kanianska et al. 2014; Kočická, 2000; Kozová et al.             2016;  Moyzeová,  Izakovičová,  2016;  Pechanec  et  al.  2015;  Seidl,  Chromý,             Habartová, 2010; Skokanová et al. 2017; Špulerová et al. 2015).                                   LANDSCAPE EVALUATION             The floodplain of the Paríž stream in the Nová Vieska -  Gbelce section was             declared as a protected area mainly for the protection of aquatic birds, for             which  the  existence  of  open  water  is  a  significant  factor.  Currently,  open             water in the NNR occurs only in few places, and in all cases, those are only             small  areas.  An  exception  is  the  dredged  water  reservoir  on  the  way  from             Nová Vieska to Arad (part of the village), but it does not have a natural relief             which  is  typical  of  this  area  -  mild  sloping  banks.  This  fact  confirms  the             development of the size and number of open water areas in the site. At the             site, we took into account the main water channel recipient (Fig. 1), whose             stable size was removed from the assessment.             The  site shows a  rapid decline in the  size of open  water areas  (Tab  XY). In             1949, almost 4.5% of the NNR area (almost 8 ha) were water areas, which,             despite their considerable number (147), represented an average area of 0.05             hectares. Their highest concentration was mostly in the southern half of the             NNR,  where  the  largest  areas  of  about  0.5  ha  were  located,  whereby  the             largest  area  in  this  part  represented  an  area  of  1.4  ha.  The  subsequent             degradation process was reflected by a significant decline of water areas of             more than 70%. Their size was 2.3 hectares, which meant a decline to 1.28%             of the NNR area. The largest area remained in the southern part of the site as             in the previous year (1949), but the area only had 0.18 hectares. The number             of  sites  and  the  average  size  of  water  areas  (0.03  ha)  also  dropped             significantly. This change was a result of several negative phenomena.             Fortunately,  during  this  period,  the  trend  towards  the  rescue  of  the  NNR             started (Tab. 1). In 2015, the downward trend continued.  However, its size             was mitigated. The water areas size of 1.92 ha (1.08% of the NNR area) was             a result of relatively high number (133) of small areas, out of which the largest             had an area of 0.16 ha.             Tab.  1:  Development  of  water  bodies  area  in  Paríž  wetlands  National  Nature             Reserve (1949-2007-2015)                                                                       Share                     Water bodies   Change     Number of    Average   of  NNR              Year     area (ha)     in%       polygons     size (ha)   (%)              1949           7.963                     147     0.054      4.45              2007           2.284    -71.32            69     0.033      1.28              2015           1.927    -15.63           133     0.014      1.08                                              219","It should be noted that the current state of the Paríž wetland NNR is lawful. It           is  a  consequence  of  the  natural  process  of  silting  up  in  the  shallow  water           reservoirs, which has been accelerated by human activities in this area over           recent  decades.  There  have  been  particular  changes  to  the  water  regime           following the construction of water reservoirs in the river basin and pollution           of the environment (source is mainly agriculture), which, in particular, have           brought nutrition and eutrophication to the NNR ecosystems. This has created           good  conditions  for  the  growth  of  the  common  reed  on  most  areas  of  the           NNR, which has had a direct impact on the occurrence of suitable habitats for           the life of aquatic birds.           Several measures were implemented in the site to change this state. The first           attempts to improve the water regime in the Paríž wetlands and the whole           area of the Paríž wetland Special Protection Area were at the end of the last           century. The aim was to raise the water level in the wetlands by increasing the           overflow edge of the security overflow on the Paríž stream in the southern           part  of  the  wetland  (at  the  lock  gate).  In  1995,  the  security  overflow  was           25 centimeters  higher  than  the  original,  having  been  in  decline  since  the           1960s due to the unstable base. At the same time, measures were taken to           secure the lock gate against unwanted manipulation (uncontrolled discharge           of water from the wetland). The effect of these measures was short-lived, as           the  silting  up  process  in  the  area  continues,  and  the  raising  of  the  dams           cannot be realised all the time.           It  was  discovered  that  the  dam  is  not  tight  enough  and  there  are  local           passages of water leakage from the wetland. The Slovak Hydrometeorological           Institute (SHI) stabilized this dam. Due to the flushing nutrients into the Paríž           stream from the surrounding agricultural land as well as the penetration of           waste municipal water from the municipalities lying above the assessed area,           there is a massive eutrophication of water.           For  the  1982-2005  period,  when  the  problem  of  the  silting  up  of  the  Paríž           wetlands began to emerge,  many materials were  elaborated (projects, care           programs, studies) for the rescue of the Ramsar site and the Paríž wetlands           National Nature Reserve. The majority of these studies are based on the most           friendly  interference  on  the  site,  with  an  emphasis  on  minimizing  the           necessary funds. Nevertheless, funds have not been found to fully implement           the proposed measures.           All  hitherto  interventions  (mowing  reeds  on  the  surface  –  Fig.  2,  mowing           reeds  under  water  or  on  ice,  attempts  to  flood  reed  stubble  after  mowing           with  water  and  subsequent  freezing,  flooding  the  polder  with  a  flash  flood           wave, etc.) have only slowed the silting up process slightly.                                                  220","Fig.  1.  and  Fig.  2.  Main  water  channel  recipient  –  Parížsky  kanál  (1),             Management in area - mowing reeds on the surface (2)                     PROPOSALS FOR SOLUTION/ MANAGEMENT OF CONDITION                                      IMPROVEMENT             The basis for the rescue of the Paríž wetlands in relation to their subject of             protection,  is  the  improvement  of  the  living  conditions  for  birds  in  the             territories by their effective use. This presents mowing reeds focused on its             elimination.             The floodplain of the Paríž stream in the Nová Vieska -  Gbelce section was             declared as a protected area mainly for the protection of aquatic birds, for             which the existence of open water is a significant factor. Currently, the open             water in the NNR occurs only in a few places, and in all cases, those are only             small  areas.  An  exception  is  the  dredged  water  reservoir  on  the  way  from             Nová Vieska to Arad (part of the village), but it does not have a natural relief             which is typical of this area - mild sloping banks. However, this factor can be             changed. The site is directly linked to the NNR and it would be relatively easy             to integrate it there. Its size of 2.31 hectares would greatly help to improve             the possibilities for waterfowl.             Currently, open water areas in the NNR are found only in few places, and in all             cases,  these  are  only  small  areas.  Therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  implement             measures to expand areas with open water. In addition to removing reeds,             the following measures should be used to increase the area of open water:             the proposed purification (mud removal) of the Paríž canal parts; and joining             the  open  water  areas  through  a  system  of  dredged  canals  and  restored             meanders. It is necessary to remove the mud from canals in such a way, so             that the regenerated canals will become natural and meandering will form,             rather than straight canals. Canal purification must be done sensitively so as                                             221","not to endanger the existence of aquatic plant communities. A detailed study           with regard to hydrology and ecology must be drawn up in the planning of           such a purification of the Paríž stream canal. This measure is conditional on           the optimization of the water regime in the area within the elaboration of the           handling regulations for all water management facilities in the area over the           NPR.           It should be noted that the current state of the Paríž wetland NNR is lawful. It           is  a  consequence  of  the  natural  process  of  silting  up  in  the  shallow  water           reservoirs, which has been accelerated by human activities in this area over           recent  decades.  There  have  been  particular  changes  to  the  water  regime           following the construction of water reservoirs in the river basin and pollution           of the environment (source is mainly agriculture), which, in particular, have           brought nutrition and eutrophication to the NNR ecosystems. This has created           good  conditions  for  the  growth  of  the  common  reed  on  most  areas  of  the           NNR, which has had a direct impact on the occurrence of suitable habitats for           the life of aquatic birds.           One of the direct measures is mowing reed and expanding open water areas.           The Paríž wetlands NNR were traditionally mowed in the past, the reed was           vital and used for industrial processing. At the present time, it is no longer           suitable for such a mode of use, as it is considerably thinner and weaker. Reed           is a major component of biomass and therefore its accumulation contributes           to  the  silting  up  of  the  water  areas.  During  the  realization  of  the  rescue           program,  the  winter  mowing  reed  should  be  ensured  in  the  wetland  area           according to the current conditions in the specific period.           In  order  to  ensure  a  favourable  state  of  the  Lk1  Lowland  and  submontane           mowed  meadows  /Lowland  hay  meadows  (6510)  and  for  protected,           threatened species of plants and animals and for species from the Annexes to           the Habitats Directive within the scope of practical care, it will be necessary to           implement the following: regular mowing of meadows after the 15th of June           of the current calendar year, a reduction of pioneer and non-native species of           trees and removal of invasive plant species by methods according to Annex           No. 2a to Decree of the Ministry of Environment of the Slovak Republic No.           24/2003  Coll.  which  implements  Act  No.  543/2002  Coll.  on  Nature  and           Landscape Protection as amended. These measures should also be applied to           mesophilic  meadows,  including  the  continued  mowing  of  grassland  on  the           dams.  In  cases  of  abandoned  wet  and  mesophilic  meadows,  it  will  be           necessary  to  restore  their  use  (mowing  or  extensive  grazing),  in  cases  of           pioneer trees in these areas, these plants should be reduced or eliminated.           Removal  of  invasive  species  in  these  areas  is  particularly  important,  as           abandoned areas are often invaded by non-native species. The long-term time           horizon of these activities is required.                                      CONCLUSION           It will be necessary to carry out yearly inspections of the state of the territory,           to check whether there is no presence of re-expansion of reeds on the edges           of the created water area after the interventions. It will also be necessary to           ensure  annual  monitoring  of  the  occurrence  of  birds,  also  focusing  on           occurrence  of  bird  species  bound  to  the  open  water  level  or  to  carry  out                                            222","targeted  monitoring  of  the  impact  of  the  measures  implemented  on  all             nesting  and  migratory  birds.  Priority  species  and  habitats  as  well  as  other             significant and endangered plant and animal species should also be monitored             (Gajdoš,  David,  Petrovič  (eds.)  2005)  states  an  overview  of  species  for             monitoring. It will also be necessary to closely monitor the possible spread of             non-native  and  invasive  plant  species  into  the  area,  which  could  seriously             damage the condition and, in particular, the quality of the habitats subjected             to the protection of the area.             If we want to restore the open water level on larger areas that will last for             a long time, a part of the territory will return backwards by several stages -             within the succession. The  measures that will ensure this will be financially             costly  and  should  be  taken  into  account  when  defining  the  target  state.             Measures that can quickly improve the situation and will be a benefit over             a shorter  time  period  and  are  stated  in  the  submitted  proposal  of             management measures for the Paríž wetlands National Nature Reserve and its             closest areas. These measures will need to be complemented in the coming             years  by  financially  more  demanding  measures,  but  they  will  be  able  to             provide a desirable situation for longer time. There is a need for permanent             care of the Paríž wetlands NNR ecosystems on the basis of the monitoring of             the  ecosystem  state  leading  towards  the  preservation  of  its  value  and  its             ecosystem services to the landscape.              Acknowledgement: This work was supported by the Scientific Grant Agency of             the  Ministry  of  Education  of  the  Slovak  Republic  –  VEGA  No.  1/0496/16             “Assessment  of  natural  capital,  biodiversity  and  ecosystem  services  in             Slovakia” and KEGA No. 032/UKF-4/2018 0158/14 “Overview of methods and             proposal  for  the  application  of  the  ecosystem  services  concept  in  the             Environmental studies study program”.                                         REFERENCES             BEZÁK, P., MEDERLY, P., IZAKOVIČOVÁ, Z., ŠPULEROVÁ, J., SCHLEYER, C. 2017.             Divergence  and  conflicts  in  landscape  planning  across  spatial  scales  in             Slovakia:  Opportunity  for  an  ecosystem  services-based  approach?  Int.  J.             Biodivers.   Sci.   Ecosyst.   Serv.   Manag.,    13,    119–135.             https://doi.org/10.1080/21513732.2017.1305992             BOLTIŽIAR,  M.  2005.  Tvorba  historických  máp  krajinnej  štruktúry  Tatier  na             základe  archívnych  leteckých  snímok  a  ich  aplikácia  pri  hodnotení  zmien             krajiny  (in  Slovak).  In:  Historické  mapy.  Zborník  z  vedeckej  konferencie.             Bratislava: Kartografická spoločnosť SR a Geografický ústav SAV, p. 19-26             BOLTIŽIAR,  M.,  Olah,  B.  2013.  Land  use  changes  of  UNESCO  biosphere             reserves in the Slovak Carpathians since the late eighteenth century. In Kozak,             J.,  Ostapowicz,  K.,  Bytnerowicz,  A.,  Wyzga,  B.,  eds.  The  Carpathians:             integrating  nature  and  society  towards  sustainability.  Berlin  (Springer),  pp.             377-391             DRUGA, M.,  Falťan, V. 2014. Influence of environmental drivers on the land             cover  structure  and  its  long-term  changes  –  Case  study  of  Malachov  and                                              223","Podkonice  villages  in  Slovakia.  Moravian  Geographical  Reports,  22,  29–41.           https://doi.org/10.2478/mgr-2014-0016           FALŤAN,  V.,  BÁNOVSKÝ,  M.,  BLAŽEK,  M.  2011.  Evaluation  of  land  cover           changes after extraordinary windstorm by using the land cover metrics: A case           study  on  the  high  Tatras  foothill.  Geografie,  116,  156–171.  Retrievied  from           http://geography.cz/sbornik/           GAJDOŠ, P. DAVID, S., PETROVIČ, F. (eds.) 2005. Národná prírodná rezervácia           Parížske  močiare.  Krajina,  biodiverzita  a ochrana  prírody  (in  Slovak).  Ústav           krajinnej  ekológie  SAV  v  Bratislave,  Štátna  ochrana  prírody  SR  v Banskej           Bystrici, Katedra ekológie a environmentalistiky FPV UKF v Nitre, Nitra, 195 p.           HAVLÍČEK, M., CHRUDINA, Z. 2013. Long-term land use changes in relation to           selected relief characteristics in Western Carpathians and Western Pannonian           basin – Case study from Hodonín District (Czech Republic). Carpathian Journal           of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 8, 231–244.           HAVLÍČEK, M., PAVELKOVÁ, R., FRAJER, J., SKOKANOVÁ, H., 2014. The long-           term development of water bodies in the context of land use: The case of the           Kyjovka and Trkmanka River Basins (Czech Republic). Moravian Geographical           Reports, 22 (4): 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1515/mgr-2014-0022           HÚSKA,  D.,  JURÍK,  Ľ.,  TÁTOŠOVÁ,  L.,  ŠINKA,  K.,  JAKABOVIČOVÁ,  J.  2017.           Cultural  landscape,  floods  and  remote  sensing.  Journal  of  Ecological           Engineering.   vol.   18,   no.   3,   s.   31-36.   ISSN   2081-139X.           https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/69348           KANIANSKA, R., KIZEKOVÁ, M., NOVÁČEK, J., ZEMAN, M., 2014. Land-use and           land-cover  changes  in  rural  areas  during  different  political  systems:  A  case           study  of  Slovakia  from  1782  to  2006.  Land  Use  Policy,  36,  pp.  554–566.           https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2013.09.018           GAJDOŠ et al. 2014: Program záchrany pre ramsarskú lokalitu a NPR Parížske           močiare  a pre  Chránený  areál  Alúvium  potoka  Paríž  (in  Slovak).  BROZ,  ÚKE           SAV, ŠOP SR 24 p. [ms.]           LIESKOVSKÝ, J., KENDERESSI, P., ŠPULEROVÁ, J., LIESKOVSKÝ, T., KOLEDA, P.,           KIENAST, F., GIMMI, U. (2014): Factors affecting the persistence of traditional           agricultural  landscapes  in  Slovakia  during  the  collectivization  of  agriculture.           Landscape Ecology 29: 867-877. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-014-0023-1           KOČICKÁ, E. 2000. Optimisation of the territory exploitation with an example           of the complex physical geographical evaluation. Ekologia Bratislava, Vol. 19,           Issue 2, 2000, p. 92-98 ISSN: 1335-342X           KOLEJKA, J., KLIMÁNEK, M. 2015. Identification and typology of CZECH post-           industrial  landscapes  on  national  level  using  GIS  and  publicly  accessed           geodatabases.       Ekológia   (Bratislava)   34   (2):   121-136,           https://doi.org/10.1515/eko-2015-0013           KONC, L., 2008. Analysis of soil conditions in land consolidation projects, case           study  Horné  Hamre  (in  Slovak).  In:  Boltižiar,  M.  (Ed.):  Ekologické  štúdie  VII.           Slovak ecological company, Bratislava, pp. 103–111. doi:978-80-968901-5-6           KOPECKÁ, M., ROSINA, K., OŤAHEL, J., FERANEC, J., PAZÚR, R., NOVÁČEK, J.           2015.  Monitoring  of  development  dynamics  on  local  level  (Study  area  of                                            224","Trnava)  (in  Slovak).  Geographia  Slovaca  30.  ISSN  1210-3519,  ISBN  978-80-             89580-11-8             MACHAR,  I.,  SIMON,  J.,  REJSEK,  K.,  PECHANEC,  V.,  BRUS,  J.,  KILIÁNOVÁ,  H.             2016.  Assessment  of  Forest  Management  in  Protected  Areas  Based  on             Multidisciplinary Research. Forests 7(11): https://doi.org/10.3390/f7110285             MAZÚR, E., LUKNIŠ, M. 1978. Regionálne geomorfologické členenie Slovenskej             socialistickej republiky (in Slovak). Geografický časopis, 30, p. 101-125.             MIŠOVICOVÁ, R. 2008. Landscape-ecological assumptions of the development             of Nitra and its contact area (in Slovak). – Nitra: Constantine the Philosopher             University in Nitra, ISBN 978-80-8094-212-0             MOYZEOVÁ, M., IZAKOVIČOVÁ, Z. 2016. Attitudes of the involved subjects to             the  issue  of  biodiversity  conservation  in  the  Protected  Area  of  the  Malé             Karpaty  Mts  (Results  of  personal  interviews).  Ekologia  Bratislava,  35,  4,  pp.             392-400, ISSn 1335-342X             MUNTEANU,  C.  et  al.  2014.    Forest  and  agricultural  land  change  in  the             Carpathian  region—A  meta-analysis  of  long-term  patterns  and  drivers  of             change.     –      Land      Use      Policy     38:     685-697.             https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.01.012             OLAH,  B.,  BOLTIŽIAR,  M.,  GALLAY,  I.  2009.  Transformation  of  the  Slovak             cultural  landscape  since  the  18th  cent.  and  its  recent  trends.  Journal  of             Landscape Ecology 2 (2): 41-55. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10285-012-0018-z             OPRŠAL,  Z., HARMÁČEK,  J., PAVLÍK,  P., MACHAR,  I.  2018.  What  factors  can             influence the expansion of protected areas around the world in the context of             international  environmental  and  development  goals?  Problemy  Ekorozwoju,             13(1), pp. 145-157 ISSN:1895-6912             PAZÚR, R., LIESKOVSKÝ, J., FERANEC, J., OŤAHEĹ, J. 2014. Spatial determinants             of  abandonment  of  large-scale  arable  lands  and  managed  grasslands  in             Slovakia  during  the  periods  of  post-socialist  transition  and  European  Union             accession.      Applied       Geography,       54,       118-128.             https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2014.07.014             OPRŠAL, Z., KLADIVO, P., MACHAR, I. 2016. The role of selected biophysical             factors  in  long-term  land-use  change  of  cultural  landscape.  Applied  Ecology             and         Environmental       Research,       14,        23–40.             https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1402_023040             KOZOVÁ, M., DOBŠINSKÁ, Z., PAUDITŠOVÁ, E., TOMČÍKOVÁ, I., RAKYTOVÁ, I.             2016. Network and participatory governance in urban forestry: An assessment             of  examples  from  selected  Slovakian  cities.  Forest  Policy  and  Economic.  In             press.             PECHANEC, V., BRUS, J., KILIÁNOVÁ, H., MACHAR, I. 2015. Decision support             tool  for  the  evaluation  of  landscapes.  Ecological  Informatics  30:             https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoinf.2015.06.006             SEIDL, T., CHROMÝ, P., HABARTOVÁ, P. 2010. Perceptions of marginality: The             role administration and other stakeholders in issues of future development of             Czech military training areas. Acta Universitatis Carolinae, Geographica, v. 45,             n. 2, p. 89-100, ISSN 2336-1980                                              225","SKALOŠ, J., ENGSTOVÁ, B. 2010. Methodology for mapping non-forest wood           elements using historic cadastral maps and aerial photographs as a basis for           management,  Journal  of  Environmental  Management,  91  (4),  pp.  831-843.           https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.10.013           SKALOŠ, J., MOLNÁROVÁ, K., KOTTOVÁ, P. 2012. Land reforms reflected in the           farming landscape in East Bohemia and in Southern Sweden – Two faces of           modernisation.     Applied      Geography,     35,      114–123.           https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2012.06.003           SKLENIČKA, P., HLADÍK, J., STŘELEČEK, F., KOTTOVÁ, J., LOSOSOVÁ, L., ČÍHAL,           L.,  ŠÁLEK,  M.  2009.  Historical,  environmental  and  socio-economic  driving           forces on land ownership fragmentation, the land consolidation effect and the           project costs. Agricultural Economics, 55, 571–582.           SKOKANOVÁ,  H.,  FALŤAN,  V.,  HAVLÍČEK,  M.  2016:  Driving  forces  of  main           landscape  change  processes  from  past  200  years  in  central  Europe  –           differences between old democratic and post-socialistic countries. – Ekológia           (Bratislava) 35 (1): 50-65. https://doi.org/10.1515/eko-2016-0004           SKOKANOVÁ,  H.,  HAVLÍČEK,  M.,  BOROVEC,  R.,  DEMEK,  J.,  EREMIÁŠOVÁ,  R.,           CHRUDINA,  Z.,  MACKOVČIN,  P.,  RYSKOVÁ,  R.,  SLAVÍK,  P.,  STRÁNSKÁ,  T.,           SVOBODA,  J.,  2012.  Development  of  land  use  and  main  land  use  change           processes in the period 1836-2006: Case study in the Czech Republic. Journal           of Maps, 8 (1), pp. 88-96. https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2012.668768           SKOKANOVÁ, H., HAVLÍČEK, M., KLUSÁČEK, P., MARTINÁ, S. 2017. Five military           training areas  – five different trajectories of  land cover development? Case           studies from the Czech Republic. Geographia Cassoviensis XI 2/2017, p. 201-           213.           SÚĹOVSKÝ,  M.,  FALŤAN,  V.  2015.  Analysis  of  land-use  changes  and  their           relationship to topographic factors: Case study of the municipality Lietavská           Svinná-Babkov. Geographical Journal, 67, 45–62.           ŠPULEROVÁ, J., PISCOVÁ, V., GERHÁTOVÁ, K., BAČA, A., KALIVODA, H., KANKA,           R., 2015. Orchards as traces of traditional agricultural landscape in Slovakia.           Agriculture,   Ecosystems   and   Environment,   199,   pp.   e67-e76.           https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2014.08.021                                                              226","ANALYSIS AND ASSESSMENT OF LAND COVER CHANGES AND                  LANDSCAPE STABILITY IN THE NITRA RIVER BASIN (SLOVAKIA)                                          Matej Vojtek             Department of Geography and Regional Development, Faculty of Natural Sciences,               Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Trieda A. Hlinku 1, 949 74 Nitra,                                          Slovakia                                       mvojtek@ukf.sk              Abstract: The impact of human society on landscape is also documented by             changes in land cover. Land cover/use changes in a basin frequently result in             increased  surface  runoff,  reduced  groundwater  recharge  or  transfer  of             pollutants.  On  the  other  hand,  landscape  stability  refers  to  the  share  of             (stable) areas that are identically used during the whole studied period. The             aim of the paper is to analyze and assess land cover changes and landscape             stability in the Nitra River Basin (Slovakia) in the years 1990 and 2012 based             on CORINE Land Cover data. Geographic information systems (GIS) were used             to compare and quantify the size of land cover classes (LCC). The landscape             stability  was  determined  by  the  overlay  method  using  GIS.  The  LCC  211             recorded the most significant decrease by 1.97% (8826.64 ha). On the other             hand, the share of LCC 313 increased the most by 1.22% (5469.72 ha). The             total stable area represents  88.48% out of the total basin area. The largest             share out of the total stable area was recorded in LCC 211 (50.85%) and 311             (27.11%).  Economic  development,  accession  to  the  EU  and  processes  of             (sub)urbanization were dominant driving forces behind the land cover change             in the Nitra River Basin.             Key words: landscape, land cover, stability, GIS, Nitra River Basin                                       INTRODUCTION             Land cover refers to the physical characteristics of the Earth’s surface, which             are captured in the distribution of vegetation, water, soil and other physical             components  of  the  land,  including  those  created  solely  by  human  activities             e.g. settlements, industrial factories, etc. On the other hand, land use refers to             the way in which land has been used by humans and their habitat usually with             emphasis  on  the  functional  role  of  land  for  economic  activities.  The  land             use/cover  pattern  of  a  particular  region  is  thus  an  outcome  of  natural  and             socio-economic  factors  and  their  utilization  by  man  in  time  and  space             (Feranec, Oťahel, 2001, Lu et al., 2004, Rawat, Kumar, 2015, Munteanu et al.,             2014).             Furthermore,  land  use/cover  change  has  an  impact  on  biodiversity  and             aquatic  ecosystems.  In  a  basin,  land  use/cover  changes  may  result  in             increased surface runoff, occurrence of flood situations, reduced groundwater             recharge, transfer of pollutants, etc. (Solín, Feranec, Nováček, 2011, Vojtek,             Vojteková, 2016). Therefore, the assessment of land use/cover and its change             is  crucial  to  planning  and  management  of  water  resources  in  a  particular                                             227","basin. Moreover, it is important for better understanding of interactions and           relations between human activities and natural phenomena.           The  use  of  remotely  sensed  data  made  possible  to  study  the  land  cover           changes  in  less  time,  at  lower  cost  and  with  better  accuracy.  Geographic           information  systems  (GIS)  provide  suitable  platform  for  data  analysis  and           update (Singh, 1989, Oetter et al., 2001, Yuan et al., 2005).           The  term  landscape  stability  refers  to  spatial  and  functional  stability  of           individual land use categories or land cover classes over  the time. Its  value           represents the share of stable areas between the first and last time horizon           (Forman,  Godron,  1986,  Turner,  Gardner,  O’Neill,  2001).  Different  methods           can be used to determine the landscape stability. One of them is the overlay           method  where  the  land  cover  maps  from  different  years  are  overlaid  and           stable/unstable patches are calculated (Vojteková, 2013). On the other hand,           the  use  of  fuzzy  theory  for  landscape  stability  identification  in  GIS  is  also           discussed  and  it  was  used  in  several  studies  e.g.  Arnot,  Fischer  (2007)  or           Verstraete, Hallez, De Tré (2007).           The aim of the paper is to analyze land cover changes and landscape stability           in  the  Nitra  River  Basin  (Slovakia)  in  two  time  horizons  (1990  and  2012).           Geographic information systems were used create land cover maps based on           CORINE  Land  Cover  data  as  well  as  to  determine  landscape  stability.           Moreover, the changes in land cover classes during the studied period as well           as the size and share of stable patches were quantitatively assessed.                                      STUDY AREA           The study area is represented by the Nitra River Basin (fig. 1). The Nitra River           springs in Malá Fatra (mountain) under the Reváň peak (1205 m a.s.l.). It has           a length of 167 km and it creates a left tributary of the Váh River. The total                               2           basin area is 4492.70 km .           The  geographical  coordinates  of  the  study  area  are:  North  -  48º58'N  and           18°34'E,  South  -  47º57'N  and  18°08'E,  West  -  48°09'N  and  17º52'E,  East  -           48°44'N and 18°49'E.           According to the geomorphological division of Slovakia (Mazúr, Lukniš, 1986),           the  study  area  is  classified  into  the  following  geomorphological  units:           Podunajská rovina (plain), Podunajská pahorkatina (hills), Tribeč (mountain),           Strážovské vrchy (mountain), Hornonitrianska kotlina (basin), Žiar (mountain),           Považský  Inovec  (mountain),  Vtáčnik  (mountain),  and  Pohronský  Inovec           (mountain).           The highest point has an elevation of 1346  m a.s.l.  (Vtáčnik peak) and it is           located  in  the  eastern  part of  the  basin.  The  lowest  point  is  located  in  the           confluence of Nitra River and Váh River (near Komoča municipality) and it has           an  elevation  of  109  m  a.s.l.  The  left-sided  tributaries  are  e.g.  Handlovka,           Žitava, Vyčoma while the right-sided tributaries include e.g. Nitrica, Bebrava,           Radošinka or Dlhý kanál.           From the administrative point of view, most of the study area belongs to the           Western Slovakia (NUTS II), Trenčín Region and Nitra Region (NUTS III). Only           a small  part  of  the  basin  extends  to  Banská  Bystrica  Region  (NUTS  III).  The                                            228","Nitra  River  flows  through  five  district  towns:  Prievidza,  Partizánske,             Topoľčany, Nitra, and Nové Zámky.                                     DATA AND METHODS                                                             Fig. 1. Study area of the Nitra River Basin.             Source: VMAP200              For the creation of land cover maps of the study area, the CORINE Land Cover             (CLC) database was used, particularly vector layers of CLC 1990 and CLC 2012.             The land cover maps were processed in ArcGIS 10.2.2 software. Moreover, the                                              229","size  and  percentage  of  individual  land  cover  classes  were  calculated  in  this           software.           The  stability  analysis  was  performed  using  the  vector  polygon-on-polygon           overlay  method  (union  tool)  in  ArcGIS  10.2.2  software.  The  resulting  union           layer contained all the features from the two input layers (land cover from           1990 and 2012) and the stable land cover classes were then gradually selected           from this layer. The size of stable patches of individual land cover classes was           also quantified in the mentioned software.                                         RESULTS           As for the creation of land cover maps, twenty-four land cover classes were           identified in both years 1990 and 2012 (fig. 2 and fig. 3). Furthermore, the size           and share of land cover classes are shown in tab. 1.           Tab. 1: Size and share of land cover classes (LCC) in 1990 and 2012             LCC     CLC90   CLC90    CLC12    CLC12   Difference   Difference            Code   Area (ha)   (%)   Area (ha)   (%)     (ha)       (%)             111    111.61    0.02    38.18     0.01    -73.43     -0.02             112   29378.67   6.54   30361.20   6.76    983.70     0.22             121    3106.77   0.69   3481.63    0.77    374.86     0.08             122     39.64    0.01    563.60    0.13    523.96     0.12             124    169.75    0.04    28.88     0.01   -140.87     -0.03             131    333.28    0.07    473.61    0.11    140.33     0.03             132    453.62    0.10    331.67    0.07   -121.95     -0.03             133     32.45    0.01    138.20    0.03    105.75     0.02             141     25.10    0.01    54.63     0.01    29.53      0.01             142    606.30    0.13    851.49    0.19    245.19     0.05             211   217083.89   48.32   208252.00   46.35   -8826.64   -1.97             221    2850.46   0.63   2002.62    0.45   -847.84     -0.19             222    2026.68   0.45   2181.07    0.49    154.39     0.03             231   10790.12   2.40   10532.10   2.34   -258.02     -0.06             242    2578.67   0.57   6223.04    1.39   3644.57     0.81             243   24745.44   5.51   23523.72   5.24   -1233.93    -0.27             311   117385.97   26.13   117479.98   26.15   88.84   0.02             312    4461.23   0.99   4371.17    0.97    -90.06     -0.02             313   24198.99   5.39   29668.71   6.60   5469.72     1.22             321     98.05    0.02    69.54     0.02    -28.51     -0.01             324    8375.92   1.86   8016.50    1.78   -359.42     -0.08             411     89.78    0.02    175.00    0.04    85.22      0.02             511     91.18    0.02    223.57    0.05    143.22     0.03             512    236.76    0.05    228.18    0.05    -8.58      0.00             Sum   449270.27  100.00  449270.27  100.00   -          -           Source: CORINE Land Cover; own calculations            In both years 1990 and 2012, the largest land cover class is represented by           LCC 211 (Non-irrigated arable land). Compared to 1990, this LCC decreased by           1.97%  (8826.64  ha)  mostly  due  to  urbanization  processes,  construction  of           industrial  units  (e.g.  new  industrial  parks  or  factories)  and  agricultural  land           abandonment.                                           230","The  second  largest  land  cover  class  is  represented  by  broad-leaved  forests             (LCC 311) which share increased only by 88.84 ha (0.02%). On the other hand,             the share of coniferous forests (LCC 312) decreased by the same percentage             (0.02%).  The  biggest  increase,  especially  due  to  natural  afforestation,  was             recorded in mixed forests (LCC 313) by 1.22% (5469.72 ha).             Regarding  the  LCC  112  (Discontinuous  urban  fabric),  it  represents  the  third             largest  land  cover  class  and  its  share  increased  by  0.22%  (983.70  ha)  as             a result  of  housing  construction  and  construction  of  new  industrial  or             commercial units.                                                          Fig. 2. Land cover in the Nitra River Basin in 1990.             Source: CORINE Land Cover                                               231","Another  quite  significant  difference  was  recorded  in  LCC  242  (Complex           cultivation  patterns)  which  increased  by  0.81%  (3644.57  ha).  On  the  other           hand,  LCC  243  decreased  by  0.27%  (1233.93  ha).  Moreover,  the  share  of           vineyards  decreased  by  0.19%  (847.84  ha)  which  is  also  a  result  of  land           abandonment.                                                       Fig. 3. Land cover in the Nitra River Basin in 2012.           Source: CORINE Land Cover            After  the  creation  of  landscape  stability  map  with  23  land  cover  classes           (excluding LCC  133  Construction because of not being overlaid) (fig.  4), the           stable patches of individual land cover classes were quantified (tab. 2).                                             232","Tab. 2: Size and share of stable areas of land cover classes                LCC        Area          % out of total       % out of total               Code         (ha)          stable area          basin area                111        37.17             0.01                 0.01                112       27764.95           6.98                 6.18                121       2843.70            0.72                 0.63                122        37.33             0.01                 0.01                124        27.61             0.01                 0.01                131        306.94            0.08                 0.07                132        284.07            0.07                 0.06                141        24.56             0.01                 0.01                142        554.84            0.14                 0.12                211      202118.37           50.85               44.99                221       1473.73            0.37                 0.33                222       1089.19            0.27                 0.24                231       7310.74            1.84                 1.63                242       2170.19            0.55                 0.48                243       17056.08           4.29                 3.80                311      107752.60           27.11               23.98                312       3340.61            0.84                 0.74                313       21194.63           5.33                 4.72                321        67.86             0.02                 0.02                324       1695.65            0.43                 0.38                411        81.85             0.02                 0.02                511        73.55             0.02                 0.02                512        198.37            0.05                 0.04                Sum      397504.59          100.00               88.48             Source: CORINE Land Cover; own calculations              The total area of stable patches in the period of 1990-2012 has the size of             397504.59  ha  which  represents  88.48%  of  the  total  basin  area.  The  largest             share  out  of  the  total  stable  area  was  recorded  in  LCC  211:  Non-irrigated             arable  land  (50.85%),  LCC  311:  Broad-leaved  forest  (27.11%)  and  LCC  112:             Discontinuous urban fabric (6.98%). The smallest share (0.01%) was recorded             in  LCC  111:  Continuous  urban  fabric,  LCC  122:  Road  and  rail  networks  and             associated land, LCC 124: Airports and LCC 141: Green urban areas.                                                              233","Fig. 4. Stable areas of land cover classes in Nitra River Basin (1990-2012).           Source: CORINE Land Cover                                      CONCLUSION           The change in land cover during the studied period of 22 years is evident in           the size of individual land cover classes and also in their localization. The size           of LCC 211 (Non-irrigated arable land) recorded the most significant decrease           by  8826.64  ha.  On  the  other  hand,  the  size  of  mixed  forests  (LCC  313)           increased the most by 5469.72 ha, LCC 242 (Complex cultivation patterns) by           3644.57 ha and LCC 112 (Discontinuous urban fabric) by 983.70 ha.           As  for  the  results  of  the  landscape  stability  analysis,  the  stable  patches           represent 88.48% of the total basin area. The largest share out of the total           basin area was recorded in LCC 211: Non-irrigated arable (44.99%), LCC 311:                                           234","Broad-leaved  forest  (23.98%)  and  LCC  112:  Discontinuous  urban  fabric             (6.18%). Based on the results, it can be assumed that the share of unstable             areas  will  increase  in  the  future  due  to  increasing  processes  of  economic             development, (sub)urbanization or land abandonment.             The land cover and landscape stability maps can represent a potential input             into  landscape-ecological  or  spatial  planning.  Based  on  the  results  of  land             cover  change  analysis  and  determination  of  stable  areas,  it  is  possible  to             propose suitable locations for various activities in the landscape as a part of             planning the sustainable development and management of the study area.              Acknowledgements: This paper was prepared within the grant project VEGA             no. 1/0934/17: Land-use changes of Slovak cultural landscape over the past             250  years  and  prediction  of  its  further  development  and  project  UGA  no.             VIII/29/2017.                                         REFERENCES             ARNOT, C., FISCHER, P. Mapping the Ecotone with Fuzzy Sets. In: Morris A.,             Kokhan S. (eds.): Geographic Uncertainty in Environmental Security, pp. 19-32,             2007.             FERANEC, J., OŤAHEL, J. Land Cover of Slovakia. Bratislava: VEDA, 2001. 124 p.             (in Slovak)             FORMAN, R. T. T., GORDON, M. Landscape Ecology. New York: Wiley, 1986.             640 p.             LU, D., MAUSEL, P., BRONDÍZIO, E., MORAN, E. Change Detection Techniques.             International Journal of Remote Sensing. vol. 25, no. 12, pp. 2365-2407, 2004.             https://doi.org/10.1080/0143116031000139863             MAZÚR, E., LUKNIŠ, M. Geomorphological Division of SSR and ČSSR. Slovakian             part. Bratislava: Slovenská kartografia, 1986. (in Slovak)             MUNTEANU,  C.,  KUEMMERLE,  T.,  BOLTIŽIAR,  M.,  BUTSIC,  V.,  GIMMI,  U.,             HALADA, L., KAIM, D., KIRÁLY, G., KONKOLY-GYURÓ É., KOZAK, J., LIESKOVSKÝ,             J.,  MOJSES,  M.,  MÜLLER,  D.,  OSTAFIN,  K.,  OSTAPOWICZ,  K.,  SHANDRA,  O.,             ŠTYCH, P., WALKER, S., RADELOFF, V. C. Forest and agricultural land change in             the  Carpathian  region-A  meta-analysis  of  long-term  patterns  and  drivers  of             change. Land Use Policy. vol. 38, pp. 685-697.             OETTER,  D.  R.,  COHEM,  W.  B.,  BERTERRETCHE,  M.,  MAIERSPERGER,  T.  K.,             KENNEDY,  R.  E.  Land  Cover  Mapping  in  an  Agricultural  Setting  Using             Multiseasonal  Thematic  Mapper  Data.  Remote  Sensing  of  Environment.  vol.             76, no. 2, pp. 139-155, 2001. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(00)00202-9             RAWAT, J. S., KUMAR, M. Monitoring Land use/cover Change Using Remote             Sensing  and  GIS  Techniques:  A  Case  Study  of  Hawalbagh  Block,  District             Almora,  Uttarakhand,  India.  The  Egyptian  Journal  of  Remote  Sensing  and             Space Science. vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 77-84, 2015.             https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrs.2015.02.002                                                235","SINGH, A. Digital Change Detection Techniques Using Remotely Sensed Data.           International Journal of Remote Sensing. vol. 10, no. 6, pp. 989-1003, 1989.           https://doi.org/10.1080/01431168908903939           SOLÍN, Ľ., FERANEC, J., NOVÁČEK, J. Land Cover Changes in Small Catchments           in Slovakia During 1990–2006 and Their Effects on Frequency of Flood Events.           Natural Hazards. vol. 56, no. 1, pp 195-214, 2011.           https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-010-9562-1           TURNER, M. G., GARDNER, R. H., O’NEILL, R. V. Landscape Ecology in Theory           and Practice: Pattern and Process. New York: Springer-Verlag, 2001. 406 p.           VERSTRAETE, J., HALLEZ, A., DE TRÉ, G. Fuzzy Regions: Theory and Application.           In:  Morris  A.,  Kokhan  S.  (eds.):  Geographic  Uncertainty  in  Environmental           Security, pp. 1-17, 2007.           VOJTEK, M., VOJTEKOVÁ, J. GIS-based Approach to Estimate Surface Runoff in           Small Catchments: A Case Study. Quaestiones Geographicae. vol. 35, no. 3, pp.           97-116, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1515/quageo-2016-0030           VOJTEKOVÁ, J. Trends in Development of Mining Landscape in the Upper Nitra           Region. Nitra: UKF v Nitre, 2013. 152 p. (in Slovak)           YUAN,  F., SAWAYA,  K.  E., LOEFFELHOLZ, B.,  BAUER,  M.E.  Land  Cover           Classification  and  Change  Analysis  of  the  Twin  Cities  (Minnesota)           Metropolitan Area by Multitemporal Landsat Remote Sensing. Remote sensing           of Environment. vol. 98, no. 2, pp. 317-328, 2005.                                        Zhrnutie           Vplyv  spoločnosti  na  krajinu  je  tiež  dokumentovaný  zmenami  v  krajinnej           pokrývke.  V  povodí  vedú  zmeny  v  krajinnej  pokrývke/využití  krajiny  často           k zvýšenému výskytu povodňových situácií, zvýšenému povrchovému odtoku,           zníženiu dopĺňania podzemných vôd alebo prenosu znečisťujúcich látok.           Na  druhej  strane,  stabilita  krajiny  vyjadruje  podiel  (stabilných)  plôch,  resp.           území, ktoré sú rovnako využívané počas celého sledovaného obdobia.           Cieľom  príspevku  je  analyzovať  a  vyhodnotiť  zmeny  krajinnej  pokrývky           a stabilitu krajiny v povodí rieky Nitry (Slovensko)  v rokoch 1990 a  2012 na           základe údajov databázy CORINE Land Cover.           Na  porovnanie  a  kvantifikáciu  veľkosti  jednotlivých  tried  krajinnej  pokrývky           (TKP) boli použité geografické informačné systémy (GIS). Stabilita krajiny bola           určená metódou overlay v prostredí GIS.           Najvýraznejší  pokles  o  1,97  %  (8826,64  ha)  zaznamenala  TKP  211           Nezavlažovaná orná pôda. Na druhej strane najviac  vzrástol podiel TKP 313           Zmiešané  lesy,  a  to  o  1,22  %  (5469,72  ha).  Stabilné  plochy  predstavujú           88,48 %  celkovej  plochy  povodia.  Najväčší  podiel  zo  stabilných  plôch  mala           opäť TKP 211 Nezavlažovaná orná pôda (50,85 %) a TKP  311 Zmiešané lesy           (27,11 %).           Ekonomický rozvoj, vstup krajiny do EÚ, procesy (sub)urbanizácie a pustnutia           krajiny predstavujú dominantné hybné sily, ktoré podmienili zmenu krajinnej           pokrývky v povodí rieky Nitry.                                            236","USING MULTICRITERIAL ANALYSIS TO ASSESS THE DIVERSIFICATION OF                                     RURAL LANDSCAPE                                                             2                                             1                               Michaela Žoncová , Jana Vojteková               1                Department of Geography and Geology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Matej Bel                             University, Tajovského 40, Banská Bystrica,                                   michaela.zoncova@umb.sk                  2                  Department of Geography and Regional Development, Faculty of Natural                                  Sciences, Tr. A. Hlinku 1, Nitra                                      jvojtekova@ukf.sk              Abstract:  The  Slovak  countryside  is  looking  for  new  poles  of  development             after the decline of the primary agricultural function after 1989 and becomes             a multifunctional space. As the rural function changes, this change also affects             the overall landscape diversity. The aim of the paper is to evaluate the degree             of diversification of the rural landscape using multi-criteria analysis. There are             13  indicators  of  different  focus  (demographic,  economic,  landscape-             ecological)  entering  into  this  method.  The  indicators  were  analyzed  in  the             MCA7 program, which serves to evaluate the multi-criteria analysis. For the             model  territory  was  selected  the  Termal  microregion,  which  consist  of             13 municipalities. A central municipality Podhájska is known especially for the             development of tourism, which is based on the thermal spring.             Key words: rural landscape, diversification, multicriterial analysis                                       INTRODUCTION             Landscape  is  a  dynamic  system  that  changes  in  time  and  space.  A  rural             landscape  (countryside)  is  the  specific  type  of  landscape,  which  has  been             formed  mainly  by  the  primary  agricultural  function  in  the  past.  Johnston             (1986) defines the countryside as an area with extensive land use with low             population  density.  Woods  (2011)  argues  that  agriculture,  the  impact  of             human activity on rural areas and land use are explored from the perspective             of geography in case of rural space. After 1989, the Slovak economy has been             reorientated  to  the  market  economy,  resulting  in  rapid  changes  in  the             ownership  of  the  business,  production  processes  or  competition  in  the             market. The position of agriculture in the countryside has also been changed,             which in that period began to form the new visual aspect and the meaning of             the countryside. The countryside and rural municipalities have changed their             character  and  started  to  fulfil  different  functions,  other  than  agriculture.             There appeared a new phenomenon - the diversification of the countryside,             i.e.  transformation  of  the  agricultural  (monoproductive)  rural  area  to             a multifunctional  system  that  seeks  to  maximize  its  potential  and  to  move             capital into various activities that have been represented mainly in the urban             area  -  industrial  activity,  tourism,  etc.  Holmes  (2006,  2012)  regards  the                                             237","multifunctional  transition  as  switching  from  production  functions  to           consumption and protection functions, a new strong political force appears -           environmentalism.  Hansen  -  Francis  (2007)  deals  with  the  theme  of  the           multifunctional  countryside  on  the  example  of  the  state  of  Nebraska  or           Brouwer  -  Heide  (2009)  on  numerous  case  studies  from  Europe,  North           America and developing countries. The importance of rural diversification is           also  highlighted  in  the  strategic  documents  of  the  Slovak  Republic.  In  The           Rural Development Programme 2007-2013, diversification was included in the           separate  axis  3  Quality  of  life  in  rural  areas  and  diversification  of  the  rural           economy. Diversification is also mentioned in the current strategic document,           The Rural Development Programme 20142020. The aim of the document is to           facilitate  the  diversification,  establishment  and  development  of  small           businesses as well as job creation, increasing the diversification of agricultural           production  (focusing  on  livestock  production  and  specialized  crop           production). The diversification of the rural economy should be concentrated           on  a  field  focused  on  the  development  of  tourism  and  agritourism           development (recreational and relaxation activities), provision of services for           the  target  group  of  children,  seniors  and  citizens  with  reduced  mobility,           processing and marketing outside of agriculture. In rural areas, there appears           diversification, i.e. increase of landscape diversity, change of rural countryside           functions.  The  aim  of  the  paper  is  to  assess  the  level  of  diversification  of           municipalities in the area of interest on the basis of several indicators and to           capture changes between 1989 and present.                                       METHODS           The level of countryside diversification was studied by way of an example of           the model territory, for which we have chosen the Termal microregion. The           Termal microregion is located in western Slovakia, in the Nitra self-governing           region, in the district of Nové Zámky. The area of the microregion in 2016 was           20 639, 631 ha. It consists of 13 municipalities - Bardoňovo, Čechy, Dedinka,           Dolný Ohaj, Hul, Kolta, Maňa, Podhájska, Pozba, Radava, Trávnica, Veľké Lovce           and  Vlkas.  The  tourist  center  of  the  micro-region  is  the  municipality  of           Podhájska, which is famous for its thermal swimming pool and thanks to it, it           was  placed  on  the  4th  place  in  the  ranking  of  the  most  attractive  thermal           baths and aquaparks in Slovakia in 2013. The degree of diversification in the           area of interest was assessed on the basis of thirteen indicators. The widely           used diversification rating tool is the gross index of diversification. This index           is  most  often  used  to  assess  employment  diversification  in  the  economy.           However, we also want to analyze rural change from other aspects than from           the point of view of employment in individual sectors.  We have, therefore,           defined a set of criteria that will ultimately decide about the overall level of           diversification. We can talk about creating a multi-criteria analysis to assess           the level of diversification in the rural area. The multicriteria method generally           includes methods of quantitative evaluation – analysis and results is an overall           assessment of the status and comparison of several variants. The method can           be applied when the analyzed problem depends on various factors that are           relatively  problematic  for  comparing  and  evaluating  on  the  same  platform.           The decision-making tasks in which the consequences of a decision are judged           by  multiple  criteria  are  called  multi-criteria  decision-making,  sometimes           interpreted  as  multicriterial  decision-making  (Korviny,  2003).  Multicriterial                                           238","analyzes  in  the  rural  development  research  were  also  used  by  Bournaris  -             Moulogianni - Manos (2014) in the assessment of the rural development plans             and  Burian  -  Macková  -  Mirijovsky  (2011)  in  the  assessment  of  the             suburbanization processes in Olomouc area. Because our goal is to assess the             changes in the rural landscape, we compare the two border points of the time             interval, i.e., at the beginning and end of the monitored period (according to             the available statistical data, some data are not followed annually, but they             are obtained at the Census every ten years). The criteria for assessing changes             in the countryside are shown in Table 1.             Tab. 1: Indicators used in multicriterial analysis               Category of                  Indicators                 Time                indicators                                            interval                                                                       1991 a                                            Population                 2015                                                                       1991 a               Demographic                                      Migration to city of work        2011                                                                       1991 a                                         The ageing index              2014                                                                       1991 a                                   Gross index of diversification GiD   2011                               Drawn funds from EU funds for municipality   2013                                       development per capita                Economic                                               2004 a                                      Number of entrepreneurs          2014                                   Defert's tourist function (TF) index   2016                                        Transport avalaibility         2016                                                                       2003 a                                          Land use index               2016                                                                       1991 a                                         Number of houses              2011                Landscape-                                             1991 a                ecological          Number of unoccupied houses        2011                                                                       1991 a                                    Number of multi-storey houses      2011                                   Number of attractions for tourism   2016             Source: Žoncová, 2017              The  primary  purpose  was  to  compare  statistical  data  from  1986  and  2016,             where  the  period  before  the  transformation  period  and  the  current  state             would be captured. However, the data from the year of 1986 was not possible             to  get  (data  unavailable  at  the  Statistical  Office  of  the  Slovak  Republic),             therefore  the  oldest  available  data  from  this  period  was  used.  We  assume             that despite this, we will be able to capture the transformation changes that             have led to the diversification of the countryside. Afterwards we put data into             MCA7  program,  which  is  used  to  perform  multi-criteria  analysis  (Korviny,             2003). The program allows to perform the applied calculation of the following             multicriteria analysis methods:                 ·   WSA - Weighted Sum Approach,                 ·   IPA - Ideal Points Analysis,                                              239","·   TOPSIS  -  Technique  for  Order  Preference  by  Similarity  to  Ideal                  Solution – it is the principle of minimizing the distance from the ideal                  variant, the ideal variant is the variant for which all the values of the                  criteria reach the best values (Korvíny, 2003).               ·   CDA - Concordance Discordance Analysis – this method has a wide                  use and is based on a comparison of pairing alternatives. It measures                  the level to which selection alternatives and factor weights confirm                  or  reverse  the  degradation  ratio  between  alternatives  (Korvíny,                  2003).           In the multi-criteria evaluation F1, F2,..Fn factors are  selected, which affect           the solution of the problem. Criteria may be of the same level of importance           or may be hierarchically divided (Filová – Dávid – Sosedová, 2012). Our aim           was  to  identify  the  municipality  that  was  most  dynamic  in  the  monitored           indicators.  We  consider  all  the  criteria  equivalent,  although  their  character           and  focus  are  different.  Any  characteristic  is  not  preferred;  we  have           determined the same weight of the criteria. Our goal was only to monitor the           intensity  of  change,  not  its  nature  (negative  change  or  positive  change).  In           particular, data of percentage change over the observed period were included           in  the  multi-criteria  analysis,  as  long  as  statistical  data  were  available.  The           index of change was reflected as the percentage increase or decrease of the           indicator.           Demographic indicators are one of the basic indicators in the assessment of           rural  changes,  which  are  explored  closely  in  research  of  Repaská  -  Vilinová           (2016) on the  example of the Nitra region. In the case of an indicator that           talks about the amount of drawn money from EU funds, data were used only           for  the  last  programming  period  2007-2014.  Defert's  tourist  function  (TF)           index enters the multi-criteria analysis with data for the current period, i.e.,           year  2016,  because  there  were  no  accommodation  capacities  in  the  region           before 1989, and in the first available statistics in 1996 there was only one           accommodation  facility  in  the  Termal  microregion  -  a  tourist  hostel  in           Podhájska with 96 beds. Transport availability is also expressed only by data           for the current period. Land use index is observed on the basis of research by           Šveda,  Vigašová  (2010).  The  number  of  attractions  for  tourism  is  also  an           important indicator for assessing the diversification of the countryside, as it           captures  the  potential  of  a  municipality  that  can  be  used  in  the  future  for           municipality development (number of cultural and historical monuments).                ASSESSMENT OF INDICATORS USING MULTICRITERIAL ANALYSIS           To evaluate the degree of changes that occurred in the transformation period           after 1989, we used a multicriterial analysis involving 13 indicators grouped           into  three  main  groups.  After  inserting  the  necessary  data  (values  of           indicators) into the MCA7 program, the program determined the ranking of           the municipalities based on the results of the above-mentioned four methods           - from the municipality where the changes were the most dynamic and the           most  significant  to  the  municipality  where  the  development  was  relatively           stable and there were no changes and municipality has no strong potential for           development  in  the  future  (Table  2).  The  software  gave  us  a  ranking  of           municipalities  in  the  four  methods.  We  then  created  the  overall  order  by                                           240","making  the  average  of  the  individual  rankings,  and  we  found  the  total             intensity of the change in the rural area of the Termal microregion (map 1).             Each method uses a different calculation method in the multicriterial analysis,             the results differed only slightly in the ranking of the municipalities. However,             the ranking of municipalities in the first two places is the same in all methods,             the  value  of  the  CDA  method  is  other  than  IPA,  WSA,  TOPSIS  on  the  third             place.             Tab. 2: Multicriterial Analysis Results in the MCA7 Program              Municipality            Ranking in methods          Average rank                             IPA      CDA     WSA       TOPSIS               Bardoňovo      2        2        2         2            2                 Čechy       12        13      12         11           12                Dedinka       8        7        8         7           7-8               Dolný Ohaj     7        4        7         10           6                  Hul        11        9       11         12           11                 Kolta       10        8       10         9            10                 Maňa         3        5        3         3            3               Podhájska      1        1        1         1            1                 Pozba        4        3        4         4            4                Radava        6        10       6         8           7-8                Trávnica      5        6        5         6            5              Veľké Lovce    13        12      13         13           13                 Vlkas        9        11       9         5            9             Source: Žoncová by MCA7, 2017              The  municipality  of  Podhájska,  the  center  of  microregion  was  the  most             dynamic. The development of tourism is booming there and it also reflects the             diversification of economic activities in the municipality, new building at the             expense  of  declining  agricultural  land  area,  the  growth  of  number  of             permanently  unoccupied  houses  and  their  transformation  for  recreation             facilities,  the  increase  of  accommodation  facilities,  the  higher  frequency  of             transport connections with the surrounding towns as well as the main city.                                                                   241","Map 1: Intensity of Rural Landscape Diversification in Termal Microregion           Source: Žoncová by ArcGIS 10.1, 2017            The  municipality  also  has  local  resources,  which  is  usable  for  further           development of the municipality, and also uses its potential to finance various           development projects. With the development of tourism in the future there           may  also  be  a  decline  of  the  population,  when  the  municipality  loses  its           peaceful, rural  environment  and changes into a dynamic  village throughout           the whole year.           On the second place, the municipality of Bardoňovo is placed, where are some           significant  changes  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  economy.  There  was  an           increase in the number of entrepreneurs in the municipality and an increase           in the diversification of economic activities. The municipality also invests a lot           of  money  in  its  future  development  through  development  projects.  The           municipality is developing in the tourism sector, although it lags behind in the           number of beds and values of Defert's tourist function index. On the basis of           geological surveys, it was planned to build a spa area, a relaxing promenade           as  well  as  establish  a  tourist-information  office  on  the  basis  of  geological                                           242","surveys.  However,  preferably  reconstruction  of  the  manor  house  and             construction of the relaxation zone were realized. There are also changes in             the  landscape  where  part  of  vineyards,  permanent  grassland,  orchards  and             gardens have been transformed into agricultural land or other area.             On the third place is the municipality of Maňa, which profits from its good             location near the town of Vráble. Also the position on the main road in the             direction Vráble – Nové Zámky and the railway line is the big advantage for its             development. The municipality of Maňa has good transport connection with             the surrounding towns. There is also balanced state and composition of the             population.  The  aging  index  gained  the  best  results  in  Maňa.  The  village             becomes attractive for the young population as well as for the building of new             residential buildings. In the future, there is a prospects due to a wide range of             local wealth that can be exploited and the nearness of the industrial park is             also  an  advantage.  However,  there  is  not  enough  accommodation  in  the             municipality.             Dynamics  of  municipalities  can  also  be  analyzed  at  the  level  of  three             categories of indicators (demographic, economic, landscape-ecological) where             the  ranking  of  municipalities  in  the  first  three  places  changed  (Table  3).             Podhájska  maintained  its  first  place  in  terms  of  economic  indicators  and             landscape-ecological  indicators.  In  terms  of  demographic  indicators,  the             municipality  of  Podhájska  ranked  on  third  place,  what  reflects  the             development of the municipality in terms of tourism and other sectors of the             economy, but there is an outflow of inhabitants outside the municipality. The             municipality  of  Podhájska  is  transformed  into  a  tourist  resort,  which  is             characterized by an increased concentration of visitors, higher prices as well             as the overall rush in the village.             An  interesting  position  was  achieved  by  the  municipality  of  Čechy,  which             placed in the overall ranking of the dynamics in the penultimate place, but             from  the  point  of  view  of  the  economic  indicators  it  ranked  third.  The             municipality  is  economically  dynamic,  but  it  lags  behind  in  the  other             indicators.  The  opposite  case  occurred  in  the  municipality  of  Maňa,  which             ranked third in the overall assessment but had uneven positions in the partial             indicators.  Within  the  results  of  the  landscape-ecological  indicators,  the             municipality  of  Maňa  was  placed  second,  because  it  had  a  dynamic             development,  especially  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  landscape,  where  a             larger  number  of  multi-storey  houses  was  built.  However,  the  municipality             also  has  a  lot  of  local  wealth  in  the  form  of  cultural  and  natural  heritage,             which can be used in the future for the development of tourism.                                                          243","Tab. 3: Dynamics of municipalities on the basis of partial results of multicriterial           analysis           municipality                 ranking                     overall                       demographic   economic   landscape-ecologic   ranking                        indicators   indicators     indicators            Bardoňovo       1           2              5              2              Čechy        11           3              13            12             Dedinka       10           6              6             7-8            Dolný Ohaj     4-5         11              9              6               Hul         13           4              11            11              Kolta         6           5              12            10              Maňa          8           7              2              3            Podhájska       3           1              1              1              Pozba         2          10              3              4             Radava        4-5          9              10            7-8             Trávnica       9           8              4              5           Veľké Lovce     12          13              7             13              Vlkas         7          12              8              9           Source: Žoncová by MCA7            In  the  multicriterial  analysis,  it  is  appropriate  to  use  as  many  criteria  as           possible. Therefore, there may be a slight distortion of the results when it is           evaluated individual categories of indicators where 3 to 5 criteria were used.           We  therefore  consider  results  for  all  the  13  indicators  as  a  decisive  result,           because the overall results give us a more accurate picture of the dynamics of           the rural municipalities of the Termal microregion in term of transformation           changes.                                      CONCLUSION           The countryside, which was a symbol of agricultural production in the past,           has changed under the influence of political, socio-economic changes. These           changes were reflected in the looking for new poles of development and the           countryside  is  becoming  a  multifunctional  space.  A  new  phenomenon  is           coming to the fore - rural diversification, i.e. the transformation of agricultural           (productive) countryside into a multifunctional system that seeks to maximize           its  potential  and  to  move  capital  into  various  economic  activities.  It  is           precisely obvious in the monitored area of Termal microregion that tourism           based  on  a  thermal  swimming  pool  in  Podhájska  is  the  driving  force  of           microregion development. A good tool for assessment of rural diversification           is  multifunctional  analysis  in  which  we  can  explore  changes  from  multiple           perspectives. We have used 13 indicators that we have evaluated in the MCA7           program,  which  serves  to  evaluate  multicriterial  analysis.  The  availability  of           statistical data in the required time periods to the level of the municipalities           can be a problem in application of a multicriterial analysis. In the monitored           area,  the  municipality  of  Podhájska  reached  the  highest  intensity  of           diversification, in which functions related to the development of tourism are           concentrated.  There  is  a  wide  offer  of  accommodation  facilities  of  various           quality  and  restaurant  facilities,  too.  The  village  also  has  a  good  transport                                            244","connection to other municipalities and towns by rail and bus. The negative             effect  is  the  departure  of  the  population  for  employment  outside  the             municipality and the overall decrease of the population in the municipality,             which was also reflected in the ranking of the municipality in the multicriterial             analysis  in  the  part  of  the  demographic  indicators  in  the  third  place.  The             results  of  the  multicriterial  analysis  can  be  helpful  and  useful  in  creating             strategic  documents  of  the  Termal  microregion  and  in  allocating  financial             resources  to  municipalities  that  have  been  placed  in  research  in  the  last             places,  i.e.  municipalities  of  Veľké  Lovce,  Čechy  and  Hul.  By  this  way  it  is             possible  to  ensure  sustainable  development  in  all  municipalities  of  the             microregion and to ensure the development of backward municipalities.                                         REFERENCES             BOURNARIS, T. – MOULOGIANNI, CH. – MANOS, B. A multicriteria model for             the assessment of rural development plans in Greece. Land Use Policy, vol. 38,             2014, p. 1-8, ISSN 0264-8377.             https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2013.10.008             BROUWER,  F.M.  –  HEIDE,  M.  Multifunctional  rural  land  management:             economics  and  policies.  London:  Earthscan  Publications  Ltd,  2009.  ISBN             9781844075775             BURIAN,  J.  –  MACKOVÁ,  M.  –  MIŘIJOVSKÝ,  J.  Suburbanizace  Olomouce  –             hodnocení pomocí analýzy statistických dat. Urbanismus a územní rozvoj, vol.             14, 2011, p. 10-16, ISSN 1212-0855             FILOVÁ,  E.  –  DÁVID,  A.  –  SOSEDOVÁ,  J.  Multikriteriálna  analýza  v  metodike             hodnotenia  centier  turizmu.  Doprava  a  spoje  –  elektronický  časopis  Fakulty             prevádzky a ekonomiky dopravy a spojov Žilinskej univerzity v Žiline, 2012, p.             51–75, ISSN 1336-7676             HANSEN,  T.M.  AND  FRANCIS,  CH.A.  Multifunctional  Rural  Landscapes.             Economic, Environmental, Policy and Social Impacts of Land Use Changes  in             Nebraska.  [online].  [29-09-2017].  Dostupné  na  http://agronomy.unl.edu/             FarmingSystems/organic/MultifunctionalRuralLandscapes.pdf             HOLMES,  J.  2006.  Impulses  towards  a  multifunctional  transition  in  rural             Australia: Gaps in the research agenda. Journal of Rural Studies, vol. 22, 2006,             p. 142-160, ISSN 0743-0167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2005.08.006             HOLMES, J. 2012. Cape York Peninsula, Australia: A frontier region undergoing             a  multifunctional  transition  with  indigenous  engagement.  Journal  of  Rural             Studies, vol. 28, 2012, p. 252-265, ISSN 0743-0167.             https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2012.01.004             JOHNSTON, R. J. et al. The dictionary of human geography. 2. ed. Londýn: Basil             Blackwell, 1986. ISBN 0631146555             KORVINY, P. Aplikace multikriteriální analýzy při nasazování dálkově řízených             prvků  v  distribučních  sítích  vysokého  napětí.  Ostrava:  Ostravská  univerzita,             2003. Dizertační práce             REPASKÁ, G. – VILINOVÁ, K. Analysis of population aging process in the Nitra             self-governing region (2000-2014). In: Lnenička, L. ed. Central Europe Area in                                              245","View of Current Geography. Brno: Masarykova univerzita, 2016, p. 238-245,           ISBN 978-80-210-8313-4           ŠVEDA,  M.  –  VIGAŠOVÁ,  D.  2010.  Zmeny  vo  využití  zeme  v  zázemí  veľkých           slovenských miest. Geografie, vol. 115, n. 4, p. 413-439, ISSN 1212-0014           WOODS, M. Rural geography: Processes, Responses and Experiences in Rural           Restructuring. London: SAGE, 2011. 352 p. ISBN 9780761947615                                         Shrnutí           Vidiecka  krajina  bola  v minulosti  chápaná  ako  symbol  poľnohospodárstva           a poľnohospodárskej krajiny a vidiek tak plnil prvotne produkčnú funkciu. Po           roku  1989  sa  však  hospodárstvo  Slovenska  preorientováva  na  trhové           hospodárstvo,  čo  malo  za  následok  prudké  zmeny  z hľadiska  vlastníckych           vzťahov podnikov, výrobných postupov, či konkurencie na trhu. Do popredia           sa  dostáva  nový  fenomén  –  diverzifikácia  vidieka,  t.j.  prerod           poľnohospodárskeho (produkčného) vidieka na polyfunkčný systém, ktorý sa           snaží maximálne využívať svoj potenciál a presúvať kapitál na rôzne činnosti.           Dochádza tak k procesu diverzifikácie, t.j. zmene, obmene krajiny v dôsledku           spoločenských  zmien  a  prejavom  týchto  zmien  je  zvýšenie  rozmanitosti           (diverzity)  funkcií  vidieckej  krajiny,  t.j.  prechod  z  monofunkčnosti  na           multifunkčnosť.  Za  modelové  územie  sme  si  zvolili  mikroregión  Termál,  kde           zohráva  veľkú  úlohu  cestovný  ruch  založený  na  termálnom  kúpalisku  v obci           Podhájska, ktoré je hnacou silou rozvoja v mikroregióne. Cieľom príspevku je           určenie tej obce z mikroregiónu Termál, ktorá po roku 1989 dosiahla najvyššiu           intenzitu  zmeny,  a to  z rôznych  uhľov  pohľadov.  Na  zhodnotenie  stupňa           diverzifikácie sme použili multikriteriálnu analýzu, kde sme brali do úvahy 13           ukazovateľov – demografické (index zmeny počtu obyvateľov, dochádzka do           zamestnania,  index  starnutia),  ekonomické  (hrubý  index  diverzifikácie  HiD,           čerpané financie z fondov EÚ na rozvoj obce prepočítané na obyvateľa, počet           podnikateľských  subjektov,  Defertov  index,  dopravná  dostupnosť),  krajinno-           ekologické (index zmeny vo využívaní krajiny, index zmeny počtu neobývaných           domov, index zmeny počtu domov index zmeny počtu viacpodlažných domov,           počet zaujímavostí pre cestovný ruch). Dané ukazovatele v časovom horizonte           zachytávajú začiatok transformačného obdobia (r. 1986) a súčasnosť (r. 2016).           Tieto  ukazovatele  sme  zhodnotili  v programe  MCA7,  ktorý  zoradí  obce  na           základe daných ukazovateľov podľa metód WSA, IPA, TOPSIS a CDA. Najvyšší           stupeň diverzifikácie bol zaznamenaný v obci Podhájska, kde prekvitá rozvoj           cestovného  ruchu,  čo  sa  odzrkadľuje  aj  na  diverzifikácii  ekonomických           činností,  novou  výstavbou  na  úkor  poklesu  poľnohospodárskej  pôdy,           nárastom  trvalo  neobývaných  domov  a  ich  určením  na  rekreáciu,  nárastom           ubytovacích  zariadení,  vyššou  frekvenciou  dopravného  spojenia  s  okolitými           mestami  ako  i  s  hlavným  mestom.  Obec  taktiež  disponuje  lokálnym           bohatstvom, ktoré je využiteľné pre ďalší rozvoj obce a taktiež svoj potenciál           využíva vo financovaní rôznych rozvojových projektov. S rozvojom cestovného           ruchu  v  budúcnosti  môže  nastať  aj  pokles  trvalo  žijúceho  obyvateľstva,           nakoľko  obec  stráca  pokojné,  vidiecke  životné  prostredie  a  mení  sa  na           dynamickú  obec  počas  celého  roka.  Výsledky  multikriteriálnej  analýzy  môžu           byť nápomocné a užitočné pri tvorbe strategických dokumentov mikroregiónu                                            246","Termál  a  pri  alokovaní  finančných  zdrojov  do  obcí,  ktoré  sa  umiestnili  vo             výskume  na  posledných  miestach,  tj.  do  obcí  Veľké  Lovce,  Čechy  a  Hul.             Takýmto spôsobom je možné zabezpečiť trvalo udržateľný rozvoj vo všetkých             obciach mikroregiónu a zabezpečiť tak rozvoj zaostalých obcí.                                                                                                      247","CARTOGRAPHY, GIS AND DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES             UTILIZATION OF GIS IN MAPPING INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES OF THE RIVER                                        NITRA                Michaela Bencová, Vladimíra Lišková, Jozef Ťažký, Dávid Tomko-Králo             Constantine the Philosopher in Nitra, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of              Ecology and Environment, Trieda A. Hlinku 1, 949 74 Nitra, Slovak Republic,                                 michaela.bencova@ukf.sk            Abstract: The River Nitra is a significant bio corridor in the Hornonitrianska           basin.  The  river  is  prone  to  occupation  by  invasive  species  due  to  the           disturbances caused by floods and also because a part of the river had been           transferred  to  a  new  river  bed.  Geographic  information  systems  tools  are           necessary to investigate the occurrence and distribution of these species as           they help to infer the factors that affect their occurrence. Our contribution           includes the results of field mapping of the River Nitra, which was carried out           from 2016 to 2017. The study area of the river was divided into segments with           a length of 500 m, where the occurrence of invasive species was recorded.           Mapping took place within 50 m of the cunette. By using the GIS software, the           values obtained were incorporated into the resulting map. Subsequently, we           deduced factors which influence the increased occurrence of invasive species           in some segments. The results show that a major part of the segments was           attacked  by  at  least  one  invasive  species.  The  predominant  species  are           Helianthus tuberosus and Solidago canadensis.           Key words: Invasion, Plants, Nitra, River, GIS                                     INTRODUCTION           Invasive ecology is one of the most dynamic and developed branch of ecology           (Williamson, 1996). In last years, the problem of invasive organisms has been           discussed more frequently. The development of the traffic and industry helps           to the transport of unoriginal species to new areas, where they could have got           by  their  own  migration  only  exceptionally.    Various  biotopes  differ  among           each  other  in  the  degree  of  invasion,  hence  in  the  amount  of  unoriginal           species that exist there (Chytrý et al., 2005). The extensity of the invasion in           the given location is influenced by the amount of unoriginal species diasporas           penetrated  to  environment,  attributes  of  the  unoriginal  species  and           susceptibility of the environment to invasions (Hajzlerová and Matějček 2011).           In Slovakia, unoriginal species represent 21.5% of the species from the total           flora, whereby 3.3% of them express as invasive (Medvecká et al., 2012).           In  the  process  of  invasive  species  dissemination,  river  corridors  have  the           unsubstitutable  mission  (Saumel  and  Kowarik,  2010).  They  create  extensive           hydrologic network that influence hydrologic regime and the stability of whole           country. The corridors are important mainly in the transfer of diasporas and                                           248","diversion of bank communities by floods, whereby they create new places for             invasions.  They also constitute the source of diasporas for invasions in the             surrounding country (Wall, 1994). In consequence, the bank communities, in             which  the  foreign  specie  is  successfully  established,  can  serve  as  natural             centres for next extension to forward country (Pyšek and Prach, 1993). The             occurrence of the invasive species brings changes of the ecosystems along the             watercourses (Tickner et al., 2001). At the communal level, the displacement             of the original kinds of plants is the effect resulting from the dominance that             the invasive plants are able to reach in attacked locations. In the broad sense,             this  invasion  causes  flora  homogenization,  in  which  the  original  botanical-             geographical  entities  became  similar  thanks  to  the  massive  invasion  (Hejda             and Pyšek, 2006).             The surrounding of the watercourses belongs to the areas which are mostly             concerned by invasive species and belongs to the most dynamic ecosystems at             the mainland (Naiman et al., 1993). A lot of successful invasive species were             firstly  observed  especially  at  these  locations.  The  biggest  amounts  of             unoriginal plants which are naturalized in the natural vegetation in the Central             Europe occur in the bank vegetation. Twelve of thirteen the most frequently             occurred invasive taxons are presented especially in these areas (Müller and             Okuda, 1998).             The extension of the invasive species along watercourses and overflow lands             was observed by various authors, e.g.: Hood and Naiman (2000), Richardson             et al. (2000), Säumel and Kowarik (2010), Stohlgren et al. (1998) and others.             The aim of the article is the analysis of the particular results from survey at             River Nitra in years 2016 – 2017 and evaluation of the bank grassland attacked             by invasive species.                                CHARACTERISTICS OF THE AREA             The research took place at the defined passage of the River Nitra in Prievidza             district.  Whole  area  belongs  to  the  Hornonitrianska  basin.  It  is  jagged             depression at the upper watercourse of Nitra which consists of the particular             walleyes.  The  River  Nitra  stems  at  south  slope  of  Malá  Fatra.  It  runs  by             Podunajská pahorkatina and at the area of Podunajská rovina, on the north             from  Komárno,  it  joins  the  River  Váh.  The  length  of  the  watercourse  is                                              2             196.7 km and the total area is 5 144 km  (Mazúr and Lukniš, 1980; Porubský,             1991).             The  interested  stretch  of  river  had  the  length  20  kilometres,  whereby  ran             trough Bojnice, Nováky, and Prievidza and villages Diviacka Nová Ves, Lazany,             Opatovce nad Nitrou and Zemianske Kostoľany (fig. 1). At this place, left-hand             tributary river – Handlovka joins the river, too. In 2009, a part of stream bed             was transferred by reason of brown coal-mining at the region. The rivers were             transferred to new stream beds, whereby degradation of the area happened             and  the  rivers  were  naturally  meandering  accompanied  flooded  vegetation             (Micková, 2010).                                                  249","Fig. 1. Location of interested area in Slovakia.           Source: Bencová, 2017                                      METODOLOGY           The research took place on the particular river stretch of River Nitra with the           length  20  kilometres,  extended  from  border  line  of  the  village  Zemianske           Kostoľany (48°40'39.93\"N, 18°30'53.03\"E), to border line of the village Lazany           (48°48'10.06\"N, 18°37'52.87\"E). Both of the stream-banks were surveyed.           The research was carried out in a period of 2016 – 2017, and it concentrated           on  the  occurrence  of  the  invasive  species  of  herbs  and  woody  plants.           Especially,  the  extent  of  invasive  species  continuity  to  watercourse  was           surveyed.  Particular  identified  populations  were  listed  into  maps  with  map           scale 1:1000. The research was coming up from the methodology established           for  identification  of  long-term  changes  in  coastline  ecosystems  in  overflow           land along watercourses (Langhammer et al., 2005; Matějček, 2009). Whole           interested stretch of the river was divided into segments with length 500 m           (±150m)  and  width  50  m  from  the  coastline  cunette  (Mahy  et  al.,  2006).           Observed invasive taxons were chosen according to publication of Gojdičová           et al. (2002), whereby the observed categories were: 1 – invasive taxons (that           are  divided  into  1  a)  neophytes  and  1  b)  archaeophytes)  and  2  –  potential                                                                          2           (regional) invasive taxons. In every population area vegetation cover (in m )           and   rate were noted. We established the rate according to logarithmic scale           (1 – 9 specimen = 1; 10 – 99 specimen = 2; 100 – 999 = 3; etc.). In case that the           population is composed by various kinds of invasive taxons, to each species           was  given  the  same  part  from  whole  area  vegetation  cover.  For  next           calculations the middle rate was used (category 1: 1 – 9 specimen = rate 5;                                            250","2–50; 3 – 500; etc.). The river was divided into 40 stretches, whereby for each             river stretch was calculated  maximum load index according to the formula:             I=log PJ + PT, kde PJ=total number of  specimen  from all  invasive kinds and             PT=number of recorded taxons (Matějček, 2009).             Obtained  data  were  subsequently  processed  through  programs  QGis             and ArcMap. At the website Open Street Map we chose section Export. We             have manually chosen area which data we needed. In our case it was area of             Prievidza  and  Zemianske  Kostoľany.  In  next  step  we  chose  option  Export,             Overpass API.  We downloaded the file “map” and subsequently added it as             a layer to QGIS (2.14.8).  We chose display lines elements from the options             (points,  lines,  multilinesstring,  multipolygons,  other_relations).  We             subsequently  saved  them  as  shapefile.  We  added  the  layer  into  project             ArcMap  (10.2.1),  where  we  selected  particular  lines,  in  our  case  river,             riverbank. From the selected elements we created new shapefile layers. We             converted  riverbank  from  the  line  to  polygon.  By  function  Buffer             7(geoprocessing  tools),  we  achieved  cut-out  of  the  area  needed  for  next             research.  On  the  basis  of  ortho-photograph  with  resolution  0.5  m,  we             identified  particular  elements  of  the  country  structure,  that  interfered  into             interested  area.  The  result  was  to  make  statistical  representation  of  the             particular elements in interested area and their percentage representation in             interested  area  of  the  River  Nitra.  Particular  elements  and  groups  of  the             elements  were  classified  according  to  the  work  of  Petrovič,  Hreško  et  al.             (2009).                                          RESULTS             Out of the total 97 mapped species that are filed according to Gojdičová et al.             (2002)  to  the  category  invasive  and  potentially  (regionally)  invasive,  we             positively determined 26 (Tab. 1). The majority consists of the species from             category 1 a) – invasive neophytes, 61%. Invasive archaeophytes represented             27%  and  potentially  invasive  species  only  13%.  Woody  plants  were             represented  by  species  Ailanthus  altissima,  Negundo  aceroides  a Robinia             pseudoacacia.  The  other  taxons  represented  invasive  herbs.  In  particular             segments  the  most  frequent  were  species  Solidago  canadensis  (67.5%),             Helianthus tuberosus (57.5%) and Fallopia x bohemica (52.5%). On contrary,             only in one segment the species: Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Galinsoga parviflora,             Iva xanthiifolia a Melilotus officinalis were represented.             Tab. 1: Total summary and characteristics of identified species                   Latin title      Gojdičová et al. (2002)   Medvecká et al. (2012)                                          Category           O       TI    IS                Ailanthus altissima         1a)             As     1850   Inv              Amaranthus retroflexus         2             NAm     1830   Inv              Ambrosia artemisiifolia       1a)            NAm     1949   Inv                Amorpha fruticosa            2             NAm     1850   Nat                Aster lanceolatus           1a)             -       -      -                Cichorium intybus           1b)           E As Af   -     Nat                 Cirsium vulgare            1b)             -       -      -                                             251","Conyza canadensis           1a)            NAm     1971   Inv                Echinocystis lobata         1a)            NAm     1933   Inv                Fallopia japonica           1a)             As     1920   Inv               Fallopia sachalinensis        2              As     1946   Nat               Fallopia  × bohemica         1a)             H      1996   Nat               Galinsoga parviflora         1a)            SAm     1853   Inv               Helianthus tuberosus         1a)            NAm     1830   Inv              Impatiens glandulifera        1a)             As     1958   Inv               Impatiens parviflora         1a)             As     1897   Inv                 Iva xanthiifolia           1a)            NAm     1934   Nat                 Melilotus albus             -            E As Af   -     Nat               Melilotus officinalis        1b)            E As     -     Nat               Negundo aceroides            1a)            NAm     1794   Inv              Robinia pseudoacacia          1a)            NAm     1720   Inv               Solidago canadensis          1a)            NAm     1872   Inv                Solidago gigantea           1a)            NAm     1909   Inv                 Stenactis annua            1a)            NAm     1791   Inv               Tanacetum vulgare            1b)             -       -      -                Tripleurospermum            1b)             E       -     Nat                   perforatum           Legend:  Category  1a)  invasive  taxa  neophyte,  1b)  invasive  taxa  archaeophyte,  2  -  potential           invasive taxa, O - Origin of the taxon: Af - Africa, As - Asia, E - Europe, H - hybrid, NAm - North           America, SAm - South America. TI - time of introduction, IS - invasive status: inv – invasive, nat –           naturalized.            The majority is formed by the species transferred from North America, mainly           neophytes,  e.  g.  Helianthus  tuberosus,  Solidago  canadensis,  Conyza           canadensis and others.           By  obtained  data  we  interpreted  the  presence  of  the  particular  species.  In           programme QGis we divided data on the basis of the rates into four categories           according  to  the  taxons  in  particular  segments.  In  the  map  (fig.  2)  the           frequency of invasive species is not the same for each river stretch.                                                               252","Fig. 2. Number of species in particular segments.             Source: Bencová, 2017              The number of taxons in the stretches moves from 0 to 13 taxons. There were             8 segments (20%) in span 0 – 3. Invasive species have not occurred at places             with active maintenance, mainly in town and village residential areas where             by the reason of frequent mowing time are not proper conditions for their             growing. By the reason of two private estates that particular stretch could not             have been mapped. The most frequent span was from 4 – 6 species that is             represented  in  19  stretches  (47.5%).  It  was  dominant  at  irregularly  mowed             stretched and in rural zones and represented by species Helianthus tuberosus             and Solidago canadensis. The second frequent span was from 7 – 10 taxons             (27.5%). In the river junction area of Nitra and Handlovka we recorded two             stretches (5%) with span from 11 – 13 species. In 2009 there was transfer of             the stream bed at both rivers by the reason of coal mining. That is the reason             why proper conditions were created for the unoriginal species that have not             already been able to create monodominant vegetation cover as at the other             stretches of the river.             After  analysis  of  the  relationship  between  total  vegetation  cover  that             particular species have and number of segments the most dominant species             became  Helianthus  tuberosus.  This  species  covered  31.9%  of  invasive             vegetation cover and was presented in 57% mapped segments. The second             most frequent species was Solidago canadensis. This segment covers 14.1% of             area covered by invasive species that represents 67.5%. Dependence between             vegetation cover and occurrence in particular segments is presented in fig. 3             (species  that  have  vegetation  cover  <  0.5%  were  deleted  from  the  graphic             chart).                                              253","HT             Overall coverige (%)  FJ  EL AR  FS  SG  AiA  AL  TV  RP  FX IG  SC                                         CV                                           SA                                                  IP                                                  NA                                  Occurence in segments (%)            Fig. 3. The relation between vegetation cover and its presence in segments.           Legend:  AiA  -  Ailanthus  altissima,  AL  -  Aster  lanceolatus,  AR  -  Amaranthus  retroflexus,  CV  -           Cirsium vulgare, EL - Echinocystis lobata, FJ - Fallopia japonica, FS - Fallopia sachalinensis, FX -           Fallopia  x  bohemica,  HT  -  Helianthus  tuberosus,  IG  -  Impatiens  glandulifera,  IP  -  Impatiens           parviflora,  NA  -  Negundo  aceroides,  SA  -  Stenactis  annua,  SC  -  Solidago  canadensis,  SG  -           Solidago gigantea, RP - Robinia pseudoacacia, TV - Tanacetum vulgare.            In the defined river stretch we have appraised composition of segments of the           secondary structure (tab. 2).  This implies that in neighbourhood of the River           Nitra mainly big block fields (20.65%) and meadows (15.68%) are dominated.           Those  segments  belong  into  four  groups  of  secondary  country  structure           (fig. 4).           Tab. 2: Areal and percentage representation of the land utilization                  The form of land utilization         ha            %                     Road communications              3.59         3.26                     Cottage settlements              1.16         1.05                          River-bed                   18.12        16.43                       Bush vegetation                3.04         2.76                        Small forests                 1.82         1.65                     Wood line vegetation             31.62        28.68                          Meadows                     17.29        15.68                    Road protect vegetation           0.17         0.15                      Railways protect vegetation     0.04         0.04                           Fields                     22.77        20.65                      The groups of trees             5.64         4.95                        Build up area                 0.43         0.39                Small garden cottage settlements      4.37         3.96                        Railway lines                 0.19         0.17                           In total                  110.25         100                                                254","5.58%                                                     Trees and shrubs                                                     vegetation                            27.14%                   Permanent                                           42.10%    grasslands                                                     Agricultural crops                                                     Build-up areas                                  17.29%              Fig.  4.  Percentage  representation  of  the  groups  of  segments  secondary             landscape structure in interested area.             Dominance of semi natural segments creates proper conditions for extension             of  invasive  and  potentially  invasive  species.  By  range  management  some             disturbances are produced that gives the unoriginal species chance to grow             better than at other localities. Big block and small block field makes together             with grass-herb vegetation dominant segment in region of Horná Nitra.             During  the  research  40  km  of  coastline  and  accompanying  vegetation  was             observed  at  the  both  river  banks.  The  River  Nitra  was  divided  into             40 segments  with  length  500  m  (±  150m).  At  particular  river  stretches  we             calculated the degree of municipal border load by invasive species according             to the formula: I = log PJ + PT that is presented in figure 5.                                       Fig. 5. Municipal border load index appraised for particular stretches of the River             Nitra.             Source: Bencová, 2017                                             255","This implies that whole stretch of the watercourse is expressively marked by           the presence of invasive species. The highest rates were observed at the area           where  the  transfer  of  river  bed  took  place.  At  this  place  we  recorded  the           highest number of invasive species for a stretch.                                      CONCLUSIONS           Coastline vegetation represents dynamic and fragmented ecosystems that are           very important country biotope. By the reason of floods regular disturbances           occur here and make proper environment for seral and invasive plants. Those           can later be extended by water to new areas along the river flow.           By the research of invasive species extension, high rate of municipal border           load  by  invasive  species  have  been  found  out.  Globally,  26  species  were           identified  as  invasive  and  potentially  invasive  species  of  herbs  and  woody           plants.            Acknowledgement: This paper is published thanks to the financial support of           the project UGA VIII/3/2017 named: Evaluation of the occurrence of invasive           plant species in the banks of the Handlovka and Nitra rivers.                                       REFERENCES           GOJDIČOVÁ, E., CVACHOVÁ, A. \& KARASOVÁ, E. 2002. Zoznam nepôvodných,           inváznych  a  expanzívnych  cievnatých  rastlín  Slovenska.  In:  Ochrana  prírody,           roč. 21, 2002, 59-79 pp.           HEJDA, M., PYŠEK, P. 2006. What is the impact of Impatiens glandulifera on           species diversity of invaded riparian vegetation? Biological Conservation. 132:           143–152 pp. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2006.03.025           HAJZLEROVÁ, L. and MATĚJČEK, T. 2011. The spread of invasive neophytes in           the riparian vegetation of The Tichá Orlice. Revija za geografijo – Journal for           Geography 6: 33–46 pp.           HOOD,  W.  G.  and  NAIMAN,  R.  J.  2000.  Vulnerability  of  riparian  zones  to           invasion by exotic vascular plants, Plant Ecology, 148: 105 – 114 pp.           CHYTRÝ,  M.,  PYŠEK,  P.,  TICHÝ,  L.,  KNOLLOVÁ,  I.  \&  DANIHELKA,  J.  2005.           Invasions  by  alien  plants  in  the  Czech  Republic:  a  quantitative  assessment           across habitats. Preslia 77: 339–354 pp.           LANGHAMMER,  J.,  KŘÍŽEK,  M.,  MATOUŠKOVÁ,  M.,  MATĚJČEK,  T.  2005.           Metodika  mapování  upravenosti  říční  sítě  a  následků  povodní  (výzkumná           zpráva). Praha, PřF UK, MŽP ČR. Depon. in: Library KFGG PřF UK, MŽP ČR.           MAHY,G., VANHECKE, L., MEERTS, P., NIJS, I. 2006. Invasive plants in Belgium:           Patterns, processes and monitoring (Inplanbel),  Belgian Science Policy, 2006,           103 p.           MATĚJČEK,  T.  2009.  Rozšíření  invazních  neofytů  v  břehové  vegetaci  vodních           toků.  Dizertační  práce,  katedra  fyzické  geografie  a  geoekologie,           Přírodovědecká fakulta UK, Praha, 2009, 131 s.                                            256","MAZÚR, E., LUKNIŠ, M. 1980. Geomorfologické jednotky. Mierka 1 : 500 000.             In: Atlas SSR. Mazúr, E. red. Bratislava: SAV, SUGaK, 1980. 54-55 pp.             MEDVECKÁ  J.,  KLIMENT  J.,  MÁJEKOVÁ  J.,  HALADA  Ľ.,  ZALIBEROVÁ  M.,             GOJDIČOVÁ E.,FERÁKOVÁ V. \& JAROLÍMEK I. 2012. Inventory of the alien flora             of Slovakia. Preslia, Praha, 84: 257–309 pp.             MICKOVÁ,  Ž.  2010.  Košské  mokrade  –  oblasť  pozmenená  ťažbou.  Zborník             vedeckých prác doktorandov a mladých vedeckých pracovníkov “Mladí vedci             2010”, 375 – 384 pp.             MÜLLER,  N.,  OKUDA,  S.  1998.  Invasion  of  alien  plants  in  floodplains  -  a             comparison of Europe and Japan, Plant Invasions: Ecological Mechanisms and             Human Responses, Backwell Publishers, Leiden, 321-332 pp.             NAIMAN, R. J., DÉCAMPS, H., POLLOCK, M. 1993. The role of riparian corridors             in  maintaining  regional  biodiversity.  Ecological  Applications,  3,  209–212.             https://doi.org/10.2307/1941822             PETROVIČ,  HREŠKO  et  al.  GEO  Information  5.  2009.  Nitra:  Constantine  the             Philosopher University in Nitra ISSN: 336-7234 pp.             PORUBSKÝ, A. 1991. Vodné bohatstvo Slovenska. Bratislava: VEDA, 1991. 318             s. ISBN 80-224-0107-2.             PYŠEK, P., PRACH, K. 1993. Plant Invasions and the Role of Riparian Habitats:             A Comparison of Four Species Alien to Central Europe, Journal of Biogeography             Vol. 20, No. 4, 413-420 pp. https://doi.org/10.2307/2845589             RICHARDSON, D. M., PYŠEK, P., REJMÁNEK, M., BARBOUR, M. G., PANETTA, F.             D. \& WEST, C. J. 2000. Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: concepts             and   definitions.   Diversity   and   Distributions   6:   93-107   pp.             https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1472-4642.2000.00083.x             SÄUMEL, I., KOWARIK, I. 2010. Urban rivers as dispersal corridors for primarily             wind-dispersed invasive tree species, Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume:             94,     Issue:    3-4,    244-249     pp.,    ISSN:    0169-2046.             https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2009.10.009             STOHLGREN, T. J., BULL, K. A., OTSUKI, Y., VILLA, C. A. \& LEE, M. 1998. Riparian             zones  as  havens  for  exotic  plant  species  in  the  central  grasslands,  Plant             Ecology, 138: 113 – 125 pp. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009764909413             TICKNER, D. P., ANGOLD, P. G., GURNELL, A. M. \& MOUNTFORD J. O. 2001.             Riparian  plant  invasion:  hydrogeomorphological  control  and  ecological             impacts.   Progress   in   Physical   Geography.   25(1):   22–52   pp.             https://doi.org/10.1177/030913330102500102             WALL, L. C. 1994. Ecology and management of invasive riverside plants, John             Wiley and Sons Ltd., Chichester, 217 p.             WILLIAMSON, M. 1996. Biological invasions. London: Chapman\&Hall London,             244 p.                                                   257","Zhrnutie           Cieľom príspevku bolo priblíženie čiastkových výsledkov z mapovaní v rokoch           2016 – 2017 na rieke Nitra. Sledovaný úsek rieky mal dĺžku 20 riečnych km           a prechádzal katastrami miest: Bojnice, Nováky, Prievidza a obcí Diviacka Nová           Ves,  Lazany,  Opatovce  nad  Nitrou,  a Zemianske  Kostoľany.  Celý  mapovaný           úsek  vodného  toku  bol  rozdelený  na  segmenty  s dĺžkou  500  m  (±  150).           V danom  území  bolo  identifikovaných  26  inváznych  a potenciálne  inváznych           taxónov. V jednotlivých segmentoch sa najčastejšie vyskytovali druhy Solidago           canadensis  (67.5  %),  Helianthus  tuberosus  (57.5  %)  a Fallopia  x  bohemica           (52.5 %).  Na  druhej  strane,  len  v jednom  úseku  boli  zaznamenané  druhy:           Ambrosia  artemisiifolia,  Galinsoga  parviflora,  Iva  xanthiifolia  a Melilotus           officinalis.  Počet  druhov  v úsekoch  sa  pohyboval  od  0  do  13  taxónov.           Najčastejšie  sa  vyskytujúcim  intervalom  bol  od  4  do  6  druhov,  do  ktorého           spadalo  19  úsekov  (47.5  %).  Prevládal  na  nepravidelne  kosených  úsekoch           a v extraviláne  miest  a obcí.  Najčastejšie  bol  tvorený  druhmi  Helianthus           tuberosus  a Solidago  canadensis.  Po  vyhodnotení  vzťahu  medzi  celkovou           pokryvnosťou,  ktorú  majú  jednotlivé  druhy  v území  a počtom  segmentov           obsadených  daným  druhom  sa  ukázal  ako  eudominantný  druh  Helianthus           tuberosus. Tento druh pokrýval 31.9 % plochy pokrytej inváznymi druhmi a bol           prítomný  v 57  %  zmapovaných  segmentov.  V záujmovom  území  sme  tiež           vyhodnotili  zloženie  prvkov  sekundárnej  krajinnej  štruktúry.  Z výskumu           vyplynulo,  že  v blízkosti  rieky  Nitra  dominujú  okrem  líniovej  drevinovej           vegetácie  hlavne  veľkoblokové  polia  (20.65  %)  a lúky  (15.68  %),  ktoré           vytvárajú vhodné podmienky na obsadenie inváznymi druhmi.                                                                          258","NEW MAPS OF THE TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE’S IMPACT ON                                       BIODIVERSITY                                                               1                                               2                                     1                             Ivo Dostál , Petr Anděl , Marek Havlíček                      1                       Transport Research Centre (CDV), Líšeňská 33a, 636 00 Brno                2                 TU Liberec, Fakulta přírodovědně-humanitní a pedagogická, Univerzitní nám.                                    1410/1, 461 17 Liberec              Abstract:  The  transport  infrastructure  is  the  significant  factor  affecting  not             only  its  immediate  surroundings  but  also  the  landscape  in  the  macroscopic             scale due to the fragmentation and barrier effect. The original 'Impact of the             road traffic on biodiversity atlas' was issued back in 2008 introducing maps of             conflicts  between  green  and  transport  infrastructure  and  evaluating  the             degree  of  landscape  fragmentation.  But a  lot has  changed  since  then.  New             motorways and expressways intersecting the landscape created new barriers,             and the overall intensity of traffic increased. Therefore conditions for wildlife             migration became worse. The opportunity to update this set of maps came             with the publication of results from the National traffic census 2016. These             maps are designed for the use of the strategic planning of transport sector             due to the scale and the level of detail. The main purpose is to support the             screening phase of the EIA process – to determine whether an area may be             affected by traffic and which level of risk should be expected. Another usage is             to compare the change over the past ten years by comparison of original and             updated maps             Key  words:  transport  infrastructure,  biodiversity,  landscape  fragmentation,             SEA/EIA, Czech Republic                                       INTRODUCTION             The major current threat to wildlife populations in developed countries is the             anthropogenic  fragmentation,  caused  mainly  by  linear  transport             infrastructure such as roads, railway lines, shipping channels, etc. (Iuell et al.,             2003) and by the growth of built-up areas. New infrastructure also makes it             easier  for  other  human  activities  to  penetrate  into  the  natural  landscape.             Along  with  the  direct  land-take  due  to  road  construction,  the  disturbances             such as noise, artificial lighting or air pollution from the traffic on roads is also             another  source  of  harmful  impacts  to  ecosystems.  All  of  these  impact             together and act as barriers to the free movement of animals. So the overall             barrier effect of roads is the combination of the above mentioned impacts –             physical impermeability of the barrier (due to the technical design of road –             guardrails,  fences,  ditches,  etc.)  and  the  traffic  intensity  (mortality,             disturbances).             The  significance  of  these  phenomena  has  accelerated  in  the  context  of  the             rapid  development  of  transport  infrastructure  and  the  city  growth  due  to             urban  sprawl  and  suburbanization  with  the  socio-economical  changes  after                                             259","the fall of communist regime. This process is evident in all Central and Eastern           European countries (Dostál et al., 2010; Pătru-Stupariu et al., 2005; Angelstam           et al., 2017).           The rapid fragmentation is mostly affecting these groups of animals that are           tied to a preserved natural environment, have demands on the larger home           territories  and  migrate  regularly.  This  is  typical  for  the  group  of  large           mammals  whose  main  type  of  migration  is  long-distance  linear  migration           (Anděl  et  al.,  2005).  In  the  conditions  of  the  Czech  Republic,  among  its           representatives  are  the  brown  bear  (Ursus  arctos),  the  wolf  (Canis  lupus),           European lynx (Lynx lynx), red deer (Cervus elaphus) and moose (Alces alces).           These species with high ecological demands are so-called umbrella species - if           their requirements for a suitable environment is ensured, it is very likely to           say that less demanding species are also satisfied.           This work follows the original 'Impact of the road traffic on biodiversity atlas'           (Anděl  et  al.,  2008),  issued  back  in  2008,  and  introduced  maps  of  conflicts           between  green  and  transport  infrastructure  and  evaluated  the  degree  of           landscape  fragmentation  based  on  assessment  of  the  potential  negative           impact of roads. But a lot has changed since its issue, and it is time to update           it.           Contrary  to  the  approach  based  on  identifying  potential  barriers,  an  often           discussed  topic  is  also  mortality  of  animals  on  roads.  The  analyses  is           performed on common game species such as roe deer (Capreolus capreolus)           or wild boar (Sus scrofa) as the intensity of road-kills is mostly dependent on           traffic volume and the size of population (Grilo, Ferreira, Revilla, 2015). For           the  assessing  of  roadkills  data  availability  crucial,  thus  mapping  and           registering  applications  were  developed  for  the  evidence  of  animal-vehicle           collisions  along  transportation  networks  (Bíl,  Kubeček,  Sedoník,  Andrášik,           2017). Another relevant topic is landscape structural changes and their role in           wildlife-vehicle collisions (Keken, Kušta, Langer, Skaloš, 2016).                                    METHODOLOGIES           The main data source for the assessment are the results of the National traffic           census (ŘSD, 2016) which take place at regular five-year intervals, usually in           the years ending 0 and 5. The current census, however, did not take place for           technical reasons until 2016. The traffic intensity is presented in the form of           a traffic-engineering characteristic called Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) -           see Bartuška, Biba, Jeřábek (2016). It is expressed in the number of vehicles           for 24 hours on a given section of the road and represents the average value           for  all  days  of  the  year,  i.e.,  weekends  or  lower  periods  (winter).  Counting           occurs at approximately 8 700 count points and includes the entire network of                                           nd                                   st           motorways,  expressways,  1   and  2   class  roads.  Some  other  sections             rd           (3  class, municipal roads) are also included.           For  the  practical  use  of  maps  for  the  transport  infrastructure’s  impact  on           biodiversity, roads are split into categories according to the traffic intensity           regardless their administrative status - see tab. 1.                                             260","Tab. 1: The categorisation of roads by intensity used for analyses                level     intensity (vehicles per day)   risk of negative impacts                 1             less than 500             negligible risk                 2         between 500 and 1000      low risk, possible growth                 3        between 1000 and 10 000          Potential                 4              over 10 000          likely, rising with intensity                           Contacts of green and transport infrastructure             Chosen were all the sections of roads where the recorded traffic intensity was             higher than 10 000 vehicles / 24 h to analyse contacts between the elements             of  ecological  networks  (so-called  green  infrastructure)  and  the  transport             networks. However, because the impact of individual roads also affects the             area in their proximity a buffer zone in width according to the table below was             considered in the maps.             Tab. 2: Disturbance zones for administrative categories of road                        category                buffer of disturbance zone [m]                        motorway                          500                       expressway                         300                      first class road                    200                     second class road                    100                       other roads                         50             Source: Anděl et al., 2008              Spatial data on existing ecological networks used for identifying conflicts were             provided by Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic. These sets of             data  consist  of  large-scale  conservation  areas  (national  parks,  protected             landscape areas) and from small-scale conservation areas.                             Assessing of the landscape fragmentation             The assessing was based on the fact that certain parts of the landscape are             relatively  poorly  affected  by  high-traffic  roads  and  can,  therefore,  be             considered as unfragmented. Such areas are called UAT (unfragmented area             by traffic) and are defined as a segment of the landscape that is bordered by             motorways or roads with a traffic density of more than 1 000 vehicles / 24 h                                                    2             or multitrack railways and larger than 100 km  (Gawlak,  2001; Anděl  et al.,             2005).             It  is  a  simple  indicator  for  the  quantification  of  landscape  fragmentation.             Contrary to earlier analyses of UAT polygons in Anděl et al. (2008), the cross-             border aspect has been taken into account. The results of the traffic census             2015  or  2016  were  used  to  determine  road  traffic  barriers  in  the  Czech             Republic,  Slovakia  and  Poland;  for  the  territory  of  Germany  and  Austria,             where no traffic intensity information was available, a complete network of             federal  and  provincial  roads  was  used  to  construct  polygons.  Multi-track             railways were used from data of State Railway Administration and manually             complemented by lines in neighbouring countries.                                                 261","Fig. 1. AADT in 2016 (vehicles per day) in the Czech Republic.                                RESULTS AND DISCUSSION           The highest annual average daily intensity reaching more than 10 000 vehicles           per day with large negative impacts was recorded at 1 616 out of the total of           8 768 road sections in National traffic census. Their spatial distribution shows           that  mainly  the  most  important  motorways,  expressways,  some  first-class           roads  and  lower  class  roads  in  the  hinterland  of  large  cities  and           agglomerations are classified in this category. Out of the 244 census sections           on motorways, the daily intensity of 10 000 vehicles per day was exceeded for           most sections, namely 230. There are 916 sections on first-class roads with           these high intensities. The remaining 470 sections were on lower class roads,           mostly in the larger cities and their surrounding settlements. (see figure 1).                                                                 262","Fig. 2. Density of traffic in the Czech Republic (2016).              Another  indicator  of  the  spatial  distribution  of  traffic  is  Density  of  traffic,             which is calculated from the traffic intensity and the length of respective road             sections per area unit in a particular polygon. The graticule segments from the             European  mapping  network  of  the  occurrence  of  animal  and  plant  species             have  been  used  for  the  analysis  in  the  figure  2.  The  density  of  transport             performance is the highest in these graticules, which are intersected by the                                                   st             core road network including motorways and 1  class roads, as well as in these             located  in  the  metropolitan  areas  of  large  cities.  The  effect  of  the  relief  is             reflected in spatial distribution as the highest density is to be found along the             rivers  and  lowlands  while  the  lowest  densities  are  in  the  mountainous             sparsely  populated  areas.  In  addition  to  the  spatial  distribution  of  the             population, these facts are affected by the easier construction of roads in flat             areas.                                                                263","Fig.  3.  Contacts  of  roads  with  intensity  10 000  or  more  vehicles  per  day  with           large-area and small-scale specially protected areas in the Czech Republic.            The contacts of green and transport infrastructure, roads with a daily intensity           of  10,000  or  more  vehicles  per  day  and  large-scale  and  small-scale           conservation  areas  are  shown  in  the  figure  3.  There  were  20  large-scale           conservation areas out of a total of 30 found to be affected in some way by           one or more roads with AADT higher than 10 000 vehicles per day. The most           traffic census road sections were recorded in the Protected Landscape Area           České Středohoří  -  48.  In  the  case  of  small-scale  conservation  areas,  the           conflicts with roads with an intensity of more than 10,000 vehicles per day           were observed in 107 traffic census road sections. In these localities, the very           negative  effects  of  traffic  on  biodiversity,  especially  on  the  occurrence  and           migration of mammals, amphibians, and reptiles, can be expected.           On the basis of the methodology described, the new map of UATs was defined           for the Czech Republic and the border areas (see figure 4). A total of 278 UAT           polygons  were  identified  that  should  be  considered  as  not  affected  by           transport  in  2016  and  have  the  potential  for  the  occurrence  of  wildlife           including protected animal species such as large mammals. The area of these                             2           polygons is 59 847 km  (75,9% of the whole Czech Republic). Not surprisingly           most  of  the  UATs  is  located  in  the  mountainous  areas  while  analysis           considered cultural landscapes in lowlands as highly fragmented.                                                      264","Fig.  4.  Unfragmented  area  by  traffic  (UAT  polygons)  in  2016  in  the  Czech             Republic including crossborder areas.              It was found by comparing the definition of UAT polygons created on the basis             of  traffic  censuses  in  the  Czech  Republic  in  2000  and  2016  that  in  the             meantime,  a  total  of  128  polygons  had  been  removed,  or  larger  polygons                                             2             were cut (figure 5). Total of 5,980 km  of unfragmented landscape was lost,             which  represents  7.58%  of  the  whole  Czech  Republic.  Increased  traffic             intensity  and  the  construction  of  new  transport  infrastructure  resulted  in  a                                                        2             reduction in UAT polygons by more than 6,000 km , so the area suitable for             the occurrence and movement of larger mammals in the Czech Republic has                                                                       2             significantly decreased. There were only three cases (of area 390 km ), that             new  UAT  polygons  were  formed,  probably  due  to  the  decrease  in  traffic             intensity  in  sparsely  populated  areas  suffering  from  depopulation  and  high             unemployment rate. The analysis confirmed that unhappy perspective of the             growth  of  the  fragmentation  up  to  2040  presented  in  the  articles  of  Anděl             (2010 and 2013) is slowly becoming a reality.                                                              265","Fig. 5. Comparison of UAT polygons in 2000 and 2016 in the Czech Republic.                           Known gaps and further steps in research           Basic gaps and generalization resulting from the methodology:           -  The  traffic  intensity  is  known  only  on  roads  where  the  national  traffic              census  was  carried  out.  Therefore,  presented  analyses  cannot  include              roads of lower categories where there might also be traffic intensity with              some potential risk. The only way to overcome this limit at regional and              local levels is the usage of relevant transport models if available.           -  The  real  permeability  of  each  road  is  not  taken  into  account.  This              requirement needs individual approach and extremely exceeds workload              necessary for easy analysis for screening purposes. For the same reason              cannot be taken into account the mitigation measures adopted to improve              road’s permeability for wildlife           Further steps which should be implemented in the near future:           -  Data  on  traffic  intensity  from  traffic  census  in  Austria  and  Germany  for              cross-border  analyses  of  UAT  polygons  instead  of  whole  national  and              provincial road network           -  Further specification of the quality for individual UATs as areas suitable for              the  occurrence  and  migration  of  certain  animal  species.  The  quality  is              determined  by  the  proportion  of  suitable  biotopes  to  be  used  for  land              cover maps such as Corine Land Cover (CLC). However, only pan-European              CLC  map  of  2012  is  currently  available,  which  is  commonly  used  for              analyses of certain types of landscape in specific EU countries (Maráková              et  al.,  2016)  or  even  for  comprehensive  studies  comparing  most  EU              countries (Ustaoglu, Williams, 2017). The use of Corine Land Cover data              can  also  be  found  in  studies  of  continental  biogeographical  regions              (Szumacher,  Pabjanek,  2017).  Therefore,  it  is  appropriate  to  use  the                                            266","expected data of the new CLC map layer 2016 to assess the quality of UATs                when available.             -  The  maps  of  projection  roads  impact  to  biodiversity  in  future  are  not                completed  as  there  are  no  new  factors  of  traffic  intensity  growth                published yet.             -  A comprehensive publication of the entire set of maps on a more detailed                scale  is  going  to  be  implemented  as  a  supplement  to  the  upcoming                electronic book on transport infrastructure’s ecological impacts.                                        CONCLUSION             This  paper  presents  some  of  the  maps  from  larger  set.  All  maps  were             prepared for the territory of the Czech Republic, but the methodology for the             creation of individual types of analytical maps is of general validity and can be             applied to any other territories of respective scale.             According to the results, the trend of landscape fragmentation in the Czech                                              2             Republic is continuing. Almost 6 000 km  of unfragmented landscape was lost             between 2000 and 2016.             This set of maps is considered to be a tool for assessing transport impacts on             biodiversity. Due to the level of detail and scale of the processing, it is mainly             intended  for  use  in  spatial  planning  and  decision  making  in  the  transport             sector  at  the  strategic  level  within  the  SEA.  It  is  also  usable  during  the             screening  phase  of  the  EIA  process  -  determining  whether  the  area  is             potentially affected by traffic and what level of risk can be expected. Due to             the  dynamically  developing  transport  sector,  regular  map  updates  will  be             needed  in  the  future  in  the  subsequence  to  the  results  of  future  National             Traffic Censuses.              Acknowledgement. This article was prepared with the financial support of the             Ministry  of  Education,  Youth  and  Sports  within  the  National  Sustainability             Programme  I,  project  of  Transport  R\&D  Centre  (LO1610),  on  the  research             infrastructure  acquired  from  the  Operation  Programme  Research  and             Development for Innovations (CZ.1.05/2.1.00/03.0064).                                         REFERENCES             ANDĚL,  P.,  GORČICOVÁ,  I.,  HLAVÁČ,  V.,  MIKO,  L.,  ANDĚLOVÁ,  H.,  2005.             Hodnocení  fragmentace  krajiny  dopravou.  Metodická  příručka.  Praha:             Agentura ochrany přírody a krajiny ČR, 2005, 99 pp (in Czech).             ANDĚL, P., GORČICOVÁ, I., PETRŽILKA, L., 2008. Impact of the road traffic on             biodiversity atlas. Liberec: Evernia, 66 pp. ISBN 978-80-903787-1-1.             ANDĚL,  P.,  GORČICOVÁ,  I.,  PETRŽILKA,  L.,  BELKOVÁ,  H.,  2010.  Landscape             fragmentation caused by traffic in the Czech Republic: Evolution from the year                                                  th             1980  and  the  prognosis  till  2040.  In  10   International  Multidisciplinary             Scientific Geoconference and EXPO - Modern Management of Mine Producing,             Geology and Environmental Protection, SGEM 2010, vol.  2. Varna (Bulgaria),                                              267","20 – 26 June 2010, pp. 651-656. ISBN: 978-954918181-4.           WOS:000288622300090.           ANDĚL, P., 2013. Landscape Fragmentation Caused by Traffic and its Impact           on Wildlife Migration. Životné prostredie, 2013, vol. 47, is. 2, p. 90-94. ISSN           0044-4863.           ANGELSTAM, P., KHAULYAK, O. YAMELYNETS, T., MOZGERIS, G., NAUMOV, V.,           CHMIELEWSKI,  T.J.,  ELBAKIDZE,  M.,  MANTON,  M.,  PROTS,  B.,  VALASIUK,  S.,           2017. Green infrastructure development at European Union's eastern border:           Effects of road infrastructure and forest habitat loss. Journal of Environmental           Management,      vol.    193,     300-311.    ISSN     0301-4797.           https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.02.017           BARTUŠKA,  L.,  BIBA,  V.,  JEŘÁBEK,  K.,  2016.  Verification  of  Methodical           Procedure  for  Determining  the  Traffic  Volumes  Using  Short-term  Traffic           Surveys.    Procedia     Engineering,    161,     p.     275-281.           https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.08.553           BÍL,  M.,  KUBEČEK,  J.,  SEDONÍK,  J.,  ANDRÁŠIK,  R.,  2017.  Srazenazver.cz:  A           system  for  evidence  of  animal-vehicle  collisions  along  transportation           networks.    Biological   Conservation,   213,   pp.     167-174.           https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2017.07.012           DOSTÁL,  I.,  HAVLÍČEK,  M.,  HUZLÍK,  J.  Evaluation  of  Transport  Impact  to  the           Landscape.  In:  Adamec,  V.,  Jandová,  V.  (eds.)  IV  Czech-Slovak  Scientific           Conference  “Transport,  Health  and  Environment”.  Blansko,  November  2-3,           2010. Brno: Transport Research Centre, 2010, p. 97-104. ISBN 978-80-7399-           141-8. WOS:000392425300013.           GAWLAK,  CH.,  2001.  Unzerschnittene  verkehrsarme  Räume  in  Deutschland           1999. Natur und Landschaft, 76, Heft 11, 481 - 484.           GRILO,  C.,  FERREIRA,  F.Z.,  REVILLA,  E.,  2015.  No  evidence  of  a  threshold  in           traffic  volume  affecting  road-kill  mortality  at  a  large  spatio-temporal  scale.           Environmental   Impact   Assessment   Review,   55,   pp.   54-58.           https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2015.07.003           IUELL,  B.,  BEKKER,  G.  J.,  CUPERUS,  R.  et  al,  2003.  Wildlife  and  Traffic:  A           European  Handbook  for  Identifying  Conflicts  and  Designing  Solutions.  KNNV           Publishers, 2003, Brusel.           KEKEN,  Z.,  KUŠTA,  T.,  LANGER,  P.,  SKALOŠ,  J.,  2016.  Landscape  structural           changes between 1950 and 2012 and their role in wildlife–vehicle collisions in           the   Czech   Republic.   Land   Use   Policy,   59,   pp.   543-556.           https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.10.002           MARÁKOVÁ,  B.,  RUSNÁK,  M.,  FALŤAN,  V.,  DRUGA,  M.,  RUŽEK,  I.,  2016.           Evaluation of land cover changes and black locust occurrence in agricultural           landscape. Case study: Podolie and Častkovce cadastral areas, Slovakia. Acta           Universitatis   Carolinae,   Geographica,   51   (2),   pp.   247-260.           https://doi.org/10.14712/23361980.2016.20           PÄTRU-STUPARIU,  I.,  STUPARIU,  M.-S.,  TUDOR,  C.A.,  GRÄDINARU,  S.  R.,           GAVRILIDIS,  A.,  KIENAST,  F.,  HERSPERGER,  A.M.,  2005.  Landscape           fragmentation  in  Romania’s  Southern  Carpathians:  Testing  a  European           assessment with local data. Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 143, 1-8. ISSN           0169-2046. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.06.002                                            268","ŘSD,  2016.  Celostátní  sčítání  dopravy  2016.  Available  online  from  <             http://scitani2016.rsd.cz/pages/informations/default.aspx > (cit. 2017-09-27)             SZUMACHER, I., PABJANEK, P., 2017. Temporal changes in ecosystem services             in European cities in the continental biogeographical region in the period from             1990-2012. Sustainability, 9 (4), art. no. 665.             https://doi.org/10.3390/su9040665             USTAOGLU,  E.,  WILLIAMS,  B.,  2017.  Determinants  of  Urban  Expansion  and             Agricultural Land Conversion in 25 EU Countries. Environmental Management,             60 (4), pp. 717-746. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-017-0908-2                                            Shrnutí             Dopravní  infrastruktura  je  významným  faktorem,  který  ovlivňuje  nejen  své             bezprostřední  okolí,  ale  také  krajinu  v  širším  měřítku  díky  fragmentaci             a bariérovému  efektu.  Původní  „Atlas  vlivu  silniční  dopravy  na  biodiverzitu“             vydaný  v  roce  2008  představil  mapy  kontaktů  mezi  zelenou  a  dopravní             infrastrukturou a mapy míry fragmentace krajiny. Mnohé se však od té doby             změnilo. Nové dálnice a rychlostní silnice protnuly krajinu, čímž vytvořily nové             bariéry,  zvýšila  se  i  celková  intenzita  dopravy,  čímž  došlo  ke  zhoršení             celkových  podmínek  pro  migraci  volně  žijících  živočichů.  Příležitostí  pro             aktualizaci  této  mapové  sady  se  stalo  publikování  výsledků  Celostátního             sčítání  dopravy  2016.    Tento  soubor  map  je  vzhledem  k  míře  podrobnosti             a měřítku  zpracování  určen  zejména  pro  využití  při  strategickém  plánování             a rozhodování  v  dopravním  sektoru  na  strategické  úrovni.  Důležité  je  také             využití  během  screeningové  fáze  procesu  EIA  –  určení,  je-li  daná  oblast             potenciálně ovlivněná dopravou, a jakou míru rizika lze očekávat. Jiné jejich             využití lze hledat při určení míry změn v uplynulých deseti letech na základě             porovnání původních a aktualizovaných map.                                                                        269","VISUALIZATION OF TRAFFIC OFFENCES IN THE CITY OF BRNO (CZECH            REPUBLIC): ACHIEVING 3D THEMATIC CARTOGRAPHY THROUGH OPEN                                SOURCE AND OPEN DATA                        Lukáš Herman, Jan Russnák, Radim Stuchlík, Jiří Hladík             Masaryk University, Faculty of Science, Department of Geography, Kotlářská 2,                                611 37 Brno, Czech Republic            herman.lu@mail.muni.cz, russnak@mail.muni.cz, radim.stuchlik@mail.muni.cz,                                  hladikjiri@mail.muni.cz            Abstract:  This  paper  examines  3D  visualization  of  traffic  offences  based  on           open  data  sources  at  the  city  level.  Most  of  the  existing  studies  and           applications focus on 3D visualization of qualitative data. For this reason, this           paper  concentrates  on  3D  visualization  methods  for  quantitative  data.  The           possibilities  of  creating  3D  dot  maps,  statistical  surfaces,  graduated  3D           symbols  and  prism  maps  and  their  effective  use  was  studied.  A  pilot  web           application  visualizing  crime  statistics  was  developed  for  verifying  the           applicability of selected 3D cartographic methods and the feasibility of open           source  technologies  for  crime  mapping.  3D  visualizations  of  selected  traffic           offences registered and solved by municipal police (different traffic offences           types) are available in a pilot application for the city of Brno (Czech Republic).           The design and implementation of map components, interactive functionality,           limitations and opportunities for future development are also discussed.           Key  words:  3D  crime  mapping,  3D  visualizations,  open  data,  open  source           thematic cartography, Three.js, traffic offence                                     INTRODUCTION           The  3D  visualization  of  geospatial  data  is  used  in  many  fields  and  for           numerous applications but it depends on the expansion of hardware devices           and software tools enabling 3D geovisualization. 3D geovisualizations include           a broad spectrum of instances  from photorealistic  visualizations to abstract           depictions  of  attribute  data.  Exploration  of  the  applicability  or  possible           modification  of  traditional  cartographic  visualization  methods  in  3D  is,           therefore, a progressive topic. The feasibility of 3D visualization of crime as an           example  of  quantitative  data,  purely  based  on  open  technologies  and           available open data, is the primary aim of this paper. Open technologies and           open  data  were  solely  used  for  this  purpose  in  the  case  study  area  (Brno,           Czech Republic).                             3D CARTOGRAPHIC VISUALIZATION           The  principles  of  3D  cartographic  visualization  have  been  relatively  rarely           investigated  in  the  past  apart  from,  for  example,  Jobst  and  Germanchis           (2007), Bleisch (2011), Gede (2016), Hájek et al. (2016), or Sieber et al. (2016).                                           270","Most  of  these  studies  focus  on  cartographic  methods  for  visualizing             qualitative  data,  especially  in  designing  and  applying  3D  point  symbols  or             textures on surfaces and objects. This paper, however, explores visualization             methods  for quantitative data, namely about traffic offences. The potential             use of these  methods and practical aspects of their creation are described.             Papers with a similar focus have been published, for example, by Zsoldi (2011)             or Gede (2016).                            Advantages, limitations, and applications             The  general  and  main  advantages  of  using  3D  variants  of  cartographic             visualization methods are more space for displaying additional data variables,             resolving issues related to hidden symbols, or a more familiar view of spaces             (Shepherd,  2008).  Traffic  offences  or  accidents  are  often  clustered,  so  it  is             advisable to utilize more space for visualization (for instance third dimension)             and to solve the problem of overlapping symbols. The usability problems of             3D  thematic  maps  were  identified  by  Jobst  and  Germanchis  (2007)  and             Shepherd (2008):                 •  occlusion of objects in a 3D scene;                 •  perspective distortion;                 •  countless scales within one view;                 •  incomparable geometries of objects.             3D visualization of quantitative data  (thematic information) has  many uses,             such  as  in  digital  atlas  cartography  (Sieber  et  al.,  2016),  visualizing             demographic  and  economic  data  (Horák  et  al.,  2003,  Ourednik,  2017),  air             pollution  (Calvillo  et  al.,  2008),  disease  (Marek  et  al.,  2015),  traffic  noise             (Herman  and  Řezník,  2013),  erosion  and  land  use  changes  (Svatoňová  and             Rybanský, 2014), results of geographical analysis in general (Lin et al., 2015) or             for teaching geography (Niedomysl et al., 2013; Juřík and Šašinka, 2016). 3D             thematic  cartography  has  already  been  employed  to  visualize  statistics  on             crime and crime mapping (Lodha and Verma, 1999; Wolff and Asche, 2009;             McCune, 2010). But there are no fixed guidelines for making crime maps or             even  their  3D  variants.  And  it  is  still  not  enough  known  about  how  3D             visualizations can be used effectively and appropriately in these areas. User             studies  are  therefore  very  important.  User  testing  of  3D  visualizations  has             been  described  by  several  authors,  for  example  Niedomysl  et  al.  (2013),             Popelka and Dědková (2014), Špriňarová et al. (2015), or Juřík et al. (2017).                              3D variants of cartographic methods             Most  traditional  (2D)  cartographic  methods  have  3D  variants.  This  paper             focuses on visualization of crime statistics as outlined above, working with:                 •  3D dot maps;                 •  statistical surfaces (fishnet maps);                 •  prism maps;                 •  graduated 3D symbols (3D diagram maps).                                             271","A  3D  dot  map  is  mainly  used  to  express  spatial  distribution,  especially  of           discrete  phenomena.  The  distribution  of  dots  on  a  surface  specifies  the           variable density of objects or phenomena. Dots (of different colour or shape)           may  also  express  their  quality.  3D  visualization  also  allows  vertical  spatial           patterns  to  be  depicted.  Potential  of  3D  dot  map  for  visualizing  traffic           offences is relatively small, unlike the 2D variant, because the height (Z axis)           can  be  hardly  used  effectively.  Probably  the  only  suitable  application  is  in           space-time cube, where the Z axis represents time.           A  3D  variant  of  an  isopleth  map  is  usually  referred  as  a  statistical  surface.           Statistical  surfaces  can  be  graphically  represented  by  a  regular  square  grid           with variable height at its nodes. This representation is called a fishnet map.           For instance, Wolff and Asche (2009) and McCune (2010) used this method to           crime and safety mapping. Its disadvantage is superficial representation and           difficulty  in  reading  values  displaying  phenomenon  as  an  expression  of           characteristics  through  height  (Kraak  and  Ormeling,  2003;  Slocum  et  al.,           2005). Quantitative characteristics can not only be expressed as height. Colour           can be used in a similar manner as it is on original (2D) variants of isopleth           maps. 3D isopleth map is used only extraordinarily, but 2D isopleth maps or           heat maps are used quite often. So, a surface model can be similarly coloured           and the dependence of visualized phenomenon on altitude, for example, can           be studied.           Prism maps show quantity by extruding the base of the polygonal area. The           height of extrusion is not affected by classification; it displays raw data (Kraak           and Ormeling, 2003; Slocum et al., 2005). The readability of prism maps can           be affected negatively by the distribution of values, where low values may be           covered  by  higher  values.  Kaňok  (1999)  further  states  that  the  main           application for prism maps is the popularization of cartography. Prism maps           are  often  combined  with  a  colour  scheme.  The  same  values  expressed  by           height  can  be  represented  by  colour,  or  colour  can  represent  another           attribute. This second example may then be used to compare the relationship           between  two  attributes.  Colour  can  be  expressed  as  a  quantitative           characteristic (population density) or a qualitative (administrative units). It is           suitable to use this method for traffic offences visualization if they are linked           to  some  spatial  units  (e.g.  towed  cars,  penalties  for  bad  parking).  Relevant           spatial units may be, for example, police districts.           Kaňok (1999) divides point and non-localized diagrams (graduated symbols),           based on the number of attributes they represent on single-parameter and           multi-parameter  diagrams.  3D  single-parameter  diagrams  express  the           characteristics of the phenomenon by its volume. The most usually employed           shapes are a cube, sphere, or cone. The disadvantage of this method is that           volumetric  size  is  generally  perceived  as  more  difficult  to  represent  than           planar  size  (Kaňok,  1999).  Multi-parameter  3D  diagrams  change  size  in           different  dimensions  (e.g.  height  and  width)  individually.  3D  diagrams  may           represent  two  or  three  characteristics  and  therefore  have  two  or  three           parameters. It is suitable to use this method for traffic offences visualization if           they are linked to spot-like objects (e.g. junctions – red riding), smaller sites           (towed cars or penalties for parking on selected car parks) or if the offences           are naturally clustered (exceeded speed limits – speed measurements points).                                            272","PILOT STUDY             The methods described above were verified in the example of the city of Brno,             Czech Republic.                                          Input data             The following thematic data were used as input data to create 3D models:                 •  List  of  traffic  offences  stored  as  an  XLS  file.  From  this  file,  traffic                    offences  of  cyclists,  pedestrians,  and  exceeded  speed  limits  were                    selected.                 •  List of towed cars also stored as an XLS file.             Both datasets relate to the year 2015 and are catalogued according to time,             place, punishment, offence. These data were provided by the Municipal Police             of Brno in response to a request for information. This data is published by the             City  of  Brno  on  the  web  (https://old.datahub.io/organization/statutarni-             mesto-brno).             The following, underlying data were also used:                 •  City districts from the Registry of Territorial Identification, Addresses                    and  Real  Estate  (RUIAN),  available  online  as  a  WFS  (Web  Feature                    Service) or as off-the-shelf GML (Geography Markup Language) files.                    Data are compressed with the GZIP algorithm.                 •  Digital Landscape Model 1:25 000 (DMU 25), available as WMS (Web                    Map Service) by the Czech national geoportal INSPIRE                 •  DATA  200,  available  as  a  WMS  service  by  the  Czech  Office  for                    Surveying, Mapping, and Cadastre (CUZK).                                     Open data processing             These input data were processed in QGIS software (version 2.12). In this pilot             study, the Qgis2threejs plug-in to create visualization in a web browser was             used. Qgis2threejs exports terrain data, map canvas images, and vector data             to a web browser supporting WebGL. This plug-in uses the Three.js library and             so  final  visualization  in  this  study  was  implemented  through  this  library.             Three.js is a cross-browser JavaScript library allowing 3D computer graphics to             be displayed in a web browser.             Thematic data was downloaded in XLS format, and the first part of processing             was  therefore  done  in  MS  Excel.  Specifically,  it  means  selection  by  offence             type,   georeferencing   through   the   Excel   Geocoding   Tool             (http://excelgeocodingtool.com),  and  conversion  to  CSV  (Comma-Separated             Values) files. All data were then loaded into QGIS (CSV, GML files and WMS             services).  The  QGIS  program  itself  permits  important  functions  for  3D  data             pre-processing  (i.e.  interpolation  and  other  statistical  surfaces  creation             techniques). Additional layer settings (e.g. colour scales) can be set through             QGIS. Other final visualization parameters, such as final web page templates,             controls, and individual layer parameters (e.g. exaggeration, display of labels,                                               273","transparency,  background  colour,  raster  resampling)  are  defined  in  the           Qgis2threejs plug-in.                      Fig. 1. Examples of prism maps (left – city districts; right - belts of distance from           the city center).                                        RESULTS           Examples of 3D thematic maps are shown in Fig. 1, 2, 3 and 4; all interactive           3D  maps  are  available  online  at  http://web3dvis.esy.es/3d_traffic_offences.           Three.js  in  final  3D  visualization  enables  the  basic  functionality  usually           available  in  web  map  portals.  Users  can  switch  between  layers  or  set  their           own  transparency.  Transparency  avoids  the  occlusion  of  features  or  layers.           The  attributes  of  a  selected  feature  (e.g.  a  city  district)  are  available  after           clicking on it in the pop-up window (see Fig. 3 – right). The coordinates of the           selected point may also be displayed.                      Fig. 2. 3D diagram map (left) and 3D dot map (right).            Users can also create their own cutting plane (Fig. 3 – left). A cutting plane           allows easier comparison between map features (their heights) or with a 3D           legend. A north arrow and labels facilitate orientation in the 3D scene. How           labels  are  depicted  can  be  set  in  the  Qgis2threejs  plug-in.  Names  of  city           districts were used in this case. A north arrow was created manually as a new           layer  (Shapefile)  and  extruded  at  a  fixed  value.  Two  different  methods  to           implement a legend were used. A legend for the colour scale was created with           HTML (see Fig. 4 – left), while legends located directly in 3D scenes were used           to explain the heights of map features or the scales of map diagrams (see Fig.           4 – right).                                                274","Fig. 3. Statistical surface with cutting plane and 3D diagram map with displayed             attributes in pop-up window.                                         DISCUSSION             3D visualization, in general, has significant potential for application, but it is             affected by its properties, for example the cartographic visualization method             or the UI (User Interface). In terms of cartographic visualization, the approach             in  this  study  is  not  directly  dependent  on  the  visualization(s)  of  underlying             data.  In  this  case,  cartographic  visualization  is  not  directly  redistributable             since  it  is  stored  in  the  Three.js  code.  Cartographic  visualization  should  be             designed,  developed,  and  ideally  also  verified  by  user  testing  for  each             application separately.                     Fig. 4. Map legend variants (left – 2D, right – 3D).              The  usability  aspects  of  the  UI  and  effective  3D  map  design  are  therefore             important topics for future research. This research could also be demanded             legislatively or be the subject of standardization (Řezník, 2013). Some authors,             for  example  (Voženílek,  2001),  argue  that  3D  visualization  can  present             geospatial  data  to  wider  audiences,  including  those  with  little  or  no             cartographical  or  GIS  experience.  On  the  other  hand,  the  results  of  other             previous studies (Herman and Stachoň, 2016; Juřík et al., 2017 or Kubíček et             al., 2017) suggest that interactive 3D visualization would be more useful to             users  with  previous  3D  visualization  experience  and  for  complex  tasks             particularly.  It  would  be  appropriate  to  validate  a  created  application  with             user testing.                                                   275","CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK           The presented proof-of-concept application was created to demonstrate the           possibility of open web-based 3D visualization. It should be emphasized that           its  open  source  relies  on  the  data  and  software  used,  as  well  as  its  final           application. The proof-of-concept application is freely available to interested           persons under a BSD license.           To summarize, the following major advantages of 3D visualization based on           open data and the Three.js library were identified:               •  it  represents  (in  this  pilot  study)  an  example  of  an  open  data                  application usable in crime analysis;               •  it  enables  user-friendly  interactive  3D  visualization  which  is                  accessible to a broad spectrum of users (from the general public to                  experts);               •  it does not need any new software or plug-ins installed on the client                  or server sides;               •  it  shows  that  cartographic  methods  common  in  classic  (2D)                  cartography may also be transferred to 3D visualizations;           We also identified some limitations in the procedures and technologies used.           Much  of  a  3D  thematic  map’s  creation  process  takes  place  within  the           Qgis2threejs  plug-in  interface.  Additional  modifications  to  the  UI  (such  as           creating a legend or map title) require either new data layers in QGIS to be           created or the HTML code of the final visualization to be edited. Optimizing a           3D thematic map’s design is, in general, primarily based on modifying HTML           code and CSS templates. Final visualizations are not yet completely responsive           (optimized for display on mobile devices).           Our  outputs  are  comparable  to  those  of  other  free  and  open  source  tools           (Thematicmapping.org)   and   commercial   software   (ESRI   ArcScene).           Thematicmapping.org  creates  prism  maps  and  graduated  3D  symbols,  but           they are placed on the Google Earth virtual globe, and comparing the height           of  objects  is  rather  difficult  (Popelka  and  Doležalová,  2016).  ESRI  ArcScene           permits all four of the tested methods to be created (3D dot maps, statistical           surfaces, prism maps, and graduated 3D symbols), but export to 3D format           VRML (Virtual Reality Modelling Language), which is supported on the Web, is           problematic  (Herman  and  Řezník,  2015).  Only  prism  maps  can  be  exported           correctly.           Our  Three.js-based  solution  will  be  further  modified  and  extended  in  the           future. We want to implement the main principles of application of adaptive           visualization and visual seeking as it is described by Štampach et al. (2015),           especially map view adaptation. It may also be possible to perform advanced           spatial  analysis  during  input  data  processing  and  then  present  the  results           using  3D  visualization.  Russnák  et  al.  (2016),  for  example,  discusses  the           possibilities of clustering the data of traffic offences committed by cyclists or           aggregating traffic offences into street segments. The different methods of 3D           thematic cartography presented in this paper can be also combined into one           3D  scene.  However,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  potential  problems           mentioned by Shepherd (2008), where the Z-axis is used to illustrate different           variables  and  visualization  loses  clarity.  Despite  all  these  extensions  and                                           276","modifications, the 3D thematic cartographic methods described (3D dot maps,             statistical surfaces, prism maps, and graduated 3D symbols) can be relatively             quickly and easily created and subsequently used. However, it is necessary to             take into account the spatial character of the offences and to consider both             the dimensionality of visualization and the cartographic visualization method.              Acknowledgements: This research was created in scope projects “Influence of             cartographic  visualization  methods  on  the  success  of  solving  practical  and             educational  spatial  tasks”  (Grant  No.  MUNI/M/0846/2015)  and  “Dynamic             mapping methods focused on disaster and risk management in the era of big             data” (Grant No. LTACH-17002) and funded by project “Integrated research on             environmental  changes  in  the  landscape  sphere  of  Earth  III”  (Grant  No.             MUNI/A/1251/2017).                                         REFERENCES             BLEISCH,  S.  Towards  Appropriate  Representations  of  Quantitative  Data  in             Virtual Environments. Cartographica. 2011, 46(4), 252–261. ISSN 0317-7173.             https://doi.org/10.3138/carto.46.4.252             CALVILLO,  N.,  et  al.  In  the  Air  [online].  ©2008  [cit.  6th  October  2017].             Available from: http://intheair.es/             GEDE, M. Thematic Mapping with Cesium. In: Proceedings, 6th International             Conference  on  Cartography  and  GIS.  Albena:  Bulgarian  Cartographic             Association, 2016, pp. 280-286. ISSN 1314-0604.             HÁJEK,  P.,  et  al.  Principles  of  Cartographic  Design  for  3D  Maps  Focused  on             Urban  Areas.  In:  Proceedings,  6th  International  Conference  on  Cartography             and GIS. Albena: Bulgarian Cartographic Association, 2016, pp. 297-307. ISSN             1314-0604.             HERMAN, L., ŘEZNÍK, T. Web 3D Visualization of Noise Mapping for Extended             INSPIRE  Buildings  Model.  In:  Environmental  Software  Systems.  Fostering             Information  Sharing.  Berlin:  Springer,  2013,  pp.  414-424.  ISBN  978-3-642-             41150-2.             HERMAN, L., ŘEZNÍK, T. 3D Web Visualization of Environmental Information –             Integration  of  Heterogeneous  Data  Sources  when  Providing  Navigation  and             Interaction. In: ISPRS  Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and             Spatial  Information  Sciences,  vol.  XL-3/W3.  La  Grande  Motte:  Copernicus             GmbH, 2015, pp. 479-485. ISSN 1682-1750.             HERMAN, L., STACHOŇ, Z. Comparison of User Performance with Interactive             and  Static  3D  Visualization  –  Pilot  Study.  In:  ISPRS  Archives  of  the             Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, vol. XLI-             B2. Prague: Copernicus GmbH, 2016, pp. 655-661. ISSN 1682-1750.             HORÁK, J., et al. Exploitation of Geoinformation Technology in the Framework             of  Labour  Market  Analysis  (Využívání  geoinformačních  technologií  při             analýzách trhu práce). In: Růžička, J. GI/GIT teorie a praxe ruku v ruce - sborník             konference. Ostrava: VŠB - TUO, 2003. ISSN 1213-239X.                                               277","JOBST,  M.,  GERMANCHIS,  T.  The  Employment  of  3D  in  Cartography  —  An           Overview. In: Cartwright W., et al. Multimedia Cartography. Berlin: Springer,           2007, pp. 217-228. ISBN 978-3-540-36650-8.           JUŘÍK,  V.,  ŠAŠINKA,  Č.  Learning  in  Virtual  3D  Environments:  All  about           Immersive  3D  Interfaces.  In:  EDULEARN16  Proceedings.  Barcelona:  IATED,           2016, pp. 7868-7881. ISBN 978-84-608-8860-4.           JUŘÍK, V., et al. When the Display Matters: A Multifaceted Perspective on 3D           Geovisualizations. Open Geosciences. 2017, 9(1), 89-100. ISSN 2391-5447.           KAŇOK,  J.:  Thematic  cartography  (Tematická  kartografie).  1st  ed.  Ostrava:           Ostravská univerzita, 1999. 318 p. ISBN 80-7042-781-7.           KUBÍČEK, P., et al. Identification of Altitude Profiles in 3D Geovisualizations:           The  Role  of  Interaction  and  Spatial  Abilities.  International  Journal  of  Digital           Earth. 2017 [in print]. ISS 1753-8947.           https://doi.org/10.1080/17538947.2017.1382581           KRAAK, M.-J., ORMELING, F. Cartography: Visualisation of Geospatial Data. 2st           ed. Harlow: Prentice Hall, 2003. 205 p. ISBN 0-130-88890-7.           LIN,  H.,  et  al.  Virtual  Environments  Begin  to  Embrace  Process-based           Geographic  Analysis.  Transactions  in  GIS.  2015,  19(4),  493-498.  ISSN  1361-           1682. https://doi.org/10.1111/tgis.12167           LODHA,  S.  K.,  VERMA,  A.  Animations  of  Crime  Maps  Using  Virtual  Reality           Modeling  Language.  Western  Criminology  Review.  1999,  1(2)  [online].  ISSN           1096-4886.           MAREK,  L.,  et  al.  Using  Geovisual  Analytics  in  Google  Earth  to  Understand           Disease Distribution: a Case Study of Campylobacteriosis in the Czech Republic           (2008–2012). International Journal of Health Geographics. 2015, 14(7), 1-13.           ISSN 1476-072X.           MCCUNE, D. If San Francisco Crime were Elevation [online]. ©2011 [cit. 7th           October 2017]. Available from: http://dougmccune.com/blog/2010/06/05/if-           san-francisco-crime-was-elevation/           NIEDOMYSL, T., et al. Learning Benefits of Using 2D Versus 3D Maps: Evidence           from  a  Randomized  Controlled  Experiment.  Journal  of  Geography.  2013,           112(3), 87-96. ISSN 0022-1341.           https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2012.709876           OUREDNIK,  A.  The  Third  Dimension  of  Political  Mapping:  Exploiting  Map           Interactivity for a Better Understanding of Election and Referendum Results.           Cartography and Geographic Information Science. 2017, 44(4), 284-295. ISSN           1523-0406.           POPELKA, S., DĚDKOVÁ, P. Extinct Village 3D Visualization and Its Evaluation           with Eye-Movement Recording. In: Computational Science and Its Applications           – ICCSA 2014, pt. 1, vol. 8579. pp. 786-795. Heidelberg: Springer, 2014, pp.           786-795. ISBN 978-3-319-09143-3.           POPELKA, S., DOLEŽALOVÁ, J. Differences between 2D map and virtual globe           containing point symbols – an eye-tracking study. In: SGEM2016 Conference           Proceedings, Sofia: STEF92 Technology Ltd., 2016, pp. 175-182. ISBN 978-619-           7105-60-5.                                            278","RUSSNÁK, J., et al. Visualization and Spatial Analysis of Police Open Data as a             Part of Community Policing in the City of Pardubice (Czech Republic). Annals             of GIS. 2016, 22 (3), 187-201. ISSN 1947-5683.             ŘEZNÍK,  T.  Geographic  Information  in  the  Age  of  the  INSPIRE  Directive:             Discovery,  Download  and  Use  for  Geographical  Research  (Geografická             informace  v  době  směrnice  INSPIRE:  Nalezení,  získání  a  využití  dat  pro             geografický výzkum). Geografie. 2013, 118 (1), 77-93. ISSN 1212-0014.             SANDVIK,  B.  Using  KML  for  Thematic  Mapping.  Diploma  Thesis.  2008.             University  of  Edinburgh.  School  of  GeoSciences.  Institute  for  Geography.             Supervisor: Bruce Gittings.             SLOCUM, T., et al. Thematic cartography and geographic visualization. 2nd ed.             Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005. 518 p. ISBN 0-13-035123-7.             SHEPHERD, I. Travails in the Third Dimension: A Critical Evaluation of Three-             dimensional  Geographical  Visualization.  In:  Dodge,  M.,  et  al.  Geographic             Visualization: Concepts, Tools and Applications. Chichester: Wiley, 2008, pp.             199-222. ISBN 978-0-470-51511-2.             SIEBER,  R.,  et  al.  Atlas  of  Switzerland  Goes  Online  and  3D—Concept,             Architecture  and  Visualization  Methods.  In:  Gartner,  G.,  et  al.  Progress  in             Cartography. Cham: Springer, 2016, pp. 171-184. ISBN 978-3-319-19601-5.             SVATOŇOVÁ,  H.,  RYBANSKÝ,  M.  Visualization  of  landscape  changes  and             threatening environmental processes using a digital landscape model. In: 8th             International Symposium of the Digital Earth (ISDE8). Bristol: IOP Publishing             Ltd., 2014, pp. 1–6. ISSN 1755-1307.             ŠPRIŇAROVÁ, K., et al. Human-computer Interaction in Real 3D and Pseudo-             3D Cartographic Visualization: A Comparative Study. In: Cartography - Maps             Connecting  the  World:  27th  International  Cartographic  Conference  2015  -             ICC2015. Cham: Springer, 2015, pp 59-73. ISBN 978-3-319-17737-3.             ŠTAMPACH, R., et al. Dynamic Visualization of Sensor Measurements: Context             Based  Approach.  Quaestiones  Geographicae.  2015,  34  (3),  117-128.  ISSN             0137-477X. https://doi.org/10.1515/quageo-2015-0020             VOŽENÍLEK,  V.  Cartography  for  GIS:  Geovisualization  and  Map             Communication. 1st ed. Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého, 2005. 142 p. ISBN 80-             244-1047-8.             WOLFF, M, ASCHE, H. A 3D Geovisalization Approach to Crime Mapping. In:             Proceedings  of  the  24th  International  Cartographic  Conference.  Santiago  de             Chile: ICA, 2009.             ZSOLDI,  K.  3D  Methods  in  Cartography.  In:  14th  IAMG  Conference  -             Mathematical Geosciences at the Crossroads of Theory and Practice. Salzburg,             2011, pp. 1471-1478.                                                    279","Shrnutí           Příspěvek se věnuje 3D vizualizaci prostorových dat o dopravních přestupcích,           které jsou dostupné jako otevřená data v měřítku města. Většina existujících           studií  se  zaměřuje  na  trojrozměrnou  vizualizaci  kvalitativních  dat.  Z  tohoto           důvodu se chceme v tomto příspěvku zaměřit na 3D kartografické metody pro           znázornění  kvantitativních  (statistických)  dat,  jakými  jsou  například  data           o kriminalitě  či  právě  o  rozložení  dopravních  přestupků.  Analyzovali  jsme           možnosti tvorby a efektivního použití 3D variant tečkové metody, izopletových           map, kartodiagramů a metody objemových kartogramů. Byla vytvořena pilotní           webová aplikace pro praktické ověření výše popsaných kartografických metod           a  možností  aplikace  open  source  technologií  při  mapování  a  vizualizaci           dopravních  přestupků.  Vizualizovány  jsou  dopravní  přestupky  zaznamenané           a řešené městskou policí v městě Brně (konkrétně přestupky chodců, cyklistů,           překročení povolené rychlosti a odtahy zaparkovaných vozidel). V závěru jsou           diskutovány různé aspekty návrhu a implementace jednotlivých kompozičních           prvků  (např.  legendy  3D  map),  interaktivní  funkcionality,  jejich  limitů           a možností dalších úprav a rozvoje.                                                                                    280","DEPENDENCE OF OCCURRENCE OF FOREST FIRES IN VYSOČINA REGION                       ON TEMPERATURE AND ITS SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION                                                                           1                             1                                                              3                                                  2                Martin Hubacek , Sarka Hoskova-Mayerova , David Sladek , Karel Dejmal ,                                      Katerina Simkova 1               1                                                           2                 Department of Military Geography and Meteorology, University of Defence,               Department of Mathematics and Physics, University of Defence, Kounicova 65,                                     Brno, Czech Republic                                    name.surname@unob.cz                3  Military Geographic and Hydrometeorologic Office, Čs. odboje 676, Dobruska,                                        Czech Republic                                  david.sladek@vghur.army.cz              The occurrence of forest fires is dependent on a number of phenomena. In             addition  to  human  activity,  natural  phenomena,  including  the  weather  and             the spatial arrangement of the landscape, belong into these phenomena. In             recent years there have been significant fluctuations in the weather and it is             possible to observe periods with the occurrence of higher temperatures and             minimum  precipitation  in  the  Czech  Republic.  This  was  reflected  in  the             occurrence  of  forest  fires.  In  the  research,  data  series  of  firefighter’s             intervention during forest fire for the period 2005 - 2015 was analysed in the             Vysočina region. The influence of temperature on the occurrence of fires in             the  region  was  monitored.  Based  on  the  findings,  testing  for  the  potential             occurrence of clusters of air temperature and the identification of areas with             a potentially higher probability of occurrence of fires at higher temperatures             were performed. Despite the fact that the influence of the temperature was             examined  separately,  no  matter  the  other  meteorological  phenomena,  the             initial hypothesis on the influence of temperature on the occurrence of forest             fires  was  confirmed.  Based  on  these  results,  spatial  dependence  and             localization of areas with a higher probability of forest fires were modelled.             Key words: forest fires; temperature; statistical analysis; spatial modelling, GIS                                       INTRODUCTION             Forest  fires  are  very  dangerous  due  to  their  capability  to  spread  at  great             speed.  They  cause  considerable  material  damage  but  can  also  endanger             human  lives.  Moreover,  the  behaviour  of  the  fire  in  the  forest  is  often             unpredictable and the fire can spread even underground. Due to the difficult             terrain  it  is  very  complicated  to  extinguish  fires.  The  reason  is  mainly             problematic  orientation  in  the  terrain  [1]  and  troubles  in  driving  vehicles             outside and off ordinary roads. [2, 3].             Man is in most cases a cause of fire. Francl [4] writes that all of all forest fires             that  occurred  in  the  Czech  Republic  between  2000  and  2007,  58.7%  were             negligent  and  8.3%  intentional.  Natural  phenomenon  (lightning)  proves  to                                             281","have caused only 1.1% of all fires. Even though natural phenomena are not           a usual cause of fires, they secondarily participate on their amount and spread           rate.  The  greatest  influence,  depending  on  the  species  composition  of  the           forest, plays climatic and meteorological conditions. Fires are very common in           the summer, when higher temperatures cause bigger evaporation that leads           to  landscape  draying.  In  Europe,  extensive  forest  fires  occur  mainly  in  the           Mediterranean and during dry seasons even in the moderate and cold areas.           In  the  future,  more  frequent  weather  fluctuations  (longer  droughts,  storm           winds, high temperatures, …) and more frequent forest fires will occur in most           parts of the world in the context of global climate change [5, 6, 7]. The Czech           Republic will also not avoid these changes. In recent years some of mentioned           phenomena  could  be  observed  [8,  9].  Data  from  the  database  of  the           firefighting rescue service (SPOJAR application from RSC) show higher amount           of firefighter’s deployments to forest fires in recent years (Figure 1).                         Fig. 1. Graph of all vegetation and forest fires.           Source: data from the SPOJAR database            With  the  expectation  of  more  frequent  occurrence  of  dry  periods,  it  is           possible  to  make  a  hypothesis  about  higher  occurrence  of  forest  fires  in           connection with weather changes due to climate changes. The data series of           HZS actions caused by forest fires in Vysočina Region from 2005 – 2015 has           been chosen for the verification. The air temperature has been picked as an           examined phenomenon that influences the occurrence of fires. It has one of           the decisive effects on the amount of forest fires [10]. Air temperature values           for the analysis were obtained from the data in the SYNOP reports from the           meteorological stations located within and around the Vysočina Region.                             PREPARATION OF THE USED DATA           As  a  basic  data  source,  a  database  of  deployments  of  HZS  containing           information  on  all  deployments  in  the  period  2005  -  2015  was  used.           Deployments  are  classified  according  to  the  type  of  intervention.  The           information about the location and the time of occurrence (reporting) of the           event  is  also  included  in  the  record.  Only  fire  types  with  vegetation  fire           subtype  were  selected  from  all  records  (Table  1).  These  records  were  then           spatially  limited  to  the  territory  of  the  region  under  examination.  Because           forest  fires  are  not  primarily  recorded  in  the  database,  the  spatial  overlay           feature with forested areas was used to identify them. With the use of GIS                                           282","tools and spatial geodatabase DMU 25, only fires whose location is within the             forest or in the immediate forest vicinity, have been selected.             Tab. 1: The amount of deployment in the reference period                       Event                  Amount            Percentage                        Fire                   6758               100%                    Vegetation fire            1868               27,6%                      Forest fire              631                9,3%             Source: data from the SPOJAR database              The  second  used  data  source  is  meteorological  reports  SYNOP.  The  SYNOP             report  is  an  encoded  message  from  ground-based  observations  from             meteorological  stations.  In  the  Czech  Republic,  it  is  being  usually  issued  at             both military and civilian stations operated in automatic mode or with human             service. The report contains data on the previous or current weather on the             station (e. g. precipitation). It also includes, for example, data on temperature,             dew point temperature, air pressure, direction and speed of wind, and other             variables and phenomena. In total, eight meteorological stations were used             (Table 2).             In  the  first  phase,  meteorological  data  was  sorted  out  by  the  location.  The             shortest distance between the fire and the closest meteorological station was             calculated using the geographical coordinates of the event location and the             meteorological  stations.  This  divided  the  area  into  districts  belonging  to             particular meteorological stations with respect to the shortest distance. For             the  air  temperature,  one  of  the  simpler  or  more  complex  interpolation             methods  could  be  used  to  assign  air  temperature  values.  However,  the             distribution of air temperatures, unlike precipitation or other meteorological             phenomena,  is  quite  stable  and  therefore  this  method  has  been  chosen.             Geographic influences, such as altitude and orientation (aspect), are only local             and due to the insufficient density of meteorological stations they cannot be             considered and therefore they were neglected.             Tab. 2: Meteorological stations selected for data processing              ID   WMO           Name                E               N                                                (WGS84/UTM)     (WGS84/UTM)               1   11624         Čáslav            527553         5532557               2   11628        Košetice           508287         5489620               3   11636     Kostelní Myslová      530950         5443836               4   11659        Přibyslav          555216         5492542               5   11683       Svratouch           574868         5508555               6   11692   Náměšť nad Oslavou      583092         5447257               7   11693        Dukovany           583967         5437566               8   11698        Kuchařov           579599         5414808             Source: Sladek [11]              In  the  second  step,  it  was  necessary  to  assign  specific  SYNOP  messages  to             individual  time-based  deployments.  SYNOP  messages  are  encoded  at  UTC             time (Coordinated Universal Time), events in the database of deployments are             at CET time (Central European Time). Therefore, it was necessary to convert             both databases into a  single time system. The CET time  was  chosen as the             more suitable for further processing, and the times in the SYNOP messages                                             283","were  transferred  into  it.  The  monitored  deployments  were  assigned  the           temperatures corresponding to the SYNOP message issued at the hour of the           event.                          ANALYSIS OF FOREST FIRE OCCURRENCES           After  the  data  was  prepared  as  described  above,  a  file  containing  all  the           necessary  information  for  further  processing  was  available.  These  were,  in           particular, the type of event, location information, date and time. This dataset           was  used  to  confirm  or  refute  the  hypothesis  about  the  influence  of  air           temperature  on  the  amount  of  forest  fires  and  for  analysing  the  spatial           distribution in the Vysočina Region.                           Time and space distribution of forest fires           The first step, which was undertaken, was the basic spatial-temporal analysis           of the monitored phenomena in the region during the monitored period. By           simply comparing the density of vegetation fires in the area with the density           of the settlement based on the data of the Czech Statistical Office (CSO), it is           possible to trace the effect of human activity on the amount of fires at first           sight (Figure 2).           The time analysis was done by time intervals (year, month, day of the week,           hour). From the distribution of fires in individual years (Figure 1), it is possible           to see a significant increase in forest fires since 2011. In particular, 2015 is           highly above the average. Comparing the temperatures in individual years in           the  monitored  period  2010  –  2015,  there  are  no  significant  differences           compared  to  the  long-term  average  of  the  years  1961  –  1990  [12].  On  the           other  hand,  more  significant  differences  may  be  observed  in  precipitation.           These  have  been  particularly  evident  since  2011,  either  in  the  lower  total           rainfall (2011, 2012 and 2015) or, above all, in fewer rainfall days.                             Fig. 2. Comparison of density of actions based on vegetation actions (left) and           population density.           Source: data from the SPOJAR and CSO database, compiled by Sladek [11]                                             284","When  analysing  the  occurrence  of  vegetation  fires  in  individual  months,             regardless of the year of fire, two peaks can be observed (Figure 3). The first is             in April with the start of the previous month and the second stronger peak is             visible in the summer months with the peak in August. The spring maximum is             likely to be related to weather changes and higher human activity (burning             grass, burning pliers ...).             Regarding  the  maximum  values  for  the  deployments  caused  by  vegetation             fires within individual months, July and August 2015 appear to be extreme.             According to monthly reports from the Czech Hydrometeorological Institute             [12]  from  available  stations,  July  and  August  2015  were  significantly  above             average (up to 5 °C compared to the average  1961-1990) and precipitation             slightly  below  average.  This  can  be  considered  as  a  factor  contributing             significantly to the occurrence and spread of forest fires.             From the analysis of the occurrence of the fire from the point of view of the             hours  during  the  day,  there  is  an  obvious  tendency  to  rise  from  8AM  to             a maximum  around  3PM.  After  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening  and  during  the             night hours, the number of fires is minimal. This trend can be observed both             in the group of vegetation fires in general and among forest fires. At the time             of maximum occurrence of fires, the maximum daily temperatures occur and             this  phenomenon  can  be  considered  as  a  possible  connection  between  the             occurrence of forest fires and temperatures.                          Fig. 3. The occurrence of vegetation fires in individual months, regardless of the             year of fire.             Source: data from the SPOJAR database                               Analysis of temperature distribution             Based on the assignment of data from meteorological stations to individual             deployments,  it  is  possible  to  compare  the  measured  temperatures  at  the             hours of firefighters operations and the common daily flow. Since complete             data from meteorological stations is available, it is possible to compare the             distribution  of  event  temperatures  with  the  distribution  of  all  measured             temperatures at hourly intervals, which will later help understand forest fire             behaviour.  Depending  on  distribution  of  air  temperatures  frequency             measured during fires, it is obvious that the firefighters most often went out             to fires at temperatures around 20 °C.                                                285","It  can  be  seen  from  Figure  4  that  the  distribution  of  all  measured  air           temperatures at hourly intervals in the years 2005-2015 is very close to the           normal  (Gaussian)  distribution  (red  line).  The  distribution  of  temperatures           measured during fires of vegetation (4a) and forest (4b) (blue line) is much           more  complicated.  The  peak  is  shifted  to  the  higher  temperature  range,           although  there  are  several  fires  that  broke  out  at  temperatures  below           freezing.  The  graphs  in  Figure  4  show  a  higher  probability  of  fire  at  higher           temperatures,  but  this  phenomenon  is  clearly  evident  from  Figure  5.  The           graph  in  this  figure  shows  the  probability  of  occurrence  of  forest  fires  at           a given temperature based on the total number of hours in the years 2005-           2015, when this temperature was measured. From this graph it is possible to           clearly assess the significant influence of temperature on the occurrence of           fires.                             Fig. 4. Graph of distribution of temperatures measured during fires of vegetation           (4a) and forest (4b).           Source:  Sladek [11]                          Fig. 5. The probability of occurrence of forest fires at a given air temperature.           Source: own compilation                                       Cluster analysis                                           286","It is clear from the previous analysis that there is dependence between the             occurrence of forest fires and high temperatures, although temperature is not             the only factor affecting the occurrence of forest fires and is not even their             cause. In order to model the probability of occurrence of fires in the region it             is  also  necessary  to  know  their  spatial  arrangements.  Even  though  at  first             glance trends in clustering are evident from a simple analysis (Figure 2), they             cannot  be  objectively  described  or  excluded  from  their  randomness.  To             determine  cluster  properties,  autocorrelation  tests  are  used  for  spatial             modelling. Depending on the spatial extent, global and local autocorrelation             can be chosen [13]. These tests can be successfully performed, for example, in             ArcGIS [14].             In order to verify whether the fires in the region are predisposed to clustering,             Moran's  autocorrelation  test  was  used.  This  determines  the  tendency  for             clustering, random or regular distribution of elements in the space [15, 16].             The result of this test on the dataset is the following:                 -  Moran's Index:         1.405                 -  z-score:              21.235                 -  p-value:               0.000001             The high value of the Z parameter indicates that with a probability of less than             1%, clustering is the result of coincidence. The result of the test confirmed the             tendency of forest fires to cluster. The exact locations and properties of the             clusters  can  only  be  found  through  the  so-called  local  indicator  spatial             association (LISA). Representatives of the LISA methods are, for example, the             Local Moran Index or Getis-Ord GI* analysis [15, 17, 18]. Moran's local index             identifies  statistically significant outbreaks and remote locations.  The  Getis-             Ord GI * analysis calculates  the spatial aggregation with low or high values             based on the probability and standard deviation of the individual points.             Both methods were used to find clusters of forest fires. The result was two             raster  layers  with  a  pixel  size  500  x  500  meters,  containing  information  on             clusters  of  fires.  Comparing  both  layers  shows  that  their  results  are  very             similar.  The  clusters  in  both  layers  show  the  same  position  and  similar             significance.  The  resulting  clusters  can  be  considered  reliable.  The  most             significant  areas  in  terms  of  the  occurrence  of  forest  fires  can  be  found             southeast of the town Ždár nad Sázavou and northeast of the town Náměšť             nad Oslavou.             The  cloud  analysis  results  have  shown  a  high  probability  of  forest  fires  to             cluster. Individual clusters may point to locations with a higher fire risk in the             forest.  However,  it  is  not  possible  to  demonstrate  the  relationship  to             temperature by means of clustering.                               MODELLING OF THE POSSIBLE FIRE             The analysis of the occurrence of forest fires has shown a connection between             their  quantity  and  high  temperatures.  Autocorrelation  tests  showed             a tendency of observed phenomena to cluster, and two significant locations             with a high risk of forest fires were found. Autocorrelation tests have failed to             demonstrate the spatial association of forest fires and temperature. For this                                              287","reason, more or less suitable GIS tools were used to model the occurrence of           forest fires in summer depending on the air temperature. Data input from the           data set containing the summer months (June, July, August) from 2005–2015           with the exception of 2012 was used as the input data. The data from 2012           was then used to verify the reliability of each model. This year was chosen           because the location of the fires is relatively uniform throughout the region,           and  in  terms  of  the  number  of  fires  it  appears  to  be  average.  The  used           methods were:               -  IDW (Inverse Distance Weighting) with different configuration,               -  Spline,               -  Thiessen polygons,               -  Natural Neighbour,               -  Kriging.           After  the  individual  models  were  created,  the  corresponding  model  values           were assigned to the 2012 real records and the following characteristics were           calculated:               -  / 111  - average modelled air temperature,                    ∗               -  ∆/ -  average  difference  of  the  modelled  and  real  measured  air                  11111                     ∗                  temperature,               -  ∆/ 3 -  maximal  difference  of  the  modelled  and  real  measured  air                  temperature,               -  ∆/  -  minimal  difference  of  the  modelled  and  real  measured  air                  temperature,               -  4 -  standard  deviation  of  the  modelled  and  real  air  temperature                   ∆                  differences,               -  4 ∗- standard deviation f modelled air temperatures,                -  4 - standard deviation of real air temperatures (4 = 5.638).             The values in Table 3 show that the smallest value of the average difference of           the modelled and measured temperature (∆T^* ) ̅ is registered for the IDW           method with manually set parameters. However, from the point of view of           the  reliability  of  the  results,  it  is  necessary  to  draw  attention  to  the           unsatisfactorily  high  values  of  maximum  deviations  of  measured  and           modelled  temperatures.  The  best  result  of  the  maximum  error  value  was           obtained  in  the  experiment  with  high  parameter  β  for  the  IDW  method.           However,  in  such  a  high  exponent,  there  is  a  considerable  distortion  of           visualization  due  to  the  so-called  bull  eye  effect.  Generally,  the  values           obtained  indicate  that  the  IDW  method  could  be  the  most  appropriate           method, although its results may be inadequately accurate.                                                288","Tab. 3: The precision characteristics of the individual methods used to test data             set from summer 2012                            / 6    ∆/ 1111   ∆/ 3    ∆/     4    4 ∗                                     ∗                             ∗                                                                       /                                                             ∆/              Spline ten. 1   23.0   9.4   24.0     1.0     6.41     7.96              Spline reg. 1   22.1   20.9   88.4    2.2    22.57     28.06               Thiessen    25.3    7.5     17.0     0.9     5.63     22.56                 NN        25.4    5.6     16.4     0.3     4.80     1.99                Kriging    24.5    4.9     14.0    0.03     4.13     0.32               IDW GA 2    24.4    4.3     13.5     0.6     4.28     1.64              IDW β =0,5   25.3    5.7     16.4     0.2     5.14     2.35               IDW β =1    24.9    4.7     15.2     0.6     4.63     1.35               IDW β = 3   25.6    6.1     16.5     0.3     5.27     2.78               IDW β = 2   25.3    5.6     16.5     0.3     5.08     1.92               IDW β = 8   23.6    4.8     12.8     0.7     3.77     2.11                                                     2                  1             Notes:   reg./ten. (type of splinu – regularized/ tension);   Created in Geostatistical Analyst -             subjectively chosen parameters             Source: Sladek [11]              When  applying  the  method  of  modelling  results  using  the  IDW  method  to             a forest layer, it is possible to obtain information at which temperatures a fire             is  more  likely  to  occur  in  a particular  forest  polygon  (Figure  6).  Due  to  the             proven connection between the air temperature and the higher probability of             a fire, it is necessary to draw attention to the darker areas passing through the             whole  region  in  the  southeast-northwest  direction.  In  the  forests  of  these             areas, the probability of forest fires is higher at higher temperatures despite             the  lower  reliability  of  the  model.  From  the  geographic  point  of  view,  the             south-eastern part of the region is connected to the Dyje-Svratka Valley with             lower altitude and relatively small terrain fragmentation. At the same time, in             recent years, the area has a significantly lower volume of soil moisture in the             summer months [19]. In the north-western part of the Vysočina Region there             are several larger settlements, otherwise this part do not differ significantly             from other parts of the region. The connection between the higher probability             of fires at higher air temperatures, can be in a higher concentration of the             population and probably their more frequent stays in the nature during the             summer.  For  a  small  location  in  the  north  of  the  Vysočina  Region  no             explanation  was  found.  The  pronounced  conclusions  have  not  yet  been             verified and will be part of the next work as well as the possibility of linking             modelling and clustering results.                                                             289","Fig. 6. The results of the IDW method showing the most likely air temperatures           for the occurrence of a fire.           Source: own compilation                              DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION           As  already  mentioned  in  the  introduction  of  this  paper,  forest  fires  are           currently  a  serious  problem.  The  problem  is  especially  connected  with  the           inaccessibility of terrain for the fire-fighting equipment, in the difficult supply           of  water  for  fire-fighting.  The  big  problem  is  that  the  fire  can  spread           uncontrollably  even  under  the  surface.  In  addition,  forest  fire  has  a  major           impact on the environment.           Based on available data from the Vysočina Region, the following data were           processed:            1.  Time-space analysis of observed phenomena.            2.  Time  analysis  -  distribution  of  fire  in  years,  in  individual  months               regardless of year, in daily times.                                              290","3.  Analysis  of  the  distribution  of  events  air  temperatures  with  the                  distribution of all measured values at hourly intervals. It has been found                  that  there  is  dependence  between  the  occurrence  of  forest  fires  and                  high air temperatures, although the air temperature is not their cause.               4.  The cluster analysis was used to model the probability of fire occurrence                  in the region.             Cluster analysis has shown that there is a tendency for clustering. Two raster             layers  with  a  pixel  size  500  x  500  meters  were  also  created,  containing             information  on  clusters  of  fire.  Applied  LISA  methods  have  shown  that  the             likelihood of cluster formation is high in forest fires.             The  cluster  analysis  did  not  prove  the  spatial  relation  of  forest  fires  and             temperatures in places of  existing clusters. However, because the objective             was to identify spatial dependence (i.e. to locate places where fires at high             temperatures are more likely to occur), GIS modelling tools were used. From             the  whole  data  series  (except  2012  -  which  was  chosen  for  verification),             models  of  probability  of  occurrence  of  fire  at  certain  temperatures  were             calculated and the results of these models were verified on data from 2012.             To make the final model the most accurate seems (despite the large standard             deviation) IDW method. Its result was applied to the vegetation layer in the             Vysočina  region.  This  layer  assigns  to  each  forest  unit  of  DMU  25             a temperature at which the probability of fire will be highest.             For  each  forest  polygon,  it  has  been  calculated  at  what  temperatures  the             greatest probability of fire is. Given that this probability increases significantly             at temperatures above 25 ° C, see Figure 5, it is possible to identify areas with             a high risk of fire at high temperatures. However, this finding cannot rule out             the  possibility  of  a  fire  in  other  locations.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to             continuously  remind  and  apply  fire  protection  regulations  and  to  observe             preventive measures to reduce the risk of forest fires. Nevertheless, in risky             locations, it is advisable to carry out more rigorous control activities at high air             temperatures and thus to minimize risks.                                         REFERENCES             [1]  KONEČNÝ,  Milan,  et  al.  The  usability  of  selected  base  maps  for  crises                  management  –  users'  perspectives. Applied  geomatics,  2011,  3(4)  189-                  198.             [2]  HUBACEK, M. et al. Analysis of vehicle movement possibilities in terrain                  covered  by  vegetation.  In: International  Conference  on  Military                  Technologies (ICMT) 2015. Brno: IEEE, 2015, 301-305.             [3]  RYBANSKY, M. and VALA, M. Cartographic visualization of relief impact                  on  transport  during  crisis  situations. Moravian  Geographical  Reports.                  2009, 17(3): 19-26.             [4]  FRANCL, R. Forest fires in the Czech Republic from the point of view of                  firefighters  (in  Czech).  Lesnická  práce:  Časopis  pro  lesní  vědu  a  praxi                  [online].  2007,  86(8).  [2017-10-12].:  http://www.lesprace.cz/casopis-                  lesnicka-prace-archiv/rocnik-86-2007/lesnicka-prace-c-08-07/lesni-                  pozary-v-ceske-republice-z-pohledu-hasicu             [5]  FLANNIGAN, M. D., STOCKS, B. J., and WOTTON, B. M. Climate change                  and forest fires. Science of the total environment, 2000, 262(3): 221-229.                                             291","[6]  FLANNIGAN,  M.  D.,  et  al.  Forest  fires  and  climate  change  in  the  21  st               century. Mitigation  and  adaptation  strategies  for  global  change,  2006,               11(4): 847-859. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-005-9020-7           [7]  LINDNER,  M.,  et  al.  Climate  change  impacts,  adaptive  capacity,  and               vulnerability  of  European  forest  ecosystems. Forest  ecology  and               management,           2010,          259(4):         698-709.               https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2009.09.023           [8]  PRETEL, J., et al. Clarification of existing estimates of impacts of climate               change in the water, agriculture and forestry sectors and proposals for               adaptation measures (in Czech). Praha, Ministry of Environment, 2007.           [9]  KOLAR,  P.,  (2017):  Changes  and  variability  of  spring-summer  air               temperature  in  Czechia  during  the  past  300  years:  comparison  of               instrumental, documentary and natural proxy data (in Czech). Geografie,               122(2): 190–212.           [10]  KOUTSIAS,  N.,  et  al.  On  the  relationships  between  forest  fires  and               weather  conditions  in  Greece  from  long-term  national  observations               (1894–2010). International  Journal  of  Wildland  Fire,  2013,  22(4):  493-               507.           [11]  SLADEK,  D. Modeling  of  natural  processes  to  the  needs  of  the  IRS               (in Czech). Brno, University of Defence, 2017. Diploma thesis.           [12]  Monthly station data. Czech Hydrometeorological Institut [online]. Praha:               CHMI,  2017  [2017-11-12].  From:  http://portal.chmi.cz/historicka-               data/pocasi/mesicni-data?l=en           [13]  PFEIFFER, D., et al. Spatial analysis in epidemiology. New York, NY, USA:               Oxford University Press, 2008.           [14]  MAREK,  L. Spatial  and  multidimensional  statistical  analyzes  of               epidemiological  data  (in  Czech).  Olomouc,  University  of  Palacky,  2016.               Dissertation.           [15]  SPURNA,  P.  Spatial  autocorrelation-ubiquitous  phenomenon  in  spatial               data  analysis?  (in  Czech). Czech  Sociological  Review,  2008,  44(4):  767-               788.           [16]  TOBLER, W. R. A computer movie simulating urban growth in the Detroit               region. Economic   geography,    1970,     46(1):    234-240.               https://doi.org/10.2307/143141           [17]  ANSELIN, L. Local indicators  of spatial association – LISA. Geographical               analysis,   1995,   27(2):   93-115.   https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-               4632.1995.tb00338.x           [18]  GETIS,  A.  and  ORD,  J.  K.  The  analysis  of  spatial  association  by  use  of               distance  statistics. Geographical  analysis,  1992,  24(3):  189-206.               https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-4632.1992.tb00261.x           [19]  INTERSUCHO [online]. Brno: Ústav výzkumu globální změny AV ČR, 2017               [2017-10-18]: http://www.intersucho.cz/en/                                                     292","Shrnutí             Výskyt lesních požárů je závislý na řadě jevů. Kromě činnosti člověka jsou to             i jevy  přírodní,  mezi  které  patří  zejména  počasí  a  prostorové  uspořádání             krajiny. V posledních letech dochází k výrazným výkyvům počasí a na území             České  republiky  je  možné  pozorovat  období  s  výskytem  vyšších  teplot             a minimem  srážek.  To  se  projevilo  i  ve  výskytu  lesních  požárů.  V  rámci             výzkumu  byla  analyzována  datová  řada  výjezdů  hasičů  k  lesním  požárům             za období let 2005 – 2015 na území kraje Vysočina. Byl sledován vliv teploty             vzduchu  na  výskyt  požárů  na  území  kraje.  Na  základě  zjištěných  výsledků             proběhlo  testování  na  potenciální  výskyt  shluků  míst  s  potenciálně  vyšší             pravděpodobností výskytu požárů v období vyšších teplot vzduchu. I přesto, že             vliv  teploty  vzduchu  byl  zkoumán  samostatně,  bez  ohledu  na  další             meteorologické jevy, se potvrdily výchozí hypotézy o vlivu teploty vzduchu na             výskyt lesních požárů. Na základě těchto výsledků bylo provedeno modelování             prostorové  závislosti  a  vyhledání  lokalit  s  větší  pravděpodobností  vzniku             lesních požárů.                                                                                       293","INTERACTION PRIMITIVES IN 3D GEOVISUALIZATIONS                            Vojtěch Juřík, Lukáš Herman, Čeněk Šašinka           Masaryk University, Faculty of Arts, HUME Lab, Arna Nováka 1, 602 00 Brno, Czech                                        Republic                      jurik.vojtech@mail.muni.cz, herman.lu@mail.muni.cz,                                cenek.sasinka@mail.muni.cz            Abstract: Virtual reality (VR)  offers wide range of possibilities regarding not           only  representation  of  real  world  phenomena,  but  also  their  dynamic           modification and customization. A typical representation of the geographical           space is geovisualization, which is widely used in practice, namely in education           and  teaching,  but  also  in  such  an  area  as  scientific  research  for  revealing           human  cognitive  processes.  Interaction  with  such  VR  products  consists  of           many  specific  types  of  action,  however  currently  there  is  no  uniform           taxonomy for the basic units of interaction. With the growing number of VR           products  we  need  to  summarize  existing  taxonomies  to  better  understand           and design next generations of geovisualizations. The concept of interaction           primitives can offer basic framework for understanding dynamic interaction           with  virtual  cartographic  products.  In  this  paper,  we  outline  an  issue  of           interaction  primitives  with  respect  to  interactive  3D  geovisualizations  and           suggest their specific application in the VR research and development.           Key words: 3Dgeovisualization, interaction primitives, virtual reality                                     INTRODUCTION           Information representation takes many different forms. The development of           information technologies opens wide new possibilities for the representation           of information with respect to their cognitive processing and understanding           by humans. Visualization in general (not solely the virtual one) is a graphical           form of external representation of specific information (Ware, 2004). As such,           visualization  should  be  effective  regarding  its  purpose  and  visualized  data           should  also  be  presented  in  the  most  understandable  way  possible.  The           specific  visualization type actively affects  e.g. problem solving strategies, as           demonstrated  in  previous  studies  (Bauer  and  Johnson-Laird,  1993).  Virtual           reality  (VR)  made  huge  progress  in  last  couple  of  years  and  it  is  still  more           often used as an effective instrument for simulation of various environments.           VR allows us to modify virtual content easily and it can be quickly customized           for specific purposes. Furthermore, VR also offers effective ways of measuring           behavioral  activity  of  a  user,  who  works/interacts  with  virtual  content.  The           most  typical  representation  of  the  space  in  VR  is  3D  geovisualization  (GV).           Modern technologies offer a lot of opportunities to convert geospatial data           into  VR  in  particular  forms  of  GVs,  which  match  users'  needs  as  much  as           possible. GVs offer possibilities of e.g. map-driven reasoning (MacEachren and           Monmonier, 1992).                                             294","Various forms of  GVs differ in their features, their setting and content, but             also in interactivity options. GVs can be static or dynamically interactive when             displaying  a  specific  terrain.  Although  two  different  maps  can  be             informationally  equivalent  according  to  Larkin  and  Simon’s  concept  (1987),             they  can  differ  in  ways,  how  they  can  be  manipulated  by  a  user,  e.g.  how             a user  can  control  them  (rotating  or  zooming),  but  also  in  the  options  of             information  display  and  offered  choices.  This  feature  can  be  labelled  as             interaction  equivalence.  This  term  represents  comparability  of  various             visualizations  in  their  interactivity  (options  of  interaction).  Interaction  non-             equivalency of two different GVs (e.g. static vs interactive) results in different             processing  of  displayed  content  by  a  reader/user  due  to  different  actions             performed  by  the  user.  Regarding  human  psyche,  the  very  nature  of  every             single GV should stand in the middle of research and design focus, because             misinterpretation  of  displayed  information  can  bring  huge  safety  threats  in             applied  fields  (i.e.  Rierson,  2013).  Specific  nature  of  visualization  should  be             always emphasized in design process, because as such it can strongly affect             cognitive  processing  of  displayed  information  (Ware,  2012).  And  it  is  the             nature of the interaction with VR which can be expressed with the use of so             called  interaction  primitives  (IPs)  (Roth,  2012),  where  IPs  represent  basic             elements describing the interaction with interactive 3D GVs.                                 CARTOGRAPHIC INTERACTION             The suggestions for establishment of so called interaction science were based             on  previous  knowledge  in  the  fields  of  information  visualization  or  visual             analysis,  nevertheless  also  on  the  contribution  of  GIScience  as  well  as             cartography  needs.  Some  authors  emphasize  the  elementary  division  of             information  visualization  into  two  basic  parts  -  (1)  representation  and  (2)             interaction  (resp.  interactivity)  (Buja  et  al.,  1996).  When  creating             geovisualization, we can analogically observe cartographic representation on             one hand and cartographic interactivity on the other.             Cartographic  representation  means  graphic,  acoustic,  haptic  and  other             parameters of the map, which represent geographical information itself (Roth,             2012). This part has been studied intensively during past years, especially with             respect to human perception (how s/he sees the map), cognition (how s/he             understands the map) and semiotics (what does the map visualization mean             to a specific person) (MacEachren, 1995). Cartographic interactivity stands on             the other side representing a specific dialog between a user and a map. Edsall             (2003) sees interaction exchange as a partial sequence defined in a framework             of  conversation  between  the  user  and  the  map  (sequence  question  →             answer).  The  process  in  whole  is  then  called  an  interaction  session.  Such             a dialog is mediated via specific technology (or rather interface).             The  user  and  information  visualization  are  both  interaction  agents  in  the             process of “map reading” and they affect each other. When the user looks for             and  reaches  information  leading  him  to  his  targets  via  interaction  with  the             interface,  he  actively  modifies/manipulates/changes  his  current  preview  of             the visualization (primarily on the perception level). Such changes lead him to             a different interpretation of the visualization, because with every change his             cognitive  scheme  has  also  been  modified  -  according  to  Neisser's  principle             (1976).  If  this  change  is  desirable,  the  user  hits  his  target.  If  not,  more                                             295","interaction  with  the  visualization  is  needed.  In  this  process,  a  computation           device  serves  as  a  dialog  mediator  between  the  user  and  the  visualization,           which allows dynamic exchange of information in real time (MacEachren and           Monmonier, 1992). The nature of such interaction is built on the example of           a conversation  metaphor,  which  is  emphasized  especially  in  a  human-           computer  interaction  (HCI)  approach,  information  visualization  and  visual           analysis (Yi  et al.,  2007). In  general, the process of  cartographic interaction           can be defined by three parts: a user, a map and a computation device (Roth,           2012).           The best way to demonstrate interaction of the user with specific interface is           with the use of Norman's Seven Stages of Action model (Norman, 1988), see           (Fig. 1). His model reflects the process of the general interaction of human           with a device. In this framework we will discuss the issue of IPs.                             Fig. 1. Seven Stages of Action model (Norman, 1988).            Currently we can find more than one system/taxonomy describing IPs within           frameworks mentioned above (MacEachren et al., 1999; Crampton, 2002; Yi           et  al.,  2007).  Their  definitions  partially  overlap  each  other,  still  there  is  no           unified taxonomy. As Roth suggested (2012), construction of such a unified           taxonomy is considered to be a grand challenge of interaction. Roth (2012)           finds  useful  to  incorporate  and  interpret  IPs  within  the  Norman's  model           framework (Fig. 2). In this framework we will discuss the issue of IPs. In the           process  of  interaction,  the  user  is  led  by  his  particular  goal,  this  goal           transforms  into  the  intention  leading  to  the  specific  action.  This  action  has           effect, which can be reflected backwards by the user and further interpreted           and evaluated. Evaluation and interpretation of the current state compared to           the  original  goal  leads  to  another  action  or  to  modification  of  the  goals           (Fig. 2).           Each stage in the Norman’s model represent various ways, by which user can           interact  with  the  physical,  resp.  virtual  objects  (so  called  “operands”).  The           user interacts with operands via different IPs, which means that on every level           of the model we speak about series of different user's actions. Roth (2012)           himself  divides  interaction  into  three  main  categories  according  to  their           belonging  to  the  stage  within  Norman's  model.  He  speaks  about  three           recommended approaches to parsing exchanges into IPs, calling it three O's of                                           296","cartographic  interaction:  (1)  an  objective-based  approach,  (2)  an  operator-             based approach and (3) an operand-based approach.                                     Fig. 2. The Stages of Action Model and the Three O’s of Cartographic Interaction             (Roth, 2012).                   INTERACTION PRIMITIVES FOR CARTOGRAPHIC INTERACTION                                  Objective-based approach             IPs included in an objective-based taxonomy represent the interaction on the             “forming the intention” level (see Fig. 2). These IPs define specific goals of the             user  interaction/working  with  UI  (User  Interface).  There  are  many  different             existing lists of primitives assigned into Objective-based taxonomies according             to different authors. However, in general we can understand primitives on the             Objective-based  level  as  “task  purpose”  or  “task  assignment”  primitives.             A couple  of  examples  are  listed  below  to  illustrate  variability  in  the  IPs             taxonomy  in  a  better  way.  Roth  (2012)  summarizes,  that  in  spite  of             considerable  variability,  primitives  “identify”  (also  “explore”  or  “examine”)             and  “compare”,  are  consistently  represented  across  different  authors  (see             Tab. 1).             Tab. 1: Objective-based taxonomies             MacEachren et   Meta-             al. (1999)     operations    (1) identify, (2) compare, (3) interpret                            Interactivity  (1) examine, (2) compare, (3) (re)order/(re)sort, (4)             Crampton (2002)                            Tasks      extract/suppress, (5) cause/effect                            User       (1) select, (2) explore, (3) reconfigure, (4) encode,             Yi et al. (2007)                            Intents    (5) abstract/elaborate, (6) filter, (7) connect                                                297","Operator-based approaches           An Operator-based approach covers primitives engaged in to the process of           a specifying action (Specifying an Action level in Fig. 2). These primitives relate           to options of visualization manipulation. They can be seen as the “interaction           menu” for various acts, by which the user can perform a goal-focused action,           but they still do not represent the action itself. On this level in general  we           speak  rather  about  a  setting  of  UI  for  an  upcoming  real  interaction.  Roth           (2012) finds similarities across the existing labels of these acts, especially for           so called “brushing”, which is described as “highly interactive technique for           directly  selecting  groups  of  information  items  in  a  display”  (Roth,  2012;           Štampach et al., 2015). Further, on this level we can speak about primitives           like “focusing” and “linking”.           Tab. 2: Operator-based taxonomies           MacEachren et   Interaction   (1) assignment, (2) brushing, (3) focusing, (4)                                        colourmap manipulation, (5) viewpoint           al. (1999)     Forms                                        manipulation, (6) sequencing           Ward and Yang   Interaction           (2003)         Operators     (1) navigation, (2) selection, (3) distortion                                        (1) zooming, (2) panning/re-centering, (3) re-                                        projecting, (4) accessing exact data, (5)           Edsall et al.   Interaction   focusing, (6) altering representation type, (7)           (2008)         Forms         altering symbolisation, (8) posing queries, (9)                                        toggling visibility, (10) brushing and linking,                                        (11) conditioning                                 Operand-based approach           An Operand-based taxonomy covers IPs laying on the borderline of Norman's           action and evaluation part - namely between Executing the Action level and           Perceiving  the  State  of  the  System  level  (Fig.  2).  In  this  case,  the  object  of           interest is a real or virtual operand, which can be e.g. specific type of data,           structure or an object. Roth (2012) further distinguishes these primitives on           type centric and state centric. Primitives on this level have great variability and           are usually connected to the specific context.           Tab. 3: Operand-based taxonomies           Crampton     Interactivity   1) data, (2) representation, (3) temporal dimension,           (2002)       Types        (4) contextualizing interaction                                     (1) one-dimensional, (2) two-dimensional, (3) multi-           Keim (2002)    Data Types    dimensional, (4) text and hypertext, (5) hierarchies                                     and graphs, (6) algorithms and software                        Interaction           Ward and     Operands and   (1) screen, (2) data, (3) data structure, (4) attribute,           Yang (2003)               (5) object, (6) visualization structure                        Spaces                                                 298","INTERACTION PRIMITIVES FOR EMPIRICAL RESEARCH OF 3D                                     GEOVISUALIZATION             Taking  into  account  the  mentioned  approaches,  we  strive  for  a  taxonomy             which  can  be  used  to  set  a  ground  plane  in  the  empirical  research  of             interaction  with  interactive  3D  GVs.  We  suggest  a  taxonomy  of  IPs  usable             particularly for an empirical research and optimization of interactive 3D GVs.             The  suggested  taxonomy  is  in  its  very  nature  based  on  an  elementary             classification created by Laha et al. (2015) and it represents an example of an             objective-based taxonomy. Examples of the tasks that we have added into the             individual categories were selected from our previous studies reflecting the             usability testing of interactive 3D GVs (Špriňarová et al., 2015; Herman et al.,             2016;  Herman  et  al.,  2017;  Juřík  et  al.,  20017;  Kubíček  et  al.,  2017).  This             classification covers main categories of tasks, which can be done on the 3D             GVs.             Tab. 4: Suggested taxonomy of interaction primitives for empirical research             1    search             1.1   self-localization      Where am I?             1.2   presence/absence       Is there a lake?             1.3   counting               How many buildings are there?             2    pattern recognition             2.1   trend                  Is there a global trend in the heights of buildings?             2.2   repetition             Is there any specific pattern in the terrain shape?             3    spatial understanding             3.1   absolute comparison    Which hill/top is in the highest place?                                          Is  the  trigonometric  point  “A”  higher  than  the             3.2   relative comparison                                          trigonometric point “B”?                  comparison with different type of   Which  of  the  terrain  profiles  is  displayed  as  a  2D             3.3                  visualization           graph?             4    quantitative estimation             4.1   absolute estimation    What is the slope of the road?             4.2   relative estimation (binary)    Do the heights of trees depend on altitude?                                          How many times higher is the building “A” than the             4.3   relative estimation (quantitative)                                          building “B”?             5    shape description       How would you describe the shape of the terrain?                                          Find all the buildings in the terrain and determine             6    combined tasks                                          which one is the highest one.                                          Determine  a  specific  place  where  it  would  be             7    planning                suitable  to  place  a  lookout  to  see  all  of  the                                          landmarks.                                         DISCUSSION             The benefits of the discussed efforts to sort basic elements of interaction are             undeniable.  Although  there  is  a  considerable  diversity  in  researchers'             perception  of  IPs,  many  similarities  can  be  found  among  them  and  their             fundamental  parts  can  be  used  for  development  and  research  purposes  of             many  visualization  products.  With  respect  to  the  previously  mentioned                                             299","diversity  in  IPs  taxonomies,  we  newly  suggested  a  consolidating  taxonomy,           which can be applied as a  solid starting point for the empirical research of           virtual 3D GVs. This suggested taxonomy was based on a classification created           by  Laha  et  al.  (2015)  and  completed  with  the  use  of  our  research  findings           acquired within the research of interactive 3D GVs.           Purpose  of  the  taxonomy  was  verified  also  with  respect  to  its  empirical           grounding, where e.g. Roth (2013) strongly highlights applicability for practical           tasks. In HCI and human factors research, interactive GVs represent a valuable           asset for looking for answers in case of human behaviour and human possible           failures  in  real  environment  (e.g.  human  error).  Elsewhere  Roth  (2012)           summarizes,  that  IPs  taxonomy  represents  a  complex  lexicon  for  education           and practice and as such - besides the applied field - the IPs taxonomy fulfils           didactic  purposes.  However  in  general,  the  suggested  taxonomy  creates           essential  theoretical  background  for  design  and  development  of  virtual           cartographical  products  with  interactive  parameters.  We  can  compare  our           suggested taxonomy with other existing examples, which are commonly used           for classification of IPs. Both of them (Kjellin et al., 2010; Rautenbach et al.,           2014)  are  used  in  researches  dealing  with  empirical  testing  of  3D  GVs.           Compared to both taxonomies mentioned above, our taxonomy is the most           robust one, especially because it takes into account advanced types of tasks           (see  tab.  5.  -  categories  6  and  7).  We  also  consider  its  hierarchical  form           (composed  from  two  levels)  to  be  advantageous  for  finding  similarities  or           differences when classifying user tasks.           Tab. 5: Examples of other existing taxonomies of IPs                                                     Map reading tasks –                              User operations – Koua et al.                                                     Morrison (1978) in                              (2006) in Kjellin et al. (2010)   Rautenbach et al. (2014)           1  search          locate                 search, locate, identify, count           2  pattern recognition  distribution, cluster   delimit             spatial           3                  locate, rank, compare   compare or contrast, verify             understanding             quantitative     identify, distinguish,   measurement, direct           4                  categorize, correlate,   estimation, indirect             estimation       associate              estimation           5  shape description                      identity           6  combined tasks           7  planning            Comparison of various UI settings became a crucial issue in the field of human           factors,  where  different  options  of  interaction  can  have  a  huge  impact  on           safety. In consonance with this, in upcoming research there should be more           emphasized  testing  of  interaction  equivalence  within  interfaces  design  and           development, because interaction became an immanent part of visualization           in  its  very  nature.  Every  type  of  user's  action  performed  within  the  UI           (including  control  actions)  may  hugely  influence  the  process  of  user's           perception, evaluation, interpretation, and decision-making in the problems           being  solved.  Such  aspects  should  be  subjected  to  a  deep  analysis  and           discussion.                                             300","CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK             In this paper we discussed the existence of various approaches in the issue of             IPs – i.e. basic building blocks of interaction with GVs. The exact setting of IPs             taxonomy  seems  to  be  necessary  especially  from  didactical  point  of  view,             because such taxonomy is considered to be starting point for description and             further  development  of  virtual  interactive  maps,  for  their  classification  and             evaluation of their functionality. Also, the necessity of better evaluation and             specifying user issues is grounded in legislative demands (Řezník, 2013).             We  find  Objective-based  approaches  and  Operator-based  approaches             consolidating  IPs  useful  primarily  for  the  design  and  optimization  of  the             interactive  GVs  (not  only  three-dimensional  ones).  With  respect  to  many             existing  approaches  in  the  issue  of  IPs,  we  summarized  the  types  of             interaction used in practice and suggested a new conclusive taxonomy of IPs,             which can serve as a solid ground plane for design, development and research             of  interactive  3D  GVs.  The  suggested  taxonomy  offers  a  comprehensive             typology of ecologically relevant tasks for comparison of the different types of             UIs, e.g. 3D GVs with various types of control devices (e.g. Špriňarová et al.,             2015). It can also be used for the assessment of cognitive skills/competences             when dealing with information content in specific a GV. Last but not least, the             suggested taxonomy can represent a methodological alphabet for interaction             equivalence testing in the issue of various UI settings.             To  conclude,  suggested  taxonomy  offers  instruments  for  evaluation  and             comparison  of  different  interfaces.  Currently  we  have  the  methodology,             which  can  decide  whether  two  different  visualizations  are  information             equivalent  or  not,  however  the  interaction  aspect  of  visualizations  still             remains quite an unexplored issue. This suggested taxonomy will be used as a             starting  point  in  our  upcoming  research  projects  in  the  field  of  cognitive             cartography.              Acknowledgements.  This  research  has  been  supported  by  funding  from  the             project  of  Masaryk  University  under  the  grant  agreement  No.             MUNI/M/0846/2015, which is called “Influence of cartographic visualization             methods on the success of solving practical and educational spatial tasks”.                                         REFERENCES             BAUER,  M.,  JOHNSON-LAIRD,  P.  How  diagrams  can  improve  reasoning.             Psychological   Science.   1993,   4(6),   372-378.   ISSN   0956-7976.             https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1993.tb00584.x             BUJA,  A.,  et  al.  Interactive  high-dimension  data  visualization.  Journal  of             Computational and Graphical Statistics. 1996, 5(1), 78-99. ISSN 1061-8600.             CRAMPTON, J.W. Interactivity types in geographic visualization. Cartography             and Geographic Information Science. 2002, 29(2), 85-98. ISSN 1523-0406.             EDSALL,  R.M.  Design  and  usability  of  an  enhanced  geographic  information             system  for  exploration  of  multivariate  health  statistics.  The  Professional             Geographer. 2003, 55(2), 146-160. ISSN 1467-9272.             HERMAN, L., et al.  Touch Interaction with 3D  Geographical Visualization on             Web:  Selected  Technological  and  User  Issues.  In:  ISPRS  Archives  of  the                                              301","Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, vol. XLII-           2/W2. Athens: Copernicus GmbH, 2016, pp. 33-40. ISSN 1682-1750.           HERMAN, L., et al. Eye-tracking Analysis of Interactive 3D Geovisualizations.           Journal of Eye Movement Research. 2017, 10(3), 1-15. ISSN 1995-8692.           JUŘÍK, V., et al. When the Display Matters: A Multifaceted Perspective on 3D           Geovisualizations. Open Geosciences. 2017, 9(1), 89-100. ISSN 2391-5447.           KEIM, D. A. Information visualization and visual data mining. Transactions on           Visualization and Computer Graphics. 2002, 8 (1), 100-107. ISSN 1077-2626           KJELLIN  et  al.  Evaluating  2D  and  3D  visualizations  of  spatiotemporal           information. ACM Transactions on Applied Perception. 2010, 7(3), 1-23. ISSN           1544-3558. https://doi.org/10.1145/1773965.1773970           KUBÍČEK, P., et al. Identification of Altitude Profiles in 3D Geovisualizations:           The  Role  of  Interaction  and  Spatial  Abilities.  International  Journal  of  Digital           Earth.      2017       [in      print].     ISSN       1753-8947.           https://doi.org/10.1080/17538947.2017.1382581           LAHA, B., et al. A Classification of User Tasks in Visual Analysis of Volume Data.           In: IEEE Scientific Visualization Conference 2015. Chicago: IEEE, 2015, pp. 1-8.           ISBN 978-1-4673-9785-8.           LARKIN, J.H., SIMON, H.A. Why a diagram is (sometimes) worth ten thousand           words.  Cognitive  science,  1987,  11(1),  65-100.  ISSN  1551-6709.           https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1551-6708.1987.tb00863.x           MACEACHREN, A.M. How Maps Work. 1st ed. New York: The Guilford Press,           1995. 513 p. ISBN 978-1572300408.           MACEACHREN,  A.M.,  MONMONIER,  M.  Geographic  Visualization  –           Introduction. Cartography and Geographic Information Science. 1992, 19(4),           197-200. ISSN 1523-0406.           MACEACHREN,  A.M.,  et  al.  Constructing  knowledge  from  multivariate           spatiotemporal  data:  Integrating  geographical  visualization  with  knowledge           discovery  in  database  methods.  International  Journal  of  Geographical           Information   Science.1999,   13(4),   311-334.   ISSN   1362-3087.           https://doi.org/10.1080/136588199241229           NEISSER,  U.  Cognition  and  Reality:  Principles  and  Implications  of  Cognitive           Psychology.  New  York:  W.  H.  Freeman  \&  Co  Ltd,  1976.  230  p.  ISBN  978-           0716704782.           NORMAN, D.A. The Design of Everyday Things. 1st ed. Cambridge: MIT Press,           1988. 368 p. ISBN 978-0-465-06710-7.           RAUTENBACH, V., et al. Towards evaluating the map literacy of planners in 2D           maps and 3D models in South Africa. In: AfricaGEO 2014, Cape Town, 2014,           pp. 1-12.           RIERSON, L. Developing Safety-critical Software: A Practical Guide for Aviation           Software and DO-178C Compliance. 1st ed. New York: CRC Press, 2013, 566 p.           ISBN 978-1439813683           ROTH,  R.  Cartographic  Interaction  Primitives:  Framework  and  Synthesis.           Cartographic   Journal.   2012,   49(4),   376-395.   ISSN   0008-7041.           https://doi.org/10.1179/1743277412Y.0000000019                                             302","ROTH,  R.  An  Empirically-Derived  Taxonomy  of  Interaction  Primitives  for             Interactive  Cartography  and  Geovisualization.  IEEE  Transactions  On             Visualization  And  Computer  Graphics.  2013,  19(12),  2356-2365.  ISSN  1077-             2626. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2013.130             ŘEZNÍK,  T.  Geographic  Information  in  the  Age  of  the  INSPIRE  Directive:             Discovery,  Download  and  Use  for  Geographical  Research  (Geografická             informace  v  době  směrnice  INSPIRE:  Nalezení,  získání  a  využití  dat  pro             geografický výzkum). Geografie. 2013, 118 (1), 77-93. ISSN 1212-0014.             ŠPRIŇAROVÁ, K., et al. Human-computer Interaction in Real 3D and Pseudo-             3D Cartographic Visualization: A Comparative Study. In: Cartography - Maps             Connecting  the  World:  27th  International  Cartographic  Conference  2015  -             ICC2015. Cham: Springer, 2015, pp. 59-73. ISBN 978-3-319-17737-3.             ŠTAMPACH, R., et al. Dynamic Visualization of Sensor Measurements: Context             Based Approach. Quaestiones Geographicae. 2015, 34(3), 117-128. ISSN 0137-             477X. https://doi.org/10.1515/quageo-2015-0020             WARD, M., YANG, J. Interaction spaces in data and information visualization.             In:  Joint  Eurographics/IEEE  TCVG  Symposium  on  Visualization.  Konstanz:             Eurographics, 2004, pp. 137-146. ISBN 1-58113-698-6.             WARE,  C.  Information  visualization  -  Perception  for  Design.  2nd  ed.  San             Francisco: Morgan Kaufman, 2004, 486 p. ISBN 1558608192.             YI,  J.,  et  al.  Toward  a  deeper  understanding  of  the  role  of  interaction  in             information  visualization.  Transactions  on  Visualization  and  Computer             Graphics. 2007, 13(2), 1224-1231. ISSN 1077-2626.                                           Shrnutí             Virtuální  realita  představuje  přirozený  posun  ve  vývoji  a  výzkumu             interaktivních  geografických  produktů,  především  map.  V tomto  článku             shrnujeme  problematiku  interakčních  primitiv,  tedy  elementárních  prvků             interakce,  s  jejichž  pomocí  lze  přesně  popsat  proces  práce  člověka             s virtuálními  geografickými  vizualizacemi,  konkrétně  s  interaktivními  3D             geovizualizacemi.  V současnosti  neexistuje  jednotná  taxonomie  interakčních             primitiv, nicméně na základě předchozích výzkumů lze tyto základní jednotky             interakce  dělit  dle  různých  autorů  do  konkrétních  podkategorií  –             objective/operator/operand-based  primitives  (Roth,  2012).  V rámci  tohoto             článku  jsme  konsolidovali  různá  dělení  interakčních  primitiv  (např.  jejich             dělení v rámci Normanova modelu) a na tomto základě jsme vytvořili vlastní             komplexní  taxonomii  pro  pochopení,  výzkum  a  rozvoj  interaktivních             geovizualizací  s ohledem  na  člověka  –  uživatele.  Navržená  taxonomie  je             vhodná  pro  posouzení  tzv.  interakční  ekvivalence  u  různých  typů             geovizualizací  s různým nastavením uživatelského rozhraní a má sloužit jako             výchozí  bod  při  dalším  testování  funkčnosti  a  optimalizaci  interaktivních  3D             geovizualizací.                                                   303","OLD ROADS IN DOLNÍ POMORAVÍ IN THE MIKULČICE AND KOPČANY             AREA: HYPOTHESES SUPPORTED BY THE ANALYSIS OF OLD MAPS AND                                   AERIAL IMAGERY                                      1                                                  2                                                              2                        Jaromír Kolejka , Martin Boltižiar , Matej Vojtek             1               Department of Geography, Faculty of Education, Masaryk University in Brno,                             Poříčí 7, 603 00 Brno, Czech Republic                                   kolejka@ped.muni.cz               2                Department of Geography and Regional Development, Faculty of Natural            Sciences, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Trieda A. Hlinku 1, 949                                    74 Nitra, Slovakia                             mvojtek@ukf.sk, mboltiziar@ukf.sk            Abstract: The paper deals with a method of integrated analysis of old maps           and  aerial  photographs  taken  at  different  periods  in  order  to  identify  old           roads in the region of Dolní Pomoraví. The plain landscape, represented by           the floodplain of the Morava River, has undergone numerous changes in the           area of Mikulčice and Kopčany in connection with the development of its own           floodplain and its use by man from the earliest times to the present. Since it is           the  inundation  area,  fluvial  processes  have  led  to  the  formation  of  typical           terrain  shapes  that  have  been  taken  into  account  when  crating  the  roads.           Moreover, the later hydrotechnical interventions into the natural regime of           the floodplain also reflected in the creation of roads. Taking into account both           natural and anthropogenic conditions in the floodplain, they can therefore be           a good starting point for distinguishing old and newer parts of roads. From the           knowledge of old road network, it is possible to derive the former property           conditions  and  impact  of  the  settlements  and  in  this  case,  it  is  also  the           approximate course of the centuries-old state border across the floodplain.           Integrated  analysis  of  old  maps  and  aerial  imagery  often  brings  interesting           and unexpected results that can also be found in practical applications and           can  be  helpful  in  making  further  spatial  analyses  leading  to  new  findings.           Although the results extend beyond to a rather distant or near undated past,           they can be applied in a variety of ways when deciding on the future of the           study  area  which  stands  for  UNESCO  registration  as  a  cross-border           archeopark.           Key words: old roads, Mikulčice, Kopčany, Morava River                                     INTRODUCTION           Road creation in a certain area can be described as a relatively conservative           landscape property at least in the conditions of Central Europe. It is evidenced           by the curved course of today's roads even in a plain landscape where there is           no  obvious  obstacle  to  their  straightforward  leading  on  long  stretches.  The           roads thus probably respect the ancient deployment and boundaries of the                                           304","fields which have mostly disappeared after joining the fields into large parcels.             However, the course of the roads has preserved and leads to the idea that the             preservation of the course of roads belongs to the conservative behavior of             human society  (Faltýnek, Šlezar, 2014).  The question remains how long the             course  of  the  ancient  roads  is  preserved  in  the  landscape.  One  can  also             imagine that radical political and economic  changes (and shifts) in the past             have led new owners or users of large fields to revise the road network in             their  domains  towards  their  more  efficient  and  usually  shortened  variants             especially with regard to the local political and economic power center and             specific  economic  intentions  (Poláček,  2012).  At  the  same  time,  it  is  also             possible  to  anticipate  to  some  extent  with  the  idea  that  even  the  major             transformation  of  the  road  network  did  not  lead  to  a  complete             reconstruction.  Always  at  least  some  parts  of  road  network  “resisted”  the             pressure of changes.             The  plain  landscape  in  the  Dolní  Pomoraví  region,  represented  by  the             floodplain of the Morava River, has undergone numerous changes in the area             of Mikulčice and Kopčany in connection with both the development of its own             floodplain and its use by humans from the earliest times to the present (Květ,             1999,  Dresler,  2012).  Since  it  is  the  inundation  area  of  the  Morava  River,             fluvial  processes  led  to  the  formation  of  typical  terrain  shapes  which  were             taken  into  account  by  man  when  creating  the  roads.  Moreover,  later             hydrotechnical interventions in the natural regime of the floodplain were also             reflected in the roads creation. Both natural and anthropogenic conditions in             the floodplain can be a good starting point to distinguish ancient and newer             parts  of  roads.  Their  knowledge  can  then  be  another  tool  to  make  further             spatial analyses leading to new findings. Here, the landscape research partly             gets  to  the  boundary  of  paleogeography  in  its  geographical  sense             Reconstruction of the landscape for historically not very distant periods may             touch, with a high detail, even relatively large areas (Fontes, 2010, Gheyle et             al.,  2013,  Saey  et  al.,  2013).  The  geographical  research  of  landscape             represents  a  considerable  knowledge  base  for  “landscape  archeology”             whether  it  is  understood  in  different  widths  (Gojda,  2004).  In  its  basis,  the             landscape research of the past thus means to a different extent a successful             reconstruction  of  the  natural  or  cultural  landscape  in  a  certain  period             according  to  the  set  of  natural,  economic,  and  social  indications.  (Gojda,             2000).             The paper presents an integrated analysis of old maps and aerial photographs             taken in different periods. From the knowledge of the ancient road network, it             is  possible  to  derive  the  former  property  conditions,  the  impact  of             municipalities  and  in  this  case  even  the  approximate  course  of  the  ancient             centuries-old interstate border in the floodplain.                                   MATERIAL AND METHODS             Study of aerial imagery and map material was focused on the identification of             sections of old roads and terrain shapes potentially affecting their localization             and course. With some exceptions, detailed geographic study lack allowing to             obtain  the  documents  about  the  territory  in  the  early  medieval  period  of             which it would be possible to deduce the territorial structure of local former             Great  Moravian  settlement  agglomeration  (Culek,  Ivan,  Kirchner,  1999,                                             305","Kolejka  et  al.  2016).  The  oldest  maps  of  the  study  area  of  Morava  river           floodplain between Mikulčice and Kopčany (approximately trapezoid with the           northern  edge  at  Mikulčice  -  Holíč  line  and  the  southern  edge  on  the  line           Moravská Nová Ves - Kopčany) are available in different quality and resolution           from the year 1575 (Fabricius' map of Moravia). The set of old maps includes:           Comenius'  map  of  Moravia  (1626),  Cóvens-Mortier  map  of  Moravia  (1742),           Seutter's  map  of  Moravia  (approx.  1750),  map  of  the  First  Military  Survey           (1763-1787), map of the Second Military Survey (1836-1852), maps created by           black-and-white  and  color  aerial  imagery  and  recent  topographical  maps  of           the Basic Map of the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic after 2000. A field           mapping and recent colored orthophoto was used to create the land use map           of the study area which serves as a reference basis for visualizing the results           of analyzes of the other named materials (fig. 1). This procedure was chosen           because for the location of new findings, it is suitable to use such cartographic           representation of the territory that best corresponds to the current state of           the territory and is well understood by a broad circle of readers.           The  first  reliable  cartographic  resource  providing  information  on  existing           roads  is  the  map  of  the  Second  Military  Survey.  Unlike  the  previous  First           Military Survey, they already have a quality geodetic focus which enable to           better georeference them into existing coordinate systems and cartographic           projections.  From  georeferenced  maps  of  the  Second  Military  Survey,  the           road  network  of  that  times  was  digitized  using  the  on-screen  method           (Vojteková, 2013). The roads were then divided into two categories: 1. Curved           roads leading from villages to adjacent fields and forest properties; 2. Straight           roads  of  modern  origin  accompanying  forest  crossings,  water  canals  (also           modern  ones),  extensive  parcels  of  arable  land  and  alley  roads  in  the           neighborhood of the Holíč Castle. Their color differentiation makes possible to           observe (fig. 2) probably older road network in the study area.           Aerial  photographs  (orthophotos)  served  to  identify  the  former  river  side           channels in an open landscape with meadows and arable land. In the wooded           area,  the  old  riverbeds  were  surveyed  by  bioindication  which  was  used  to           create the forest typographical maps from the company Lesprojekt Brandýs           nad Labem and using the quaternary geological maps produced by the Czech           Geological Service and State Geological Institute of Dionýz Štúr (Slovakia). The           resulted  network  of  ancient  riverbeds  is  not  complete  since  the  aerial           photographs allowed mapping only part of this network because of the water           and vegetation conditions at the time of taking aerial photographs. Geological           and forestry mapping resulted in the generalization of field backgrounds to           the final scale of 1:10 000 (vegetation) and 1:50 000 (geology). It should be           noted, however, that the former riverbeds are to a large extent covered with           young sediments and their present visible dimensions (especially width) are           substantially smaller than at the time of active water flow.                                                     306","Fig. 1. Land use in the Mikulčice-Kopčany study area in 2016 (Legend: 1 - water             bodies, 2 - wetlands, 3 - forests, 4 - scrubs, 5 - meadows, 6 - gardens, 7 - grassy             airport,  8-  arable  land,  9  -  solar  power  station,  10  -  built-up  area,  11  -  Great             Moravian  fortification,  12  -  historical  cores  of  municipalities);  Source:  own             processing.                                Fig. 2. Road network in the Mikulčice-Kopčany study area identified to the first             half of the 19th century according to map  of the Second Military Survey. It is             combined with the land use map of the study area in 2016 (Legend: 1 - water             bodies, 2 - wetlands, 3 - forests, 4 - scrubs, 5 - meadows, 6 - gardens, 7 - grassy             airport,  8-  arable  land,  9  -  solar  power  station,  10  -  built-up  area,  11  -  Great             Moravian settlement, 12 - historical cores of municipalities, 13 - curved sections             of roads, 14 - straight sections of road); Source: own processing.              Similarly, their differentiated age cannot be distinguished as their sedimentary             fillings have not yet been subject to a detailed dating analysis. In the created             map (fig. 3), all detected segments of the old riverbeds are thus displayed. It             can be assumed that the ancient road network tried to avoid both the flowing             and  cut-off  riverbeds  that  prevented  the  construction  of  roads  and  their             permanent or seasonal use. The roads of that time were therefore (probably)                                              307","conducted  so  that  the  crossings  with  these  riverbeds  was  used  as  little  as           possible (fords, bridges, barrages).           On the contrary, a suitable environment for the conduction of roads were and           are  the  natural  elevations  of  the  floodplain  -  eolian  elevations  -  the  sand           dunes with the local name “hrúdy”. These were probably created at the turn           of the Pleistocene and Holocene by winding from the river sediments during           the absence of a continuous vegetation cover. Probably a significant part of           them was later subject to changes due to the erosion of the flowing water.           The preserved dunes and their remains were not usually flooded. The highest           dunes have not been flooded even under the maximum floods and have long           been used for safe living. Higher dunes also served as burial grounds and were           often  used  for  leading  the  roads  between  the  settled  dunes.  Mapping  of           existing dunes “hrúdy” took place through the visual interpretation of aerial           photographs,  geological  maps,  contour  maps  and  using  bioindication           according  to  forest  typological  maps.  Since  sediments  are  being  deposited           during  the  floods,  only  portions  of  the  original  dunes  protrude  above  the           present flat surface of the floodplain. Many lower dunes are probably already           covered by younger sediments and the terrain of the floodplain was leveled.           Wider area of sand covered by clay can be partially revealed by bioindication.           Former and existing dunes connected by the embankments have attracted the           inhabitants to the conduction of roads suitable for use especially in periods of           increased  moisture  of  the  surface  of  floodplain.  It  is  clear  from  the           comparison  of  old  roads  and  the  occurrence  of  ancient  riverbeds  and  sand           dunes  (fig.  3)  that  the  number  of  crossings  of  old  roads  and  riverbeds  was           minimized.  The  roads  near  the  crossings  with  riverbeds  were  bifurcated  or           connected through the bridges, fords or barrages. If sand dunes fit properly in           the linking route of the inhabited places, the conduction of roads used these           elevations in this landscape.                              Fig. 3. Conduction of old roads in the floodplain landscape between Mikulčice           and Kopčany in the context of selected natural factors (Legend: 1 - found former           riverbeds, 2 - sand dunes “hrúdy”, 3 - curved sections of old roads, 4 - historical           cores  of  municipalities,  5  -  course  of  the  current  international  Czech-Slovak           border).           Source: own processing                                           308","RESULTS OF ANALYSES AND THEIR ASSESSMENT             If a network of existing and ancient water bodies is omitted from the road             analysis, it can be seen that two different local road networks and relatively             straight  road  connection  between  Kopčany  and  Moravská  Nová  Ves  were             created  in  the  study  area  between  Mikulčice  and  Kopčany.  In  addition  to             preserved remnants of this connecting line, this is also indicated by the shape             and  orientation  of  the  cores  of  these  municipalities.  The  ground  plan  of             Mikulčice core is also oriented (bends) on the connecting line with Kopčany             (fig.  4).  The  road  from  Kopčany  towards  south-west  direction  crosses  the             Morava River. Behind it, it is gradually ramified to the north-west direction             into  the  fan-shaped  “double-network”.  Likewise,  the  main  roads  from             Mikulčice are ramified leading to the east of the floodplain. They also have a             fan-shape after crossing probably the originally main riverbed of meandering             stream flowing from north-east to south-west parallel to the western edge of             the floodplain below the slope of Mikulčice built-up area (see fig. 3). Although             in this part of the study area the arable land is dominant today, in the time of             the  Second  Military  Survey  in  the  first  half  of  the  19th  century  these  were             meadows and pastures.             According to the oldest  Fabricius'  map, the great (largest) watercourse  was             here and formed the western edge of the great river (“Mikulčice”) island. The             eastern  edge  was  formed  by  a  meandering  stream  approximately  in  the             position of the presently artificially straight riverbed of the Morava River. Both             watercourses  had  the  same  size  and  they  dominated  in  this  landscape             according  to  the  Fabricius'  map.  Depending  on  the  road  network  from             Mikulčice and Kopčany, it can be assumed that the two municipalities divided             the island approximately by half. This in practice means that the boundary of             both municipalities was at the same time an interstate border of the Lands of             Bohemian  Crown  represented  by  the  Margrave  Kingdom  of  Moravia  and             Hungary Kingdom. This fact is testified by old maps from Fabricius, Comenius,             Cóvens-Mortier,  and  Seutter.  The  fundamental  changes  in  the  hydrological             system of the western part of the study area resulted in the establishment of             Nesyt pond at the lower reach of the Kyjovka River, which is the right-sided             tributary  of  the  Morava  River  under  Hodonín  (into  the  western  side  of  the             Morava  River),  sometimes  after  the  creation  of  the  Fabricius  map.  On  the             Comenius' map, the “western” stream is weaker than the “eastern”. On the             later maps until the First Military Survey, the “western” meandering stream             still existed although it was weakened. The maps of military surveys show only             small streams (in the map of the Second Military Survey the pond is already             missing).             After 1750, the international border moved approximately to its present form.             The remains of former international border are evidenced by the long-lasting             forest edges found by comparing the forest boundaries in maps of the Second             Military Survey and current colored orthophoto (fig. 4).  To the west of this             forest edge, two quite different systems of parcelling of agricultural lands can             be  seen.  Mostly  it  is  the  system  of  narrow  parallel  parcels  which  are             perpendicular  in  several  belts  to  the  drainage  canal  from  the  former  Nesyt             pond - the current riverbed of the Kyjovka River. It passes through a chain of             sand  dunes  with  the  current  road  from  the  village  to  the  Great  Moravia             Memorial to chaotic parcelling of lands of various shapes and sizes. This fact is             evident both from the current cadastral map of Mikulčice and the black-and-                                             309","white orthophoto from the 1950s. The former boundary is also suggested by           the  hooked  ends  of  the  old  roads  which  are  almost  perpendicular  to  both           ramified road networks (see fig. 4).                            Fig.  4.:  Road  network  in  Mikulčice  and  Kopčany  which  meets  in  the  former           Mikulčice  river  island  of  the  Morava  River  (Legend:  1  -  forests,  2  -  old  Slavic           fortification, 3 - curved sections of roads of Mikulčice and Kopčany network, 4 -           presumed main side channels of the river bounding the Mikulčice river island in           the past, 5 - long-lasting stable edges of forest on Mikulčice island, 6 - probable           course  of  the  Moravian-Hungarian  border  by  mid  18th  century,  7  -  current           course  of  the  international  Czech-Slovak  border,  8  -  historical  cores  of           settlements).           Source: own processing                                      CONCLUSION           Integrated analysis of old maps and aerial photographs (orthophotos) often           brings  interesting  and  unexpected  results  that  can  also  have  practical           applications. The results extend beyond to a rather distant or near undated           past, they can be applied in a variety of ways when deciding on the future of           the study area, which repeatedly stands for a UNESCO World Heritage List as           a cross-border  archaeological  park.  Its  key  part  is  on  one  hand  the  Great           Moravia  Memorial  represented  by  the  former  Slavic  fortification  called  Na           Valech in Moravia/Czech Republic. On the other hand, it is the Great Moravian           Church of St. Margaret Antioch and other Great Moravian sites near Kopčany           in Slovakia.           The study area is covered by a number of other projects with usually practical           focus  for  which  these  findings  can  be  useful.  Questions  are  raised  for  the           future connection of Mikulčice and Kopčany with a pedestrian bridge crossing           the Morava River in a suitable place. This should maximally respect the old           road  network.  The  possibility  can  be  seen  also  in  the  revitalization  of  the           territory especially the renewal of the meandering stream at the site of the           presently drained Kyjovka River.                                                310","Acknowledgements: The paper was elaborated within the international project             INTERREG  V-A  SK-CZ/2016/02  “UNESCO  World  Heritage  Sites  in  the  Life  of             Municipalities,  Towns  and  Regions”  by  the  cooperation  of  the  Faculty  of             Education,  Masaryk  University  in  Brno  and  Faculty  of  Natural  Sciences,             Constantine  the  Philosopher  University  in  Nitra  and  grant  project  VEGA             1/0934/17  “Land-use  changes  of  Slovak  cultural  landscape  over  the  past             250 years and prediction of its further development”.                                         REFERENCES             CULEK,  M.,  IVAN,  A.,  KIRCHNER,  K.  1999.  Geomorphologie  der  Talaue  der             March zwischen der Napajedla-Pforte und dem Zusammenfluss mit der Thaya             (Zum  Naturmilieu  in  der  Umgebung  von  Mikulčice  und  Staré  Město).  In:             Poláček  L.,  Dvorská  J.  (eds.):  Probleme  der  mitteleuropäischen             Dendrochronologie und naturwissenschaftliche Beiträge zur Talaue der March.             Internationale Tagungen in Mikulčice. Band V. Brno: Archäologisches Institut             der Akademie der Wissenschaften der Tschechischen Republik, pp. 199-221,             1999.             DRESLER,  P.  Cesty  okolo  Pohanska  u  Břeclavi  nejen  za  Velké  Moravy.  In:             Martínek  J.,  Šmeral  J.  (eds.):  Výzkum  historických  cest  v  environmentálním             kontextu. Brno: Centrum dopravního výzkumu, pp. 11-18, 2012.             FALTÝNEK,  K.,  ŠLEZAR,  P.  Archeologické  doklady  pozůstatků  komunikací             a dopravních staveb v Litovli. In: Martínek  J. (ed.):  Výzkum historických cest             v environmentálním kontextu II. Brno: Centrum dopravního výzkumu, pp. 24-             28, 2014.             FONTES,  L.  Mountain  Landscapes  and  Landscape  Archaeology  in  Northwest             Portugal.  In:  Living  Landscapes.  The  European  Landscape  Convention  in             Research Perspective, 18-19 October, Florence, Conference Materials, Volume             I, Bandeccho and Vivaldi/UNISCAPE, Pontedevs/Firenze, pp. 204-226, 2010.             GHEYLE, W., DOSSCHE, R., BOURGEOIS, J., STICHELBAUT, B., EETVELDE, V. V.             Integrating  Archaeology  and  Landscape  Analysis  for  the  Cultural  Heritage             Management  of  a  World  War  I  Militarised  Landscape:  The  German  Field             Defenses in Antwerp. Landscape Research, vol. 39, no. 6, pp. 502-522, 2013.             https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2012.754854             GOJDA, M. Archeologie krajiny. Praha: Academia, 2000. 238 p.             GOJDA,  M.  Landscape  Archaeology.  In:  Knowledge  for  Sustainable             Development.  An  Insight  into  the  Encyclopedia  of  Life  Support  Systems.             Volume 1. Oxford: UNESCO Publishing – Eolss Publishers, pp. 723-741, 2004.             KOLEJKA,  M.,  BOLTIŽIAR,  M.,  SVATOŇOVÁ,  H.,  VOJTEK,  M.,  OLÁHOVÁ,  J.             Possible interpretations of old and thematic maps and aerial photographs for             identification  of  conserved  elements  of  the  cultural  landscape  of  Great             Moravia in Mikulčice and Kopčany surroundings. In: Lněnička, L. (ed.): Central             Europe Area in View of Current Geography. Brno: PF MU v Brne, pp. 41-49.             2016             KVĚT,  R.  Alte  Wege  im  Marchtal  von  dem  Engpass  bei  Napajedla  bis  zum             Zusammenfluss mit der Thaya. In: Poláček L., Dvorská J. (eds.): Probleme der             mitteleuropäischen  Dendrochronologie  und  naturwissenschaftliche  Beiträge             zur  Talaue  der  March.  Internationale  Tagungen  in  Mikulčice.  Band  V.  Brno:                                             311","Archäologisches Institut der Akademie der Wissenschaften der Tschechischen           Republik, pp. 223-226, 1999.           POLÁČEK, L. Mosty a říční archeologie v Mikulčicích (teze). Přehled výzkumů           53, no. 2, Brno: Archeologický ústav AV ČR, pp. 23-38, 2012.           SAEY, T., STICHELBAUT, B., BOURGEOI J., EETVELDE, V. V. MEIRVENNE, M. V.           An Interdisciplinary Non-invasive Approach to Landscape Archaeology of the           Great War. Archaeological Prospection, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 39-44, 2013.           VOJTEKOVÁ,  J.  Trendy  vývoja  banskej  krajiny  na  hornom  Ponitrí  [Trends  in           Development  of  Mining  Landscape  in  the  Upper  Nitra  Region].  Nitra:  UKF           v Nitre, 2013. 152 p.                                         Shrnutí           Předkládaný příspěvek nabízí jeden z možných přístupů rekonstrukce starých           cest využitím integrované analýzy starých map a leteckých snímků pořízených           v různých obdobích několika let na příkladu dolního Pomoraví v okolí Mikulčic           a  Kopčan.  Ze  znalosti  dávné  cestní  sítě  lze  odvozovat  i  dřívější  majetkové           poměry a dosah vlivu obcí, v daném případě dokonce přibližný průběh dávné           staleté  mezistátní  hranice  v  rovině  nivy.  Vedení  cest  v  území  lze  označit  za           poměrně  konzervativní  vlastnost  krajiny,  alespoň  v  podmínkách  střední           Evropy. Svědčí o tom klikatý průběh dnešních silnic, a to i v rovinaté krajině,           kde není zřetelná překážka pro jejich přímočaré vedení na dlouhých úsecích.           Cesty  tak  pravděpodobně  respektují  dávné  rozmístění  a  hranice  polností,           které povětšině po spojení políček do velkých parcel již zaniklo. Průběh cest se           však  zachoval  a  vede  k  představě,  že  uchování  průběhu  cest  patří  ke           konzervativnímu chování lidské společnosti. Otázkou zůstává, po jak dlouhou           dobu se vedení dávných cest v krajině uchovává. Lze si totiž rovněž představit,           že radikální politické a hospodářské změny (a přesuny) v minulosti, vedly nové           vlastníky,  resp.  uživatele  velkých  polností  k  revizi  cestní  sítě  ve  svých           doménách směrem k jejich efektivnějšímu a zpravidla zkrácenému provedení           zejména  s  ohledem  na  místní  centrum  politické  a  hospodářské  moci           a konkrétní  ekonomické  záměry.  Současně  lze  rovněž  do  jisté  míry  počítat           s představou,  že  ani  zásadní  přeměna  cestní  sítě  nevedla  k  její  úplné           přestavbě. Vždy alespoň některé úseky cestní sítě tlaku změn „odolaly“.           Rovinatá  krajina  v  dolním  Pomoraví,  reprezentovaná  nivou  řeky  Moravy,           prodělala v okolí Mikulčic a Kopčan četné změny v souvislosti jak s vývojem           vlastní nivy, tak jejím využíváním člověkem od nejstarších dob po současnost.           Vzhledem  k  tomu,  že  jde  o  inundační  území  řeky  Moravy,  fluviální  procesy           vedly  ke  vzniku  typických  tvarů  reliéfu,  které  byly  člověkem  zohledněny  při           vedení cest. Také pozdější hydrotechnické zásahy do přírodního režimu nivy se           rovněž odrazily ve vedení cest. Zohlednění jak přírodních, tak antropogenních           podmínek  působících  v  nivě  mohou  být  vhodným  východiskem  k  odlišení           dávných a novějších úseků cest. Jejich znalost pak může být další pomůckou           k realizaci dalších prostorových analýz vedoucích k novým zjištěním.           Integrovaná  analýza  starých  map  a  leteckého  snímkového  materiálu  tak           přináší  mnohdy  zajímavé  a  neočekávané  výsledky,  které  mohou  nalézt  také           i praktické  uplatnění.  Výše  demonstrované  výsledky  sice  přesahují  svým           obsahem spíše do vzdálené, či blízké nedatované minulosti, avšak se mohou           rozmanitým  způsobem  uplatnit  při  rozhodování  o  budoucnosti  zájmového                                           312","území.  To  opakovaně  kandiduje  na  zápis  do  seznamu  Světového  přírodního             a kulturního  dědictví  UNESCO  jako  přeshraniční  archeopark.  Jeho  klíčovou             součásti  je  jak  Památník  Velké  Moravy  bývalého  slovanského  hradiště  Na             Valech  na  Moravě/Česká  republika,  tak  stojící  velkomoravský  kostelík  sv.             Margity Antiochijské v sousedství dalších velkomoravských nalezišť u Kopčan             na Slovensku.                                                                                                    313","ANALYSES OF AVAILABILITY USING GIS TAKING INTO CONSIDERATION OF                                     REAL TERRAIN                      Matej Močko, Martina Zigová, Michal Ševčík, Imrich Jakab              Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Tr. A. Hlinku č. 1, 949 74 Nitra                 matej.mocko@ukf.sk, martina.zigova@ukf.sk, michal.sevcik@ukf.sk,                                      ijakab@ukf.sk            Abstract: Term “availability” is most often understood as easiness of achieving           a site or a services from other places which can be measured as e. g. distance,           travel costs or time duration. Despite of broad usage, distance calculating is           often  methodically  incorrect  because  it  takes  place  in  two-dimensional           environment.  This  causes  distortion  of  results  which  are  in  fact  three-           dimensional.           In  our  paper  we  focus  on  calculating  real  spatial  and  time  distance  with           considering a fact that real world is not two-dimensional and terrain has often           many  characteristics  and  terrain  roughness.  Calculations  are  made  on  road           network  and  hiking  trails  in  High  Tatras  Mountains  by  use  of  our  own  tool           which uses functions of GRASS GIS software. Final map layers are described           and overlaid with services, tourist places of interest and phenomena of High           Tatras Mountains.           Key words: cumulative availability, GIS, 3D dimension, tourism, High Tatras                                     INTRODUCTION           One of the basic definitions of the term “availability” is “Availability is most           often understood as the ease of site or services achieving from other places,           which  can  be  measured  as  a  distance,  travel  costs  or  time  duration”,           formulated  by  Clark  (1990).  Availability  is  an  important  indicator,  which           enables  measuring  of  an  accessibility  of  a  certain  locality.  It  improves  the           quality of life by facilitating access to various options, commodities, services,           as well as a participation in social and cultural events.           The method of availability determination was evolving simultaneously with its           importance.  For  this  purpose,  indicators  of  availability  are  used.           Thoroughgoing  research  and  analyses  of  availability  may  improve  the           localization  of  objects  of  interest  and  lead  to  more  rational  spatial           organization of human society, mainly of the infrastructure (Tolmáči, 1998).           An  overview  of  various  ways  and  approaches  of  availability  measuring  and           applications to different issues, are described in many papers, such as Tolmáči           (1998,  2002),  Geurs  \&  Ritsema  van  Eck  (2001),  Spiekermann  \&  Neubauer           (2002), Geurs \& van Wee (2004), Scheurer \& Curtis (2007), Gutiérrez (2009).           One of the first approaches for availability measurement were index methods,           e.g. Fatigue index by Hůrský (1969). These methods have evolved over some           time.  It  was,  in  the  first  place,  caused  by  radical  development  in  transport                                           314","sphere  connected  with  economic  progress  and,  in  the  second  place,  by             emergence of new computer technologies, which make the measurement of             availability  significantly  simpler,  and at  the  same  time,  more  complex  and             sophisticated  (Ludwig,  2016). Križan  \&  Gurňák  (2008)  and  Tolmáči  (2002)             attach the formation of new availability research directions to development             and  expansion  of  analysis  tools,  especially  in  the  field  of  geographic             information systems (GIS).             Analyses  of  availability  can  be  performed  in  the  GIS  using  either  vector  or             raster-based  representation.  In  general,  depending  on  the  grid  resolution,             raster  and  vector  networks  are  capable  of  performing  the  same  spatial             operations  and  analyses.  In  both  cases  the  flow  of  movement,  either  from             node to node in a network, or from cell to neighbouring cell of a raster, is             subject to resistence determining the direction and speed of flow. The way             this resistance is modelled differs from vector to raster (Husdal, 1999).             The most basic way to measure spatial availability is a use of a buffer zone,             defined by a radius of the maximal set Euclidean distance around an object of             interest (Nicholls, 2001; Ford et al.,  2015).  This  method  was  mainly used in             earlier research (Hansen, 1959; Lowry, 1964). However, this approach deals             with  several  problems.  Availability  is  expressed  approximately  only  as             a straight air-line distance or movement, but this is, in fact, not possible. The             movement  is  beforehand  predefined  by  the  infrastructure,  traffic  rules  and             necessity of avoiding obstacles, what causes an increase of the actual length             of a route (Nicholls, 2001).             In either raster or vector representations, similar pathfinding algorithms are             used  (Husdal,  1999).  From  many  algorithms  that  exists  (A*,  Bellman–Ford,             Floyd–Warshall,  etc.),  the  most  commonly  used  is  the  Dijkstra's  algorithm             (Dijkstra, 1959). Dijkstra's algorithm has a lot of variants, but in general it is             tree-based method of finding shothest path in weighted oriented graphs.             In the most of scientific literature is availability often measured as a physical             distance  or  a  travel  duration  (Sotoudehnia  \&  Comber,  2011). However,             despite  the  widespread  use,  the  distance  computations  are  oftentimes             methodically incorrect. They are performed in a 2-D environment and there is             no consideration of properties and altitude of a terrain.             This has the distortion effect on final results, because in the real world the             route  has  a  three-dimensional  character. This  fact  has  a  great  impact             particularly  in  mountainous  or  alpine  environments,  where  the  differences             between 2D and 3D distances (expressed in  meters or in time unit) can be             greatly significant.                                  MATERIALS AND METHODS             Aim  of  our  paper  is  to  demonstrate  innovative  option  of  the  availability             computation  on  a  practical  example,  which  is  based  on  cumulative             computation  using  entire  transport  network  in  a  three-dimensional             environment.             Instead of commonly used vector representation, for the availability analyses             raster  data  modeling  was  used.  Working  with  the  network  as  a  3D  object             provides  considerable  advantages  and  raster  representation  also  simplifies                                             315","network  complexity.  The  main  advantage  of  raster  representation  are  the           fixed, implicitly saved relations between individual cells, allowing us to easily           obtain amount of needed data. To obtain a three-dimensional availability, is           necessary to include transport network slopes into the computation. This data           can be acquired by basic geomorphological analyses of a digital terrain model.           Based  on  the  set  terrain  attributes,  it  is  now  possible  to  compute  the  real           distance  using  a  trigonometry  and  map  algebra.  The  output  is  the  real           distance of each cell that must be travelled. This information is saved in every           single  cell  of  entire  transport  network.  This  network  uses  the  Dijkstra's           algorithm  as  an  input  for  computing  minimum  cumulative  costs  layer.  The           identification of the shortest real distance from initial to final coordinates is           possible by selecting a route with the lowest value of distance. This value is           simply calculated as a sum of distance values of all cells in each of the possible           routes.           In our paper we implement, on a practical example, our suggested approach           to the availability analysis. The example is situated in the central part of the           High Tatras. The selection of objects of interest was inspired by the TANAP           national park press release from 03.08.2017 (State Forests of TANAP, 2017).           From  this  press  we  have  selected  6  the  most  frequently  visited  places  by           hikers in the High Tatras (without use of cableways and rack railway):               1.  Popradské pleso (tarn),               2.  Hrebienok (mountain),               3.  Rysy (mountain),               4.  The chalet at the Zelené pleso tarn,               5.  The mountain hotel Sliezsky dom,               6.  Kriváň (peak).           The availability of these objects of interest was computed and expressed in           a relation to 15 railway stations located in near neighborhood.           For the availability analyzes, procession and visualization of geospatial data,           the GRASS GIS system (Geographical Resources Analysis Support System) was           used.  GRASS  GIS  represents  a  complex  GIS  solution  with  raster,  topological           vector,  image  processing  and  graphics  production  functions  (GRASS           Development Team, 2017).           Following input map layers were used:           • Vector layer of the transport network (OpenStreetMap, 2017),           • Digital terrain model (DTM) with 25 m spatial resolution (European Digital           Elevation Model, 2017).           Based on DTM parameters, the spatial resolution of 25 m was used for the           cumulative  availability  computation,  as  well  as  the  production  of  output           maps.                                                 316","RESULTS             The  primary  output  is  a  map  of  cumulative  availability  computed  in  a  3D             environment  (Fig.  1).  Every  pixel  of  this  output  raster  map  carries  its  own             information  about  its  metric  availability  from  the  initial  point  within  the             network. On the map, the metric availability can be exactly defined for any             part  of  the  network.  It  is  thus  possible  to  apply  it  to  different  objects  and             phenomena located near any part of the transport network.                                       Fig. 1. Cumulative availability map in 3D environment.              The  availability  was  computed  from  selected  railway  stations  to  six  of  the             most tourists visited allurements of the High Tatras.             Identical cumulative availability maps were computed individually from every             railway station. Afterwards, we have created a Table 1, in which is possible to             identify  distances  from  every  railway  station  to  all  objects  of  interest             representing the most visited places in High Tatras.                                                     317","Tab. 1: Distances of objects of interest from railway stations                                               Based on this, data recorded in Table 1, is possible to determine the degree of           suitability for use of the individual stations to visit selected objects of interest.           In  this  case,  availability  is  expressed  only  as  the  travelled  distance  without           consideration of time, which is needed for overcoming the elevation. As the           most suitable starting station for visiting all the most visited places of the High           Tatras appears to be Popradské pleso station, because the sum of all distances           between  this  station  and  all  objects  of  interest  is  121.41  km.  The  worst           localization  has  Tatranská  Lomnica  station  with  the  sum  of  distances           132.6 km.           The  2-D  availability  of  objects  of  interest  from  all  individual  stations  is           recorded  in  Table  2.  The  biggest  differences  between  two-dimensional  and           three-dimensional  availability  computation  were  showed  on  case  of  Rysy           mountain availability from Tatranská Lomnica station, where the difference is           20.5 kilometers. That means, that 45.5% of route length is not projected on           common  two-dimensional  maps  (Fig.  2).  Vice  versa,  the  smallest  difference           was  shown  on  the  availability  of  the  chalet  at  the  Zelené  pleso  tarn  from           Tatranská  Lomnica  station.  In  this  case,  2-D  map  projection  causes  only           6 meters loss (0.06%) of the route.                                            318","Fig. 2. Profile of 2-D and 3-D route from Tatranská Lomnica station to Rysy.              The next step of our research was a time availability computation (Fig. 3). Also             in this case, results of 2D and 3D availability were compared. For 3-D time             availability computation, time penalties were added to all pixels of cumulative             map.  These  penalties  correspond  to  differences  between  real  3D  and             distorted  2D  distances.  This  conversion  gives  us  more  accurate  time             availability  results  computed  on  real  lengths  of  hiking  trails  in  3D             environment.  The  results  and  their  comparison  with  2D  environment  are             recorded in Table 2.             Analogous to distances results, time availability differences were the greatest             at  the  availability  of  Rysy  from  Tatranská  Lomnica  station.  Time  availability             difference  was  3  h  and  47  min.  (45,5%).  The  smallest  difference  was  in             availability  of  Hrebienok  mountain  from  Starý  Smokovec  station  –  7  min.             (11,1%).             Based  on  time  availability  data,  recorded  in  Table  2,  it  is  also  possible  to             determine the degree of suitability for use of the individual stations to visit all             objects  of  interest,  but  from  the  point  of  view  of  time  duration.  The  most             suitable starting station is Popradské pleso station, which is the same as in             case of distances results with the sum of time duration 33 h and 43 min. The             worst localization has also the same station – Tatranská Lomnica station with             the sum of 43 h and 36 min.                                                           319","Tab. 2: Time cumulative availability of objects of interest from railway stations                                Popradské   Hrebienok   Rysy   Chata pri   Sliezsky   Kriváň                                                      Zelenom                                 Pleso                         dom                                                       plese                     2D time (in min)   89   246   235   466   272     235            Štrbské pleso                     3D time (in min)   109   290   412   548   346    361            Popradské   2D time (in min)   71   234   216   453   259   266              pleso   3D time (in min)   83   280   386   539   336    399                     2D time (in min)   165   160   310   380   186    349            Vyšné Hágy                     3D time (in min)   206   179   509   438   235    500                     2D time (in min)   200   132   346   352   157    384           Nová Polianka                     3D time (in min)   244   148   547   407   205    538                     2D time (in min)   221   118   367   338   144    406           Danielov Dom                     3D time (in min)   269   131   572   390   188    563            Tatranská   2D time (in min)   243   100   389   319   127   428             Polianka   3D time (in min)   293   111   596   369   169   587            Tatranské   2D time (in min)   260   79   406   298   123   445              Zruby   3D time (in min)   312   87   615   346   164    606                     2D time (in min)   275   65   421   284   136     460              Sibir                     3D time (in min)   328   72   631   331   179     622              Nový   2D time (in min)   282   59   428   278   136     466            Smokovec   3D time (in min)   335   66   638   323   185   629              Starý   2D time (in min)   289   55   435   270   143    473            Smokovec   3D time (in min)   343   61   646   316   193   637             Pekná   2D time (in min)   302   65   448   259   157     487            Vyhliadka   3D time (in min)   360   76   663   301   210   654             Horný   2D time (in min)   313   76   459   251   168     498            Smokovec   3D time (in min)   373   89   676   291   223   667            Tatranská   2D time (in min)   338   83   484   231   192   523              Lesná   3D time (in min)   402   95   705   266   252    696                     2D time (in min)   360   99   505   217   214     544            Stará Lesná                     3D time (in min)   428   117   731   247   278    722            Tatranská   2D time (in min)   380   119   526   201   235   565             Lomnica   3D time (in min)   450   139   753   230   300   744            The  advantage  of  cumulative  time  availability  map  is  that  it  allows  the           quantification of availability for any location on the entire transport network,           which may have convenient and practical use. In addition, if we use simple           interpolation  methods,  we  are  able  to  visualize  the  availability  expressed           across the board in the immediate vicinity of communication. If settlements           are located near the communications, with an overlay of map layers we can           define the degree of availability for every part of a settlement. In our case, we           have  used  the  layer  of  services,  specifically  layer  of  chalets,  instead  of           settlements layer (Fig. 3).           If we overlay this layer of availability with a layer of any services located in           area  of  interest,  we  can  easily  an  exactly  express  the  availability  of  these           services from railway stations.                                                 320","Fig. 3. Availability of objects of interest from railway stations.                                         DISCUSSION             Our approach is based on multiple interlocked specifics. The first is, that the             computation  works  with  cumulative  availability  indicators.  Cumulative             availability,  according  to  Tolmáči  (1998),  is  one  of  the  basic  availability             indicators,  which  is  used  in  many  scientific  papers.  This  indicator  expresses             a position  of  selected  settlement  (node)  against  the  other  by  a  sum  of             qualitative characteristics. These are expressed as a time interval, a distance             in kilometers, travel costs etc., between all settlements.             In practice, graph theory is currently mostly used for the availability analyses             purpose. In much of cases, it is the availability computation for a single node             in  relation  to  the  network.  Our  approach  allows  cumulative  availability             computation  for  every  part  of  the  network,  independent  on  its  size.  That             means, that it’s possible to identify degree of cumulative availability for any             part of the network in relation to a selected node. In our case, we use raster             data  models  in  GIS  for  computation.  From  this  perspective,  it  is  more             convenient  to  replace  the  term  “node”  with  the  term  “point”  or  “feature”.             However, this point may consist of more other points, lines or polygons. An             example can be a city park. The availability is then solved as a distance to the             city park as a geo-object, but not as a point, or a node.             Our  approach  to  the  cumulative  availability  computation  for  the  entire             transport network was inspired by authors Bugya, Szabó \& Kiss (2011). They             have developed a tool for the computation of health care availability in two-             dimensional  environment.  Cumulative  availability  results  for  the  whole                                             321","network  allow  its  quick  categorization,  according  to  required  levels,  and           simple reusability, if the final points are changed. The biggest disadvantage,           following from the graph theory, is the fact, that this method simplifies the           network to a two-dimensional object and works with it in that way. However,           the  real  network  is  subordinated  to  terrain  attributes.  Terrain  is,  in  many           cases, considerably curvy and this may cause in several spheres (e.g. hiking in           mountainous  terrain),  distortion  and  significant  undervaluation  of  the  final           results.           Our approach is aimed directly on this issue and we work with the transport           network as a three-dimensional object. For this purpose, is necessary to have,           besides  the  network  and  the  initial  and  final  coordinates,  also  terrain           elevation, slope size and slope length data for all potential routes or the entire           network.           Based on the requirements of the cumulative availability computation for the           whole network, which is presented as 3D object, much easier for us was to           use the raster data modeling instead of common vector representation. The           basic input layer is the DTM and just simple geomorphological analyses are           required to acquire needed data, which are implicitly saved in cells.           However,  raster  representation  also  has  several  issues.  The  widespread           disadvantage of raster analyses is, that the quality of outputs heavy depends           on  the  DTM  resolution  quality.  Therefore,  for  the  high-quality  outputs  is           necessary to use raster with high resolution, which demands greater technical           requirements and increases the processing time. For the computation of time           availability, with use of raster data models, we use GIS tools, which compute           anisotropic  cumulative  cost  of  moving  between  different  geographic           locations.  The  input  is  an  elevation  raster  map  layer,  whose  cell  category           values represent elevation data, combined with an input raster map layer and           the  cell  values  represent  friction  cost.  Our  availability  computing  method           assumes use of hiking trails. Therefore, the time penalties caused by passing           through  the  difficult  terrain  (e.g.  bodies  of  water)  are  not  necessary  to           account.  Instead  of  that,  to express  the  difference  between  the  real  three-           dimensional and distorted two-dimensional distances, we use a friction cost           parameter, which represents the time penalties. This conversion will give us           a more accurate time availability computed on the real lengths of the hiking           trails in a three-dimensional environment.                                      CONCLUSION           Availability analysis, with the use of  GIS, can  find application anywhere the           distance or time component of availability plays the role. As we tried to point           out  to  our  example,  the  utilization  of  the  availability  analysis  can  have           considerable importance for tourism.           Tourism is one of the fastest developing business sectors in the world, with           indisputable economic benefits for its country. It is closely connected with the           offer of recreational, historical and cultural relaxation, which a certain area           offers. Besides the offering of services, it must also be available for visitors.           Location of activities  in the  vicinity of the transport infrastructure can  save           time  and  travel  costs  of  visitors,  and  in  this  way,  attract  their  attention           (Štefancová,  2016).  Exactly  in  this  part  of  tourism  development  process  is                                           322","necessary to broach the issue of the availability of certain region or specific             area of interest.             However,  we  can  also  find  direct  use  of  availability  in  areas  related  to  the             administration  of  the  country,  in  urban  planning,  evaluation  of  ecosystem             services and, overall, in the fields of logistics, transport etc.             The  added  value  of  our  approach  on  cumulative  distances  expression  is             distance  computing  on  a  three-dimensional  transport  network.  The  terrain             curvature is also considered, which in the mountain and alpine environment             significantly increases the distances of the transport networks. Based on this,             computation  of  availability  is  more  accurate  and  closer  to  reality  than  the             two-dimensional map projection.              Acknowledgements: The work was supported by the projects VEGA 1/0608/16             and KEGA 025UKF-4/2015.                                         REFERENCES             BUGYA, T.; SZABÓ, G.; KISS, K.  Ambulance [software] [access. 26. 09. 2011].             CLARK, A. N. The Penguin Dictionary of Geography. Harmondsworth: Penguin,             1990.             DIJKSTRA,  E.  (1959).  A  note  on  two  problems  in  connexion  with  graphs.             Numerische Mathematik, 1 (1), 269-271 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01386390             European  Digital  Elevation  Model,  2017  [online].  [access.  15.  07.  2017]             <http:// www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/eu-dem#tab-gis-data/>             FORD, ALISTAIR C., BARR, STUART L.; DAWSON, RICHARD J.;  JAMES, PHILIP.             Transport Accessibility Analysis Using GIS: Assessing Sustainable Transport in             London. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 2015, 4.1: 124-149.             GEURS, K. T.; RITSEMA VAN ECK, JAN R. Accessibility Measures: Review and             Applications.  Evaluation  of  accessibility  impacts  of  land-use  transportation             scenarios and related social and economic impact. 2001.             GEURS,  KARST  T.;  VAN  WEE,  B.  Accessibility  Evaluation  of  Land-use  and             Transport  Strategies:  Review  and  Research  Directions.  Journal  of  Transport             geography, 2004, 12.2: 127-140.             GRASS  Development  Team,  2017  [online].  [access.  22.  09.  2017]  <http://             grass.osgeo.org/grass72/manuals/>             GUTIÉRREZ,  J.  Transport  and  Accessibility.  International  encyclopedia  of             human geography, 2009, 1: 410-417.             HANSEN, W. G. How Accessibility Shapes Land Use. Journal of the American             Institute of planners, 1959, 25.2: 73-76.             HUSDAL, J. Network analysis – network versus vector – A comparison study.             Unpublished  course  paper  for  the  MSc  in  GIS.  University  of  Leicester,  UK,             1999.                                                 323","HŮRSKÝ,  J.  Methods  of  Graphic  Representation  of  Commuting  to  Work.           Academia,  1969.  ČSAV  discussions,  series  of  mathematical  and  nature           sciences, 79 (3), Academia, Praha.           KRIŽAN,  F.,  GURŇÁK,  D.  Selected  Cartographic  and  Graphic  Methods  of           Availability  Representation.  Acta  Facultatis  rerum  naturalium  Universitatis           Comenianae Geographica, 2008, 51.           LOWRY,  I.  S.  A  Model  of  Metropolis.  Santa  Monica,  CA:  Rand  Corporation,           1964.           LUDWIG,  M.  Transport  Availability  of  Tourist  Attractions  in  Czech-Liepzig           Region.  Banská  Bystrica,  Diploma  thesis.  University  of  Matej  Bel  in  Banská           Bystrica. Department of tourism and hospitality. 2016.           NICHOLLS,  S.  Measuring  the  accessibility  and  equity  of  public  parks:  A  case           study using GIS. Managing leisure, 2001, 6.4: 201-219.           Openstreetmap,   2017    [online].   [access.   02.   09.   2017]           <http://www.openstreetmap.org/>           SCHREURER,  J.,  CURTIS,  C.  Accessibility  Measures:  Overview  and  Practical           Applications. Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Curtin University,           2007, 52.           SOTOUDEHNIA,  F.,  COMBER,  L.  Measuring  Perceived  Accessibility  to  Urban           GreenSpace: An Integration of GIS and Participatory Map. Paper presented at           the AGILE, April 18-22, 2011.           SPIEKERMANN,  K.,  NEUBAUER,  J.  European  accessibility  and  peripherality:           Concepts, models and indicators. Nordregio, 2002.           ŠTEFANCOVÁ, K. Availability of Selected Turist Attractions in Stredné Považie           Region.  Bratislava,  2016.  Bachelor  thesis.  Comenius  University  in  Bratislava.           PriF PriF. KRGOPK.           State Forests of TANAP. Nearly 20 000 Tourists were Counted [online]. [access.           26.  09.  2017]  <http://www.lesytanap.sk/sk/tlacovespravy/sprava/naratali-           takmer-dvadsattisic-turistov/>           TOLMÁČI,  L.  Measures  of  Availability,  Conception  of  Term  and  Theoretical           Basis.  Acta  Facultatis  Rerum  Naturalium  Universitatis  Comenianae,           Geographica, 1998, 41: 175-191.           TOLMÁČI,  L.  Availability  of  Slovak  Towns  and  Cities.  Mapa  Slovakia  Škola,           2002.                                         Shrnutí           Účelom  príspevku  je  prostredníctvom  praktického  príkladu  poukázať  na           možnosti inovatívneho prístupu k výpočtom analýz dostupnosti. Inovatívnosť           nášho prístupu je založená na niekoľkých na seba nadväzujúcich špecifikách.           Prvým je skutočnosť že počítame s kumulatívnymi ukazovateľmi dostupnosti.           Nami  používaný  prístup  umožňuje  výpočet  kumulatívnej  dostupnosti  pre           každú časť siete nezávisle od jej veľkosti. To znamená, že pre ľubovoľnú časť           siete  vieme  identifikovať  mieru  jej  kumulatívnej  dostupnosti  vo  vzťahu           k vybranému  miestu.  Ďalším  špecifikom  je  počítanie  so  skutočnými                                           324","vzdialenosťami  v  3D  priestore.  Pre  zjednodušenie  komplexnosti  dopravných             sieti a pre značné výhody práce so sieťou ako s 3D objektom, sme pre anályzy             dostupnosti,  miesto  bežne  používanej  vektorovej  reprezentácie,  použili             rastrové  dátové  modelovanie.  Hlavnou  výhodou  rastrovej  reprezentácie  sú             hlavne  nemenné  implicitne  uložené  vzťahy  medzi  jednotlivými  bunkami,  čo             nám  umožňuje  ľahko  získať  množstvo  potrebných  údajov.  Pre  získanie  3-D             vzdialenosti  do  výpočtu  zarátavame  aj  sklony  danej  dopravnej  siete  získané             základnými  geomorfologickými  analýzami  digitálneho  modelu  reliefu.  Do             výpočtov konečnej časovej dostupnosti teda vstupujú reálne vzdialenosti čím             sa  výpočet  dostupností  stáva  presnejším  a  bližším  k  realite  v  porovnaní  so             zobrazeniami, ktoré ponákajú dvojrozmerné výpočty a dvojrozmerné mapy.             V  článku  implementujeme  nami  navrhovaný  prístup  analýzy  dostupností  do             konkrétneho  praktického  príkladu  situovaného  do  centrálnej  časti  Vysokých             Tatier. Inšpiráciou pre výber záujmových lokalít bola tlačová správa TANAPu,             v ktorej  bolo  vyčlenených  6  turistami  najnavštevovanejších  miest  Vysokých             Tatier:    Popradské  pleso,  Hrebienok,  Rysy,  Chata  pri  Zelenom  Plese,  Sliezky             dom a Kriváň. Dostupnosť týchto záujmových lokalít sme počítali a vyjadrovali             vo vzťahu k 15 železničným staniciam situovaných v blízkom okolí. Pre analýzy             dostupnosti, ako aj pre spracovávanie a vizualizáciu geopriestorových dát bol             použitý  systém  GRASS  GIS.  Výsledky  poukazujú  na  významný  rozdiel  pri             počítaní  dostupností  v  trojrozmernom  prostredí  oproti  pôvodným  2D             postupom.  Najväčší  rozdiel  sa  prejavil  pri  dostupnosti  Rysov  od  železničnej             stanice Tatranská Lomnica, kde rozdiel medzi 2D a 3D výpočtom predstavuje             až 20,5 km. V percentuálnom vyjadrení to znamená že 45,5% dĺžky trasy nie je             zobrazených  na  tradičných  dvojrozmerných  mapách.  Táto  skutočnosť  sa             premietla aj do výpočtov časovej dostupnosti kde nám vyšiel rovnaký 45,5%             rozdiel oproti pôvodným 2D výpočtom. Nami navrhovaný postup dostupnosti             môže  upresniť  výpočty  časovej  dostupnosti,  najmä  v  horskom             a vysokohorskom prostredí, ktoré je  špecifické vysokými hodnotami sklonov             reliéfu.                                                                    325","THE COMPUTATION OF REAL AREA USING GIS DEMONSTRATED ON                           MANAGEMENT OF INVASIVE PLANTS             Michal Ševčík, Petra Gašparovičová, Martina Zigová, Tomáš Rusňák, Imrich Jakab             Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Tr. A. Hlinku č. 1, 949 74 Nitra              michal.sevcik@ukf.sk, petra.gasparovicova@ukf.sk, martina.zigova@ukf.sk,                             tomas.rusnak@ukf.sk, ijakab@ukf.sk            Abstract:  Area  size  information  belong  among  the  most  basic  spatial  data           attributes.  They  are  not  only  a  part  of  most  geographical  studies,  but  also           many documents, conceptions, plans, strategies or activities connected with           conservation and protection of the environment. In the  most cases, area is           computed as 2-D surface without consideration of terrain roughness, which is           not equal to reality and this may cause significant distortion of real state. The           aim of our study is to compute the real 3-D area using raster analysis on digital           terrain  model  (DTM)  and  to  demonstrate  the  difference  between           conventional approaches used. Practical possibilities of use of this approach           are  demonstrated  on  the  real  examples  of  management  of  invasive  plant           species.           Key words: the real area, three-dimensional area, invasive plants, geographic           information systems, digital terrain model                                     INTRODUCTION           Area size information belong among the most basic spatial data attributes. In           present,  almost  every  GIS  software  (QGIS,  ArcGIS,  Grass  GIS,  Saga  GIS  etc.)           provides options  for area  size computation. The major problem lays in fact           that commonly used tools work with the area as a 2-D object. The real world           is three-dimensional, where every surface has its own specific character and           attributes. However, this is not taken into consideration and final results are           becoming distorted.           Area size information take place in a plenty of documentations, conceptions,           plans, strategies and activities connected with conservation and protection of           the  environment  or  any  kind  of  activities  related  to  a  land-use.  The  area           information  also  enters  the  land  adjustment,  exploring  of  the  landscape           structure, spatial statistics, trends of development and land-use planning or           the management of invasive plants in theoretical and practical level as well.           The management of these plant species is not only time-consuming, but also           requires huge amount of material resources and financial funds. In the most           cases, sources of these finances are the State budget, donations of sponsors,           foreign  projects,  etc.  (Cvachová  \&  Gojdičová,  2003).  The  European  Union           spends  about  12  billion  EUR  annually  for  invasive  species  control  and           elimination of the damage they have done. This amount of funds continues to           grow  every  year.  Based  on  The  State  Nature  Conservancy  of  the  Slovak           Republic data, the number of sites with the presence of these species arises                                            326","every year (www.sopsr.sk). Their expansive spreading is observed especially             on disused or disturbed sites and along highways and watercourses. As other             linear  elements  in  the  landscape,  rivers  represent  important  spreading             corridor  for  invasive  plants  (Pieretet  et  al.,  2008).  They  provide  a  suitable             habitat,  soil  seed  bank  and  support  their  spreading  especially  for  long             distances, what is the key process of biotic invasions (Parendes \& Jones, 2000;             Kowarik \& Säumel, 2008). Also, human-made relief forms, e.g. slopes of dikes             and dams, represent an important factor in a river inundation (Liendo et al.,             2015) Invasive plants and their cover can, especially on slopes (banks, dams,             etc.), cause erosion process.             The  presence  of  invasive  plants  near  watercourses  poses  a  serious  health,             ecological and economic threat. For this reason, their management requires             specific attention (Warren et al., 2015), and the most accurate data as actual             as possible.                                  MATERIALS AND METHODS             To demonstrate the real area computation, our research is located on a part             of  Handlovka  river  in  the  cadastre  of  Chrenovec-Brusno  (Prievidza  district,             Slovakia).  Selection  of  appropriate  area  of  interest  was  affected  by  several             phytocoenological papers aimed on the riparian vegetation of Handlovka river             (Bencová, 2015; Bencová et al., 2016). The conclusions of these papers show             a significantly high cover-range and frequent contiguous  stands presence of             invasive plant species at  several parts of the river.  Besides the presence of             contiguous  stands,  this  part  of  the  river  was  selected  also  for  its  terrain             heterogeneity (changes of the width and length of slopes, varying elevation),             therefore it has a character of appropriate representative sample.                                                                          327","Fig.  1.  a)  Orthophotograph  of  the  Handlovka  river  and  our  measured  points;           b) Interpolated DTM (2-D); c) Interpolated DTM (2.5-D); d) 2.5-D model of the           Handlovka river using free available EU DEM with 25x25m resolution.                                               328","As with most of the analyses, as well as the computation of the real area, the             quality of the input data plays a key role, mainly the quality of digital terrain             model (DTM).             Due to the spatial resolution of the currently available DTMs (e.g. EU, 2013             with the 25x25 m resolution) (Fig. 1d) and the specific characteristics of our             area of interest, and streams generally (relatively narrow computing area), for             obtaining  the  most  accurate  results,  we  have  decided  to  map  our  area  of             interest and create our own DTM.             Elevation data for DTM was obtained by RTK (Real Time Kinematic) method             using Topcon GRS-1 fully integrated dual-frequency GNSS receiver with < 1 cm             accuracy. Mean deviation of accuracy during whole  measurement of points             was 8mm (horizontal), 13mm (vertical). Using this receiver, totally 568 points             were measured on approximately 577 meters long river section (Fig. 1a). The             points were measured in the distance around 10 - 15 meters and at the parts             with the rapid slope change (change of the river bank size, terrain changes,             sediments  etc.).  Based  on  that,  we  were  able  to  digitalize  another  1952             auxiliary  points  from  originally  measured  points.  Each  auxiliary  point  was             localized  in  a  middle  of  two  original  points  with  a  new  value  (elevation)             calculated as an arithmetic mean of their elevations.             For a creation of DTM, we use open-source software GRASS GIS, which offers             many options of deterministic (Inverse Distance Squared Weighting, Splines,             etc.)   and   geostatistical   interpolation   techniques   (Kriging).   After             parameterization  of  several  models,  we  got  the  most  realistic  results  with             bicubic spline interpolation with Tykhonov regularization (v.surf.bspline). For             length  of  spline  step  in  the  east-west  and  north-south  direction  was  used             average minimum distance between all points (1.5 m). The value of lambda_i             parameter (Tykhonov regularization smoothing parameter) was chosen using             installed “leave-one-out” cross validation method (lambda_i=0.01). This small             lambda  parameter  ensures  that  interpolated  surface  closely  follows             observation points, so new values won’t rise above or fall below measured             values. Because of this suitable parametrization, specific character of our data             (relative  dense  point  cloud  capturing  all  rapid  slope  changes)  and  fact  that             spline-based  methods  fit  a  minimum-curvature  surface  through  the  input             points and ensure preservation of trend in the sample data along with rapid             changes in gradient or slope (Arun, 2013), spline gave us the most accurate             model, similar like in research of Pavlova (2017). Considering that our locality             has specific character (relatively narrow area with rapid changes in the slopes             of terrain) we had to choose a sufficient detailed resolution appropriate to the             average distances between individual points. The best results were achieved             with  0.25x0.25  m  resolution  (Fig.  1b,  Fig.  1c).  The  model  was  validated  by             comparison with originally measured points and with verification in the field.             As a first step in computation of the real area, it was necessary to find data on             the  slope  of  the  territory,  using  a  simple  geomorphological  analysis.  After             that, using basic trigonometry and map algebra, we are able to compute the             (real) area for each cell. In other words, the newly created raster layer has             recorded information about the real size of the cell in the real world (based on             its slope).                                                329","The last step for the computation of the real area is the overlay of this newly           created raster layer with the given interest area (in our case, the river slopes)           and the sum of the values of the overlapping cells.           We also mapped the occurrence of invasive species according to the list of           non-native, invasive and expansive plant species (Gojdičová et al., 2002).                                        RESULTS           The conceptual difference between the perception of the area of 2D and 3D           perspective can be seen in the Figure 2 and Figure 3.           As can be noted, the slope has a crucial role in the computation of the real           area size. While conventional 2D way of computation use bird's eye view to           compute  the  area  size,  the  slope,  as  only  one  dynamical  variable,  may,  in           some parts, increase the quantity of real area of tens of percent.           Tab. 1: Descriptive statistics of the slope-layer of interest area             Min [°]   Max [°]   Range [°]   Mean [°]   SD [°]    CV [%]              3.01    41.10     38.09     18.12       5.29        29.21           SD - Standard deviation; CV - Coefficient of variation            According to the Table 1, the average slope value of the area of the interest is           approximately 18.1°. Despite the relative board range of slopes, is the average           value  close  the  real  state,  what  also  shows  the  relative  narrow  standard           deviation  and  the  histogram  (Fig.  4)  representing  the  number  of  cells  for           single slope.           The  histogram  above  shows  relatively  high  river  bank  slope (12°-20°).           Especially  these  parts  are  more  vulnerable  to  erosion  and  soil  profile           disturbance. This can provide a competitive advantage for the invasive plant           species, so they can spread along the river. Moreover, management practice           for  embankments  can  cause  an  explosion  of  invasive  heliophiles  that  are           normally kept under.  Forming dense high  mats (3-5  m),  some of these (for           example Fallopia) prevent the visual inspection of the slope, what can often           distort, not just basically information about the degree of invasion by these           species, but also the actual state of river slopes (Evette et al., 2014).                          Fig. 2. 2-D view of the Handlovka river with the computational area.                                            330","Fig. 3. 2.5-D view of the Handlovka river in 2-D with the computational area and             the real boarders.              The difference in the land perception, after adding the third dimension, can             be  seen  at  the  Figure  5.  Substantial  number  of  cells  belong  to  the  interval             from  3 to 13%,  what equals  us discovered overall difference (8.684%).  This                                                   2             difference makes almost 16 ares (1598.775 m ) from conventional computed                                    2             2D area size of 18410.376 m .                                   Fig. 4. Histogram of the slope of area of interest.              The same relief effect was reflected in the size of the invasive plant species             populations, where the biggest covers was created by Helianthus tuberosus,                                             331","Aster  novi-begii,  Fallopia  xbohemica,  Solidago  canadensis  and  Robinia           presudoaccacia.                            Fig. 5. Percentage difference size of cells between 2D and 3D area.                                       DISCUSSION           Most of area computation tools uses several basic formulas. In case of raster           type data, the number of cells with non-NULL value is multiplied by area of           a single  cell.  Tools  working  with  vector  type  data  mostly  use  a  shoelace           formula,  also  known  as  the  Gauss’s  area  formula,  which  is  a  mathematical           algorithm that determines the area of a simple polygon, whose vertices are           described by ordered pairs in the plane (Szénási \& Csiba, 2014).           Options for 3-D area computation are less numerous. Advanced GIS software,           as Grass GIS or ArcGis (with 3D Analyst extension), offers tools for 3-D area           computation (r.surf.area, surface volume), but these compute area of regular           3-D triangulated points (centres of cells) in current region by adding areas of           triangles. Because this computation is based on points, not cells, the area data           for the DEM raster are decreased by a half of a cell relative to the area data           displayed    as     a    raster    image     (www.grass.osgeo.org;           www.resources.arcgis.com). It’s very important to note, that this method of           3-D area computation is performed on the newly created points and not the           original data. Because of this, the resulting data are only an estimate, which           may increase their inaccuracy.           At present, there are only few papers using one of the options for computing           the 3-D area and these are, in the most cases, focused on a specific problem           solution (Sanz-Albanedo et al., 2012) or use of a specific technology (Murphy           et al., 2008; Gesch, 2009). One of the main reasons may be the fact that this           type of computation heavily depends on data resolution (better resolution -           more  detailed  area  data).  However,  the  DTM  is  not  always  available  in           sufficient quality to demonstrate significant differences (Tab. 1).           One of the reasons may also be the low level of knowledge about 3-D area           computation  possibilities.  Area  size  information  has  been  used  long  time           before the origins of information technologies with their broad options. That           probably led to a routine perception of area only as a 2-D data.                                             332","2             In our example, we have found 8.684% difference (circa 1598 m ), between             the conventional 2-D computation and the real area computation, which was             performed on relatively small part of a river. Although it may not seem very             much, it should be noted that if we use the  full length  of the river  for the             computation,  which  is  32  km  (assuming  its  suitability  as  a  representative                                                                         2             sample), conventional method causes a loss of approximately 88667 m , i.e.             8,87 hectares.             It is also worth mentioning the fact that this situation in not typical only for             Handlovka river, but for all types of streams, equally for upland and lowland             streams. In the concept of the invasive plants management, this can multiply             increase  the  amount  of  information  about  the  area,  but  also  the  time  and             funds for their elimination.                                        CONCLUSION             Area is one of the basic inputs and standards for many activities connected             with  conservation  and  protection  of  the  environment,  from  simply  statistic             using, such as calculating cadaster area, population density, area of different             land-use sites, etc., to dealing with more complicated problems, for example             index  calculation  (Index of  Sustainable  Economic  Welfare,  Human             Development  Index),  measuring  of  ecological  footprint,  or  calculation  the             costs associated with an environmental accident.             Following  our  results,  the  difference  between  2D  and  3D  area  is  significant             especially in the indented relief, so using 3D area in practice is more suitable.             Information about the real area size allows more accurate assessment, even             change of the problems approach. Knowledge about the real area size, where             invasive  plants  can  be  found,  is  important  not  just  for  more  efficient             management, better estimation of financial means and time needed for their             elimination,  but  also  point  out  the  necessity  to  solve  the  problem  of  these             plants.              Acknowledgements: The work was supported by the projects VEGA 1/0608/16,             KEGA 025UKF-4/2015 and the grant project of the Ministry of Education of the             Slovak Republic and the Slovak Academy of Sciences No. 2/0171/16 “Changes             in Slovak Landscape Driven by European Union Agricultural Policy”.                                         REFERENCES             ARUN,  P.  V.  A  comparative  analysis  of  different  DEM  interpolation             methods. The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Science. 16 (2).             2013, 133-139.             BENCOVÁ, M. Invázne druhy rastlín brehových porastov Handlovky. Diplomová             práca. Nitra: UKF. 2014.             BENCOVÁ, M. Invázne druhy rastlín v riečnej krajine Hornonitrianskej kotliny.             Ekologické  štúdie.  Recenzovaný  vedecký  časopis  venovaný  aktuálnym             problémom ekológie, krajinnej ekológie a príbuzných vedných disciplín. 6(1).             2015,  38-46.                                              333","CVACHOVÁ,  A.,  GOJDIČOVÁ,  E.  Usmernenie  na  odstraňovanie  inváznych           druhov rastlín. Banská Bystrica: Štátna ochrana prírody SR, Centrum ochrany           prírody a krajiny, 2003. 68 s.           Esri, ArcGIS. Help,           https://resources.arcgis.com/en/help/main/10.1/index.html           #/Surface_Volume/00q900000027000000/ [2017.10.27].           EVETTE,  A.,  ZANETTI,  C.,  CAVAILLÉ,  P.,  DOMMANGET,  F.,  MÉRIAUX,  P.,  \&           VENNETIER, M. The paradox when managing the riparian zones of rivers with           engineered embankments in The French prealps. Safety management or the           promotion  of  biodiversity. Journal  of  Alpine  Research.  Revue  de  géographie           alpine. 2014,102-4.           GOJDIČOVÁ,  E.,  CVACHOVÁ,  A.,  KARASOVÁ,  E.  Zoznam  nepôvodných,           inváznych a expanzívnych cievnatých rastlín Slovenska 2. Banská Bystrica: ŠOP           SR. 2002. 17 p.           GRASS  Development  Team,  GRASS  GIS  7.2.3svn  Reference  Manual,           https://grass.osgeo.org/grass72/manuals/r.surf.area.html [2017.10.27].           GESCH, D. B. Analysis of lidar elevation data for improved identification and           delineation of lands vulnerable to sea-level rise. Journal of Coastal Research.           2009, 49-58. https://doi.org/10.2112/SI53-006.1           KOWARIK,  I.,    SÄUMEL,  I.  Water  dispersal  as  an  additional  pathway  to           invasions  by  the  primarily  wind-dispersed  tree  Ailanthus  altissima.  Plant           Ecology. 198 (2). 2008, 241-252.           LIENDO,  D.,  BIURRUN,  I.,  CAMPOS,  J.  A.,  HERRERA,  M.,  LOIDI,  J.,    GARCÍA-           MIJANGOS, I. Invasion patterns in riparian habitats: The role of anthropogenic           pressure  in  temperate  streams.  Plant  Biosystems.An  International  Journal           Dealing  with  all  Aspects  of  Plant  Biology.  149(2).  2015,  289-297.           https://doi.org/10.1080/11263504.2013.822434           MURPHY, P. N., OGILVIE, J., MENG, F. R., \& ARP, P. Stream network modelling           using lidar and photogrammetric digital elevation models: a comparison and           field  verification.  Hydrological  Processes.  22(12).  2008,  1747-1754.           https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6770           PAVLOVA, A. I. Analysis of elevation interpolation methods for creating digital           elevation  models. Optoelectronics,  Instrumentation  and  Data  Processing. 53           (2). 2017, 171-177.           PARENDES,  L.A.  JONES  J.A.  Role  of  light  availability  and  dispersal  in  exotic           plant  invasion  along  roads  and  streams  in  the  HJ  Andrews  Experimental           Forest, Oregon. Conservation Biology. 14(1). 2000, 64-75.           PIERET et al. 6th European Conference on Ecological Restoration, Ecological           Restoration : Towards a sustainable future for European ecosystems?, Ghent,           Belgium, 2008. 8 p.           SANZ-ABLANEDO, E., CHANDLER, J. \& IRVINE-FYNN, T. D. Studying glacial melt           processes  using  sub-centimeter  DEM  extraction  and  digital  close-range           fotogrammetry. Internation Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing           and  Spatial  Information  Sciences.  Vol.  XXXIX-B5,  pp.  435-440,  International           Archives  of  the  Photogrammetry,  Remote  Sensing  and  Spatial  Information                                            334","Science,   Melbourne,   Australia,   2012.   25.08.2012   conference.             https://doi.org/10.5194/isprsarchives-XXXIX-B5-435-2012             SZÉNÁSI, S. CSIBA, P. Clustering Algorithm. Order To Find Accident Black Spots             Identified  By  Gps  Coordiantes,  14th  Geoconference  On  Informatics,             Geoinformatics  And  Remote  Sensing, Bulgaria, 17-26.  June.  2014,  497-503             pp., Section Geoinformatics.             Štátna ochrana prírody, http://www.sopsr.sk/web/.             WARREN  II,  R.J.,  POTTS,  D.  L.,  FROTHINGHAM,  K.  M.  Stream  Structural             Limitations on Invasive Communities in Urban Riparian Areas. Invasive Plant             Science and Management. 8(3). 2015, 353-362. https://doi.org/10.1614/IPSM-             D-14-00081.1                                           Shrnutí             Informácie o rozlohách patria k základným atribútom priestorových údajov. Sú             súčasťou  nielen  väčšiny  geografických  výskumov,  ale  aj  mnohých  činností             a aktivít súvisiacich s tvorbou a ochranou životného prostredia a využívaním             krajiny. Problémom je, že bežne využívané nástroje rozlohu daného územia             považujú  za  2-D  objekt  a  nezohľadňujú  fakt,  že  skutočný  svet  nie  je             dvojrozmerný a každý reliéf má svoj špecifický charakter a vlastnosti. To má za             následok skreslenie výsledných hodnôt o rozlohách, ktoré majú v skutočnosti             trojrozmerný charakter.             V rámci nášho príspevku sa zameriavame na výpočet skutočnej trojrozmernej             rozlohy využitím rastrových analýz na digitálnom modely reliéfu a rovnako tak             poukazujeme  na  rozdiel  oproti  bežne  využívanému  prístupu.  Praktické             možnosti  využitia  tohto  prístupu  sú  demonštrované  na  reálnom  príklade             manažmentu  inváznych  druhov  rastlín  na  svahoch  rieky  Handlovka.  Pre  čo             najkvalitnejšie  výsledky,  špecifický  charakter  územia  (úzka  plocha)             a nedostatočnej  presnosti  dostupných  digitálnych  modelov  terénu,  sme  sa             rozhodli pre vytvorenie vlastného modelu, pomocou vysoko presného GNSS             prístroja a následného interpolovania v GRASS GIS. Z digitálneho modelu sme             následne  pomocou  geomorfologických  analýz,  základnej  trigonometrie             a mapovej algebry vyrátali skutočnú rozlohu pre každú bunku.             V  súčasnosti  je  len  veľmi  málo  prác  využívajúcich  niektorú  z  existujúcich             možností  výpočtu  3-D  rozlohy,  aj  napriek  tomu,  že  v  niektorých  prípadoch             môžu byt konečné rozdiely značné. V rámci nášho príkladu sme na relatívne             malom úseku rieky zistili medzi konvenčným 2-D spôsobom výpočtu rozlohy                                                                     2             a reálnou rozlohou 8.684% rozdiel čo predstavuje približne 1598 m . I keď sa             to nemusí zdať veľa, je potrebné uvedomiť si, že pri prepočte na celú dĺžku                                                                  2             toku, 32 km, sa konvenčným spôsobom stráca približne 88667 m , čiže 8.8667             hektárov.             Rozdiel medzi 2-D a 3-D rozlohou môže byť najmä v územiach s členitejším             reliéfom podstatný a preto je použitie 3-D reálnej rozlohy pre prax vhodnejšie.             Poznanie  skutočnej  rozlohy  územia  často  krát  umožňuje  efektívnejší  odhad             času  a  potrebných  finančných  prostriedkov  najmä  pri  mnohých             manažmentových činnostiach v krajine.                                               335","SELECTED INDICATORS OF COMPUTER LITERACY OF THE POPULATION IN                                       SLOVAKIA                        Katarína Vilinová, Gabriela Repaská, Laura Babjaková           Department of Geography and Regional Development, Faculty of Natural Sciences              Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Tr. A. Hlinku 1, 949 74, Nitra                kvilinova@ukf.sk, grepaska@ukf.sk, laura.babjakova@student.ukf.sk            Abstract: Due to the rapid growth of scientific knowledge and development of           information and communication technologies, significant changes are taking           place  in  individual  countries.  New  technologies  are  coming  to  the  fore           through which there is an increase in country's economy, employment as well           as labor productivity. To some extent, this fact is influenced by the ability of           basic computer skills. Computer handling is an essential knowledge important           to all areas of human life. Computer work is one of the leading characters of           an information society. At the same time, this indicator is also important from           the viewpoint of regional development of individual regions. The aim of the           paper is to characterize selected indicators of computer  literacy (work with           text and the Internet) in the districts of Slovakia based on the results of the           population  census  in  2011.  The  methods  of  analysis,  synthesis  as  well  as           graphical  and  cartographic  methods  will  be  the  main  methods  used  in  the           paper.           Key  words:  computer  literacy,  work  with  text,  work  with  the  Internet,           Slovakia, districts                         COMPUTER LITERACY OF THE POPULATION           The  current  21st  century  population  is  often  referred  to  as  an  information           society.  This  concept  is  related  to  the  development  of  information  and           telecommunication  technologies  which  affect  the  economies  in  individual           countries of the world as well as their inhabitants.           As  a  result  of  the  introduction  of  new  technologies  and  innovations,  the           countries have to adapt to this trend and maintain the pace of growth. At the           same time, considerable disparities in the development in different regions of           the  world  have  emerged.  Informatization  has  led  to  a  transition  from  an           industrial society to an informational society which is very closely related to           literacy.           Literacy  is  currently  a  very  broad-spectrum  concept  that  includes  several           other types (digital, computer, and information). These began to be separated           gradually with the development of civilization. The most basic understanding           is that it is the ability of a person to write, read and count.           Digital  literacy  includes  the  ability  to  understand  information  and  use  it  in           various formats from various sources presented through modern information           and communication technologies (Velšič, 2005). At present, however, it may           seem  that  this  term  is  only  a  synonym  of  computer  literacy  and  it  is  often                                           336","being interchanged. These two types of literacy have a close connection, but             not  the  same  meaning.  Digital  literacy  is  a  relatively  complex  phenomenon             which can be effectively expressed through a synthesizing indicator - Digital             Literacy Index (DLI). According to Svetlík, Bačíková (2015), the level of digital             literacy is specific to several aspects whether in terms of gender, educational             structure or other factors. Digital literacy includes also computer literacy and             complements  it  with  several  competencies  and  capabilities  that  enable             critical, creative and safe procedures to work with digital technologies in all             areas  of  life.  The  connection  to  education  from  primary  school  is  very             important  from  the  viewpoint  of  development  of  the  given  literacy             (Hosťovecký, Štubňa, 2012, Kramáreková et al., 2016).             In  today's  society,  great  emphasis  is  placed  on  information  literacy.  Its             importance grows gradually and it is important to every individual from the             aspect of both personal and professional life. This literacy is an indispensable             part  of  primary,  secondary  and  tertiary  education.  However,  it  gradually             becomes part of lifelong learning of the population. The information society is             defined by several authors e.g. Korcová (2004), Klinec, (2010), etc.             Computer literacy is generally understood as the ability of a person to handle             and use a personal computer. This concept is very difficult to precisely define             and  separate  from  information  or  digital  literacy.  According  to  Jirák,  Wolak             (2007), the computer literacy represents a set of knowledge and skills aimed             at handling and using the computer in life (work with a text program, tables,             graphs,  numerical  data,  acquiring  information  and  communicating  via             computer, using the Internet, e-mail account, etc.). One aspect of computer             literacy is its spatial differentiation. This phenomenon is analyzed in the young             population of Serbia by Stojanovic et al. (2017). They point to the differences             in both age and gender structure of this population group.                Indicators for the Evaluation of Computer Literacy of the Population in                                          Slovakia             In Slovakia, computer literacy has been paid close attention in recent years             since  it  lags  behind  the  European  average  regarding  the  level  of  individual             computer skills. In particular, it is the older generation which has difficulties in             adapting to the use of modern technologies. Increase in the level of computer             knowledge and skills is also important from the aspect of communication of             population  and  various  state  institutions.  Due  to  the  informatization  of             society, most of the services of state institutions are being mediated via the             Internet (Velšič, 2015).             The population census in Slovakia in 2011 (SODB 2011) included for the first             time  the  survey  on  the  computer  knowledge  of  the  population  i.e.  skills             related  to  the  computer  literacy.  For  the  first  time,  the  population  was             surveyed the level of selected computer skills. The census was a part of the             global  population  and  housing  census  program.  It  was  organized  in             cooperation with Eurostat and coordinated by the United Nations.             The  Statistical  Office  of  the  Slovak  Republic  surveyed  the  ability  of  the             population  to  handle  individual  computer  skills  which  they  identified  as             computer  literacy.  The  content  of  the  survey  was  not  to  find  the  level  of             handling  particular  skills,  but  only  the  fact  if  the  person  handles  the  given                                              337","skills  through  self-assessment.  The  survey  included  four  areas  of  computer           literacy: work with text, tables, e-mail, and the Internet.           During  the  SODB  2011,  Slovakia  had  5  397  036  inhabitants.  Based  on  the           census data, 49.9% of the population can work with text while 38.8% of them           can handle the work with tables. The  work with an e-mail was declared by           46.9% of the population and work with the Internet by 53.8% (Table 1).           Different  types  of  skills  belonging  to  computer  literacy  and  which  were           analyzed require different knowledge and skills. Work with the Internet is one           of the most basic skills in order to handle computer work. This skill is currently           handled  also  by  preschool  children  because  it  does  not  require  any  special           education.  The  second  highest  share  can  be  seen  in  the  work  with  text.           Nowadays, this skill is a necessity in some jobs as well as in education. It is           handled by about half of the population in Slovakia. Regarding the work with           table  editor  such  as  Microsoft  Excel,  the  lowest  percentage  of  population           (38.8%)  was  recorded.  This  computer  skill  is  mostly  used  by  people  with           higher education. This type of activity already requires more knowledge and           experience.  From  a  gender  perspective,  we  can  say  that  men  prevail  in  all           computer skills (Table 1) which means that male gender has a closer relation           to these technical skills.           Tab. 1: Computer skills of the population in Slovakia according to gender in 2011                                   Women           Men            Sum              Computer skills                                  Abs.    %      Abs.    %      Abs.    %           Work with text       1 303 601  24.2  1 387 415  25.7  2 691 016  49.9           Work with tables     1 033 876  19.2  1 062 327  19.7  2 096 203  38.8           Work with e-mail     1 245 998  23.1  1 287 623  23.9  2 533 621  46.9           Work with the Internet  1 445 372  26.8  1 460 002  27.1  2 905 374  53.8           Source: SODB 2011; elaborated by: Babjaková L., 2017            One  of  the  most  common  activities  in  the  computer  work  is  writing  and           editing text. Work with text usually belongs to the first activities with which           the computer beginners start to get familiar. The programs that are needed to           create a text are called text editors. There are a number of text editors from           different software companies. An example is Microsoft Word which is a part           of the most widely used office software called Microsoft Office.           At the regional level, we can see different representation of this skill, which is           documented  in  Graph  1.  The  highest  percentage  was  recorded  in  the           Bratislava  Self-governing  Region  (63.7%).  On  the  contrary,  the  Košice  Self-           governing Region reached the lowest value with 44.7% of the population who           can work with text.                                                   338","70                Share of population (%)                60                50                40                30                20                10                 0                                           Region                    Yes  No    Not found              Graph 1: Population with the ability to work with text in the regions of Slovakia             in 2011             Source: SODB 2011; elaborated by: Babjaková L., 2017              Map 1 documents the  studied indicator at the level of  districts in  Slovakia.             Significantly  above-average  values  can  be  seen  especially  in  the  districts             located  in  the  Bratislava  Self-governing  Region.  These  districts  are             accompanied by the Nitra District as well as six districts located mainly in the             central part of Slovakia. The highest values were reached by the districts of             Bratislava  V  (70.2%)  and  Bratislava  IV  (69.2%).  Below-average  values  of             handling this skill can be seen in the districts of Southern and Eastern Slovakia             with the exception of the districts of Humenné, Košice I, and Košice III.                                   Map 1: Population with the ability to work with text in the districts of Slovakia in             2011             Source: SODB 2011; elaborated by: Babjaková L., 2017                                              339","The created disparities between Western and Eastern Slovakia are caused by           different  educational  structure,  economic  activity  of  the  population  and  an           important  role  is  played  in  particular  by  larger  representation  of  the  Roma           minority  in  the  districts  of  Southern  and  Eastern  Slovakia.  Therefore,  the           lowest  values  were  reached  in  the  districts  of  Revúca  (37.8%),  Rimavská           Sobota (38.1%), and Kežmarok (39.3%) which in long-term belong to the least           developed districts of Slovakia from the viewpoint of several aspects.           The  second  studied  indicator  of  computer  literacy  was  the  work  with  the           Internet. The Internet is one of the information media that has spread very           quickly around the world and it still expands. It is the name for a system for           viewing, storing and creating links to documents on the Internet.               70               60              Share of population (%)  40               50                30               20               10                0                                             Region                 Yes     No    Not found           Graph 2: Population with the ability to work with the Internet in the regions of           Slovakia in 2011           Source: SODB 2011; elaborated by: Babjaková L., 2017            During the census (2011), work with the Internet was the most widely used           skill of computer literacy. The highest value at the level of the regions was           reached  by  the  Bratislava  Self-governing  Region  (66.1%)  and  Žilina  Self-           governing Region (56.4%). Similarly to the previous indicator, the Košice Self-           governing Region again maintained its unfavorable position with a share of           about 50%. Unlike the previous indicator, the differences in individual regions           of Slovakia are less significant (Graph 2).                                                          340","Map 2: Population with the ability to work with the Internet in the districts of             Slovakia in 2011             Source: SODB 2011; elaborated by: Babjaková L., 2017              Map 2 documents the ability of inhabitants to work with the Internet in the             districts of Slovakia. Similarly to previous indicator, districts of the Bratislava             Self-governing  Region  are  dominant.  The  above-average  values  were  also             recorded  in  these  districts:  Nitra,  Námestovo,  Dolný  Kubín,  Žilina,             Ružomberok, Liptovský Mikuláš, Banská Bystrica, and Zvolen. Below-average             values  were  reached  by  the  districts  in  southern  and  southeastern  part  of             Slovakia.  The  lowest  share  of  Internet  users  was  in  Revúca  (41.4%).  This             indicator  is  also  affected  by  the  broadband  internet  connection  and  its             coverage in the regions. The problem is the lack of quality electronic services             and  the  development  of  access  networks.  The  access  networks  are  built             mainly  in  cities  and  municipalities  with  high  population  density  or             concentration  of  business  activities.  Rural  and  mountainous  areas  and             economically  weak  regions  remain  on  the  margin  of  interest.  It  is  these             regions where the assistance is directed as a part of the regional development             of  Slovakia.  From  the  viewpoint  of  the  availability  of  broadband  internet             connction,  Slovakia  clearly  belongs  to  the  least  developed  EU  countries             despite the dynamic increase in connections.             From  the  viewpoint  of  the  development  of  Internet  usage,  we  can  see             a relatively increasing trend in the studied period of 2004 - 2016 (Graph 3).             There were no significant fluctuations during the studied period, but the use             of the Internet increased by 3.6% on average from year to year. The greatest             progress was in 2007 and 2008. By 2007, the share of Internet users increased             by  8%  to  51%  and  in  2008  it  was  by  11%  to  62%.  The  overall  increase  in             Internet  usage  during  this  years  is  also  related  to  the  development  of             broadband  internet  coverage  in  Slovakia  which  the  government  set  in  the             programming  period  of  2007  -  2013  as  one  of  the  priorities  in  the  field  of             informatization  of  the  society.  The  only  decrease  in  the  studied  period             occurred in 2015 when the share of Internet users dropped by two percent to                                              341","74%. By 2016, 78% of the population in Slovakia had the ability to work with           the Internet.                100               Share of population (%)  60                80                  40                20                 0                    2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016                                            Year            Graph 3: Population with the ability to work with the Internet in Slovakia during           the years 2004-2016           Source: EUROSTAT; elaborated by: Babjaková L., 2017            Graph 4 documents the development of Internet usage among the population           of  V4  countries  from  2004  to  2016.  In  the  context  of  the  comparison  of           Slovakia  with  other  V4  countries,  we  can  see  a  relatively  favorable           development.               100               Share of  population (%)  60                80                   40                 20                  0                    2 004 2 005 2 006 2 007 2 008 2 009 2 010 2 011 2 012 2 013 2 014 2 015 2 016                                          Year                                 Czech Republic         Hungary            Graph 4: Population with the ability to work with the Internet in V4 countries           during the years 2004-2016           Source: EUROSTAT; elaborated by: Babjaková L., 2017            The largest share of the population with the ability to work with the Internet           between 2004 and 2014 was in Slovakia. Since 2014, Czechia took a leading           position while Slovakia and Hungary recorded approximately the same values.           In  terms  of  the  change  index  from  the  first  to  the  last  studied  year,  the                                             342","greatest  progress  was  recorded  in  the  Slovak  population  with  the  value  of             51.3%.                                        CONCLUSION             Computer  literacy  of  the  population  is  a  topic  that  has  been  paid  much             attention in recent years. It is an important aspect for the country and points             to its development. It is important to know for the society, professionals and             institutions  how  the  population  acquires  the  skills  to  work  with  new             technologies such as computers.             As for the studied indicators of computer skills of the population in Slovakia in             2011,  we  can  see  significant  differences  in  the  west-east  direction.  The             western part of Slovakia is economically more developed and more educated             as  a  result  of  which  it  recorded  the  highest  shares  of  the  population  with             computer  skills.  On  the  contrary,  the  eastern  part  of  Slovakia  is  typical  for             districts that have long been defined as the least developed regions in terms             of several indicators. An example is the lower educational level or economic             activity  of  the  population.  We  can  also  see  considerable  differences  in  the             north-south direction where there is a clear lagging of the southern part of             Slovakia behind the northern part.             In  terms  of  the  development  and  dynamics  of  the  two  main  indicators  of             computer  work  (work  with  e-mail,  work  with  the  Internet),  Slovakia  has  a             positive  development  in  comparison  with  other  V4  countries.  By  the  year             2016,  71%  of  the  population  in  Slovakia  was  capable  of  working  with  the             Internet and 78% with an e-mail. Computer literacy is a necessary prerequisite             for  life  in  today's  modern  society.  We  can  assume  that  along  with  the             increasing  living  standard  of  the  population  the  differences  in  computer             knowledge in Slovakia will decrease and the share of inhabitants capable of             computer work will increase. We assume that this trend will be confirmed by             the census in 2021.              Acknowledgements: This paper was prepared within the grant project VEGA             1/0934/17: Land-use changes of Slovak cultural landscape over the past 250             years and prediction of its further development.                                         REFERENCES             HOSŤOVECKY,  M.,  STUBNA,  J.,  2012.  Development  of  digital  literacy  in             technical subjects at primary schools. In: 10th IEEE International Conference             on Emerging eLearning Technologies and Applications (ICETA)Location: Stara             Lesna: 2012. pp. 139-141             JIRÁK,  J.,  WOLÁK,  R.  2007.  Mediální  gramotnost  jako  dimenze  současného             člověka. 1. vyd. Praha: Radioservis, 2007. 152 s. ISBN 978-80-86212-58-6.             KLINEC,  J.  2010.  Ekonomická  podstata  prechodu  k  informačnej  spoločnosti.             Bratislava: Ekonomický ústav SAV, 2010. 38 s. [cit. 2017-06-30]. Dostupné na             internete:  <http://www.ekonom.sav.sk/uploads/journals/WP26.pdf>.  ISSN             1337–5598.                                                343","KORCOVÁ,  Z.  2004.  Informačná  spoločnosť  a  SR.  In:  Zborník  z  vedeckej           konferencie  „Aktuálne  problémy  riešené  v  agrokomplexe“  Nitra:  SPU,  2004,           s. 545-551. ISBN 80-8069-488-6.           KRAMARÉKOVÁ,  H.,  NEMČÍKOVÁ,  M.,  RAMPAŠEKOVÁ,  Z.,  SVORAD,  A.,           DUBCOVÁ,  A.,  VOJTEK,  M.  2016.  Cartographic  Competence  of  a  Geography           Teacher – Current State and Perspective. In: Bandrova, T., Konečný, M. (eds.)           6th International Conference on Cartography \& GIS: vol. 1, 2016. pp. 200-209.           ISSN 1314-0604. https://doi.org/10.18421/GP21.01-04           STOJANOVIC,  T.,  PENJISEVIC,  I.,  LUKIC,  T.,  ZIVKOVIC,  J.  Computer  literacy  of           young people in Serbia and regional differences. In: Geographica Pannonica.           vol. 21 (1). pp. 43-53. https://doi.org/10.18421/GP21.01-04           SVETLIK, J., BACIKOVA, Z., 2015. Digital natives immigrants and literacy, age           and gender differences in Slovakia. In: International Scientific Conference on           Marketing Identity – Digital Life Location: Smolenice: 2015, pp. 331-342           VELŠIČ, M. 2005. Digitálna gramotnosť na Slovensku. Bratislava: Inštitút pre           verejné  otázky.  2005.  31  s.  [cit.  2017-07-10].  Dostupné  na  internete:           <http://www.ivo.sk/buxus/docs//vyskum/subor/Digitalna_gramotnost.pdf>.           VELŠIČ, M. 2015. Digitálna gramotnosť na Slovensku. Bratislava: Inštitút pre           verejné  otázky.  2015.  31  s.  [cit.  2017-07-10].  Dostupné  na  internete:           <http://www.ivo.sk/buxus/docs//publikacie/subory/Digitalna_gramotnost_20           15.pdf>.                                                                            344","HUMAN GEOGRAPHY                        DEMOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT IN SLOVAKIA IN 2016                                          Miloš Bačík                 The Catholic University in Ružomberok, Faculty of Education, Department of                         geography, Hrabovská cesta 1, 034 01 Ružomberok                                      milos.bacik@ku.sk              Abstract: Demographic development in Slovakia corresponds to the long-term             trend which originates in the change of the social system. In the 1990s, it was             characterized particularly by a decreasing number of marriages and abortions,             increasing  divorce  rate,  a  sharp  decline  in  birth  and  fertility  rates,  rising             unemployment,  a  low  nominal  wage  and  a  high  price  level  of  goods  and             services.             This demographic development was reflected in the deterioration of the key             synthetic  indicators  which  are  in  the  long  term  below  the  threshold  of             sustainable growth. The age structure of the population was transformed by             significant  changes  in  the  attitude  towards  reproduction.  The  shifts  in  age             groups and the prolongation of human life have led to deepening the process             of population ageing.             In  the  present  paper  we  focused  on  the  brief  characteristics  of  the             demographic processes which to a different extent and scope influenced the             demographic development in Slovakia in 2016. The concept of the paper is             based on the data provided by the Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic,             and the classical analysis is  used as the main  method.  Graphical (especially             cartographic) outputs in the form of thematic maps are the main contribution             of the paper.             Key words: population, demographic processes, age structure, Slovakia                                       INTRODUCTION             Population  development  in  2016  is  similar  to  the  previous  period  of  a  low             annual population growth (Table 1). Its origin is associated with changes in the             social  system,  which has led to a “fall” in the whole range of demographic             indicators,  and  to  a  significant  slowdown  in  the  quantitative  population             growth.  Over  the  five  years  (1990-1994),  for  example,  the  number  of  live             births decreased from 79,989 to 66,370 (Podolák 1996), and in the course of             fifteen years (1989-2003), Slovakia moved to the European ranking from the             group with the highest fertility rates in the group with the lowest fertility rate             (Vaňo 2005).             The age structure has significantly changed. The shifts in age groups and the             prolongation of human life have led to deepening the process of population             ageing.                                              345","In  the  present  paper  we  focused  on  the  brief  characteristics  of  the           demographic processes which to a different extent and scope influenced the           demographic development in Slovakia in 2016. The concept of the paper is           based on the data provided by the Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic,           and the classical analysis is  used as the main  method.  Graphical (especially           cartographic) outputs in the form of thematic maps are the main contribution           of the paper.           Tab. 1: Demographic development in Slovakia in 1990 - 2016            Year     Population size    Increase / decrease   Growth rate (%)            1990       5 310 711               -                   -            1995       5 367 790            57 079               1,07            2000       5 378 783            10 993               0,20            2005       5 389 180            10 397               0,19            2010       5 392 446             3 266               0,06            2015       5 426 252            33 806               0,63            2016       5 435 343             9 091               0,17             Source: ŠÚ SR                         MARRIAGE, DIVORCE AND ABORTION RATES           According  to  the  statistics  provided  by  the  Statistical  Office  of  the  Slovak           Republic (2017), 29,897 couples got married in Slovakia, which was 1122 more           than in 2015. Gross marriage rate increased by 0.1 point to 5.5 ‰. The last           decade  of  the  timeline  is  characterized  by  only  a  slight  fluctuation  in  the           number  of  new  marriages  and  a  low  level  of  the  marriage  rate  in  the  long           term.  The  rates  are  affected  by  the  number  and  age  of  couples  that  can           potentially get married. For a higher number of people ready for marriage, the           most  important  is  the  age  group  25-29.    From  this  age  group,  there  were           8,937 bridegrooms (29.9%) and 11,340 brides (37.9%) in 2016. The average           marriage age was in the age group 29-34, namely 33.6 years in men and 30.7           years in women. Even though the relatively strong generation of young people           born in late 1980s entered the marriage age, the trend in marriage rates did           not change especially for economic and social reasons. According to the civil           status  of  the  partners,  new  marriages  were  formed  by  single  bridegrooms           (85.6%) and single brides (86.7%), divorced men (13.8%) and divorced women           (12.8%),  and  widowed  men  (0.6%)  and  widowed  women  (0.5%).  In  the           structure of the population according to civil status, there is an increase in the           proportion of divorced men  and divorced women, and also single men and           single women. On the other hand, the proportion of married men and married           women declines, and the proportion of widowed men and widowed women           remains at about the same level. The credit of the marriage fell, despite the           dominant Christian-Catholic value orientation of the population, and some of           the  population  did  not  consider  it  necessary  for  the  upbringing  of  children           (Bačík 2016b). The picture of the gross marriage rate according to districts has           not  changed  (Map  1).  Traditionally  higher  marriage  intensity  is  recorded  in           Northern  and  Eastern  Slovakia,  lower  in  the  south  of  the  country.  Higher           marriage  rate  was  recorded  in  the  capital  city.  The  difference  between  the           highest  and  the  lowest  gross  marriage  rates  was  3.72  points  in  2016.           Favourable figures above 7 ‰ were reported from two districts, Bratislava V           and Bratislava I, less favourable at the level of 4 ‰ were reported from the           districts of Detva, Turčianske Teplice and Poltár.                                           346","In 2016, out of overall 9,800 completed divorce proceedings 9,286 marriages             were divorced, which was 482 less than in the previous year. Gross divorce             rate  declined  by  0.1  point  to  1.7  ‰.  There  were  31  divorces  per  100             marriages. Of the total number of divorced marriages, 5.4 thousand (57.9%)             were married couples with minor children, of which 3.1 thousand with one             child, 1.9 thousand with two and 0.4 thousand with three or more children.             35.7%  of  the  marriages  were  divorced  on  the  man's  proposal.  The  average             length of a divorced marriage was 15.6 years. The most common reasons for             marriage  disruption  claimed  by  men  were  differences  in  personalities,             opinions  and  interests  (66.1%),  other  causes  (10.1%)  and  infidelity  (9.4%).             Women proposed divorce mostly due to differences in personalities, opinions             and interests (66.1%), other reasons (12.1%), and in 10.7% of cases the court             did not identify the fault. Similarly to the marriage rates, the picture of the             gross divorce rate has not changed. A lower level of divorce was recorded in             Northern and Eastern Slovakia, a higher level in the south, the southwest and             a  part  of  Central  Slovakia.  The  difference  between  the  highest  and  lowest             values of the gross divorce rate was 1.71 points in 2016. Favourable values             below 1 ‰ were recorded in the districts of Sabinov, Námestovo, Kežmarok             and  Stará  Ľubovňa,  less  favourable  in  Malacky  (2.87)  and  Bánovce  nad             Bebravou (2.42).             In 2016, abortion ended 15,277 pregnancies, which was 360 less than in the             previous year. The gross abortion rate dropped to 2.8 ‰. After a significant             increase in abortion in 1988, which followed the adoption of the law of SNR             no.  73/1986  Coll.,  which  abolished  the  interruption  commissions  and  the             artificial interruption of pregnancy was practically available to every woman             (Halašová 1991), almost to a continuous decrease in the number of abortions             (especially artificial). In the 1990s, the number of abortions was reduced by an             average of a thousand per year, in the  last decade it was by hundreds per             year.  The  reduction  of  the  specific  abortion  rate  in  2007  -  2016  was  most             significant in age groups 30-34 (by 3.1 points), 20-24 (by 2.5 points) and 25-29             (by 1.9 points). The absolute majority of abortions is associated with the age             group  of  30-34  year-old  women,  whereas  their  number  was  about  4.7             thousand. Out of the total number, 49.3% abortions were performed to single             women  and  40.9%  to  married  women.  In  terms  of  the  number  of  minors,             31.4%  of  childless  women,  28.4%  of  mothers  with  one  child  and  25.6%  of             mothers with two children have aborted. In terms of regions (Map 2), a low             index of induced abortion rate was recorded in the districts of Sabinov (1.48%)             and  Námestovo  (2.49%).    On  the  contrary,  Levice  (37.99%)  and  Púchov             (37.01%) reported high values.                                                           347","Map 1: Crude marriage rate in Slovakia                                BIRTH AND FERTILITY RATES           In 2016, 57,557 live children were born, which was 1,955 more than in the           previous year.  Gross birth rate increased by 0.3 points to 10.6  ‰.  The last           decade  of  the  timeline  is  characterized  by  a  moderate  fluctuation  in  the           number  of  newly  born  children,  while  the  level  of  the  gross  birth  rate           remained  low  in  the  long  term.  The  female  reproductive  period  practically           ends around the age of 40, and the maximum fertility rate lies currently in age           from 27 to 32 years (Figure 1). In 2016, the number of women aged 27-32           reached  244.4  thousand,  which  was,  compared  to  2007,  less  by           32.1 thousand. Despite the fact that the number of women decreased at the           given intervals, there was a moderate birth rate increase, as evidenced by the           synthetic  values  of  the  gross  reproduction  rate  (0.61  or  0.72),  net           reproduction rates (0.6 or 0.71) and total fertility rates (1.25 or 1.48). The net           reproduction rate is in a long term (since 1989) below the level of “1” (Tirpak -           Adamica  1995)  and  this  trend  continued  in  the  monitored  year.  The  above           figure, 0.71, tells us that during one generation of women, while keeping the           current level of their fertility and mortality, the number of potential mothers                      1           decreased by  / 3 .                                                     348","Map 2: Induced abortion rate in Slovakia              Out of the total number of live births, 34,421 (59.8%) children were born to             married couples and 23,136 (40.2%) were born to unmarried couples. Over             the last decade, the proportion of unmarried people has increased by more             than 11 points. The structure of live-born children according to the birth order             did not change much. In the first order, 46.4% of children were born, which             was less by 0.8 points compared to 2007, the share of children born as the             second rose slightly (from 32.0 to 34.2%) and the third order remained at the             same  level.  The  proportion  of  children  born  in  higher  orders  declined.             A decisive part of children was born to women from age groups 30-34 (31.0%)             and  25-29  (29.9%).  Higher  specific  fertility  rate  (84.1  ‰  or  87.6  ‰)  is             characteristic for the above intervals.  A major increase in fertility compared             to 2007 was mainly in age groups 30-34 (by almost 19 points) and 35-39 (by             more  than  14  points).  From  the  point  of  view  of  individual  districts,  higher             gross  birth  rates  (above  15  ‰)  were  characteristic  for  the  districts  of             Námestovo  and  Sabinov.  The  lowest  birth  rate  (7.37)  was  in  the  district  of             Banská  Štiavnica,  a  low  birth  rate  (just  below  8  ‰)  in  the  districts  of             Humenné, Turčianske Teplice and Medzilaborce.                                                            349","Fig. 1. Age - specific fertility rates in Slovakia.           Source: ŠÚ SR                                       MORTALITY           In 2016, 52,351 persons deceased, which was by 1,475 persons less than in           the previous year. The gross mortality rate decreased by 0.3 point to 9.6 ‰.           Only a slight fluctuation in the number of deaths at the over a long period           stable level of gross mortality rate is characteristic for the last decade of the           timeline. Except for the age group above 75 (in 2016 also in the age group 5 -           9), the mortality rate in men is in the long run higher than in women. In 2016,           for example, in each of the age groups 20-24 to 55-59, over 70% deaths were           in men. Infant mortality is gradually becoming insignificant in statistics, which           is  also  proved  by  the  data  in  the  reference  year.  The  proportion  of  deaths           within  one  year  of  the  total  deaths  remained  at  the  level  of  the  last  year           (0.6%)  and  the  gross  infant  mortality  rate  slightly  increased  to  5.3  ‰.  The           mean life expectancy for both sexes increased: for men to 73.7 years and for           women it exceeded 80 years. The greatest number of deaths was caused by           circulatory system diseases - 25,240 and tumors - 13,564. The two groups of           causes of death represented 74.1% of all deaths. The lowest gross mortality           rate was recorded in the districts of Tvrdošín (6.33), Námestovo  (6.78) and           Košice III (6.94). Significantly higher mortality rate than the average (9.64) was           recorded  in  the  districts  of  Myjava  (13.39),  Bratislava  I  (12.84),  Turčianske           Teplice (12.76) and Nové Zámky (12.42).                                       MIGRATION           Migration is one of the demographic phenomena that respond very rapidly to           societal change (Bačík 2016a). After 1989, it was reflected in the intensity and           character  of  foreign  migration,  as  well  as  in  changes  in  internal  migration           (significant decrease in volume and intensity). In 2016, nearly 7,700 foreign                                            350","nationals moved to Slovakia and 3,800 Slovak nationals moved out of Slovakia.             The Slovak Republic has gained almost 3,900 inhabitants by foreign migration,             which was by 800 more than in the previous year. An increase in the volume             of  migration  in  its  year-on-year  fluctuations  is  characteristic  for  the  last             decade  of  the  timeline.  The  migratory  balance  did  not  have  a  clearly  rising             trend. It was the highest (almost 7.1 thousand) in 2008 and the lowest in 2014             (1.7 thousand).  In  terms  of  individual  countries,  besides  the  Czech  Republic             (1.7 thousand)  the  most  people  moved  to  Slovakia  from  Great  Britain             (1.0 thousand), Austria (0.6 thousand), Hungary (0.5 thousand) and Romania             (0.5 thousand).  From  Slovakia,  most  people  moved  to  the  Czech  Republic             (1.2 thousand), Austria (0.9 thousand) and Germany (0.3 thousand).             In the context of internal migration, in the last decade in Slovakia, the mobility             is  characterized  by  a  migration  volume  of  90,000  people.  In  2016,             95.8 thousand  persons  changed  their  permanent  residence,  which  is  by             5.0 thousand  more  than  in  2015.  The  number  of  people  changing  their             residence increased by 0.9 points to 17.6 ‰ (per 1,000 people). More than a                                                    2             half  of  the  migrants  were  single  and  almost  / 3   of  them  reported  housing             reasons and joining a  family  member as the most frequent reasons  for the             move. 45% of migrants moved between municipalities within the district and             between  districts  within  the  county  (about  30%).  31  districts  reported             population growth due to migration (Map 3). A migration boom was recorded             in the district of Senec (37.07 ‰), higher values in the range of 10 - 15 ‰             were reported only in the districts of Bratislava III and I, Malacky and Pezinok.             Most  significant  was  the  population  migration  in  the  district  of  Košice  III  (-             12.23), followed by the districts of Bratislava V (-6.48), Košice II (-5.31) and             Humenné (-5.16).                POPULATION GROWTH, STRUCTURE AND NUMBER OF INHABITANTS             As  a  result  of  the  natural  migration  of  Slovak  people  in  2016,  the  natural             growth was 5.2 thousand persons, which was significantly higher than in the             previous  year  (1.8  thousand).  These  values  were  reflected  in  the  natural             growth rate which increased by 0.7 point to 1.0 ‰. The migration increment             was  also  higher  (0.7  ‰)  and  so  was  the  total  growth  (1.7  ‰).  Kežmarok             (9,29), Námestovo (8,84) and Sabinov (8,50) reported a higher gross natural             growth. Population decline was recorded in 41 districts, especially in Myjava (-             5.35)  and  Turčianske  Teplice  (-  4.85).  A  similar  situation  was  in  the             development of the overall population growth. In 43 districts, the total growth             was negative, ranging from -0.03 to -8.49 ‰.                                                           351","Map 3: Crude rate of net migration in Slovakia            The  structure  of  the  population  of  Slovakia  according  to  main  age  groups,           compared to the previous year changed in the fact that the proportion of the           population in the post-productive age increased by 0.5 point to 15.0%, in the           working-age  decreased  by  0.7  point  (69.5%)  and  in  the  pre-productive  age           (15.5%) remained almost unchanged.  Continuing ageing of the population is           characteristic for the last decade of the timeline. The proportion of the infant           component  was  slightly  reduced  due  to  low  birth  rates.  There  was  also           a decrease  in  the  proportion  of  the  active  component  because  the  larger           cohorts  born  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century  are  now  at  the  end  of  the           productive age in the age pyramid or they start to exceed this age. This is why           -  even  to  improve  mortality  rates,  there  is  a  significant  increase  in  the           proportion  of  the  old-age  component.  The  process  of  more  intensive           population ageing is also documented by age indicators (Table 2). The average           age  is  above  the  age  of  40,  the  aging  index  reached  97.0%  (from  2007  it           increased  by  21  points)  and  the  economic  burden  index  was  at  43.8%.           According  to  the  forecast  of  the  population  development  of  the  Slovak           Republic (Bleha -  Šprocha - Vaňo 2013) in 2060, approximately 220 seniors           will be allocated to 100 children.           As of December 31. 2016 Slovakia had 5,435.3 thousand inhabitants, of which           women  accounted  for  51.2%.  1,000  men  accounted  for  1,050  women.  The           population  of  Slovakia  lived  in  2,927  municipalities.  There  were  1,857           inhabitants per municipality. The population of Slovakia increased by 0.17% in           2016.                                                 352","Tab.  2:  Development  in  selected  characteristics  of  the  age  structure  of  the             Slovak population in 1990 - 2016               Year      0-14 / 65+  (%)   Average    Ageing       Economic                                            age        index     burden index               1990       25.1 / 10.4       33.6       41.4          54.9               1995       22.3 / 10.9       34.5       49.2          49.8               2000       19.2 / 11.5       36.0       59.8          44.3               2005       16.6 / 11.7       37.4       70.7          39.5               2010       15.3 / 12.4       38.7       81.0          38.6               2015       15.3 / 14.5       40.1       94.2          42.4               2016       15.5 / 15.0       40.4       97.0          43.8               Source: ŠÚ SR                                        CONCLUSION             Population  development  in  Slovakia  in  2016  almost  did  not  differ  from  the             demographic situation in the previous year, except for the higher number of             marriages closed. In the context of the ten years development, there were no             major  changes.  Marriages  are  low  in  the  long  run  (despite  a  moderate             increase in the last period), divorce rate, although declining year on year, high             and  artificial  abortion  continues  to  decrease  but  disproportionately  lower             than in the 1990s. Both the net reproduction rate and the total fertility rate             are still below the critical  value of 1.0 resp. 1.5. The gross mortality rate is             long-term stabilized. It ranges between 9.5 and 10.0 ‰. The relative values of             natality were slightly higher than mortality rates each year, thus recording a             continuous but moderate natural increase. From the point of view of foreign             migration,  more  people  moved  to  Slovakia  as  they  moved  out  of  it.  The             migration  balance  with  its  low  value  did  not  affect  the  overall  population             growth.             The  course  of  demographic  processes  is  reflected  in  population  structures,             especially age, for which the ongoing aging process is characterized. The share             of the child component is gradually offset by the component of 65 + yearly (in             2016 the difference was only 0.5 points).             Population  development  is  ambiguous,  in  many  ways  difficult  to  predict  in             migration in particular. In the Slovak population, children will die at low levels             of  fertility,  later  probably  grandchildren.  Apparently,  the  proportion  of             children  raised  by  both  stable  parents  will  drop  and  the  relative  growth  of             children born outside marriage will continue.              Thanks:  Contribution  was  created  with  support  of  internal  grant  GAPF  no.             02/12/2017.                                         REFERENCES             BAČÍK, M. Populačný vývoj na Slovensku v roku 2015. In: Nováček A. Sborník             příspěvků  z Výroční  konference  ČGS.  Geografické  myšlení  jako  aktuální             společenská  výzva.  České  Budějovice:  Jihočeská  univerzita  v Českých             Budějovicích, 2016a, s. 135 - 143. ISBN 978-80-7394-619-7                                                353","BAČÍK, M. Populácia Slovenska z pohľadu druhého demografického prechodu.           In:  Dubcová  A.  a  kol.  Geografické  informácie.  Nitra:  Univerzita  Konštantína           Filozofa v Nitre, 2016b, roč. 20, č. 2, s. 10 - 23. ISSN 1337-9453           BLEHA, B., ŠPROCHA,  B., VAŇO, B. Prognóza populačného vývoja Slovenskej           republiky  do  roku  2060.  Bratislava:  INFOSTAT/Výskumné  demografické           centrum, 2013. ISBN 978-80-89398-23-2           HALAŠOVÁ, E. Vývoj potratovosti na Slovensku. Statistika. Praha: FSÚ, 1991, č.           12, s. 553 - 556 [30. 09. 2017]. ISSN 0322-788x           PODOLÁK, P. Vývoj obyvateľstva na Slovensku v r. 1989 - 1994. Geografický           časopis. Bratislava: SAV, 1996, roč. 48, č. 1.,  s. 35 - 45 [15. 09. 2017]. ISSN           0016-7193           ŠTATISTICKÝ  ÚRAD  SR.  Štatistika  v súvislostiach:  Hlavné  trendy  populačného           vývoja v SR v roku  2016. [Online].  Bratislava: Ústredie ŠÚ  SR, 2017, [10.  09.           2017]. Dostupné z: http//slovak.statistics.sk  ISBN 978-80-8121-605-3           ŠTATISTICKÝ ÚRAD SR. Pohyb obyvatelstva v Slovenskej republike v roku 2016           (Pramenné dielo). [Online]. Bratislava: Ústredie ŠÚ SR, 2017, [20. 09. 2017].           Dostupné z: http//slovak.statistics.sk           TIRPÁK, M., ADAMICA, F. Populačný vývoj v Slovenskej republike v roku 1994.           Demografie. Praha: ČSÚ,1995, roč. 37, č. 4, s. 254-266 [15. 09. 2017].           ISSN 0011-8265           VAŇO, B. (2005):  Populačný vývoj na Slovensku po roku 1990. Demografie.           Praha: ČSÚ, 2005, roč. 47, č. 2, s. 103 - 112 [15. 09. 2017]. ISSN 0011-8265                                         Shrnutí           Vývoj  populace  na  Slovensku  v  roce  2016  se  téměř  v  ničem  nelišil  od           demografické situace v předchozím roce s výjimkou vyššího počtu uzavřených           sňatků.  V  kontextu  vývoje  za  deset  let  nenastaly  podstatnější  změny.           Sňatečnost  je  dlouhodobě  nízká  (navzdory  mírnému  vzrůstu  v  posledním           období),  rozvodovost,  i  když  meziročně  klesla,  vysoká  a  umělá  potratovost           nadále  klesá,  ale  nepoměrně  s  nižší  intenzitou  než  tomu  bylo  v  90.  letech           minulého  století.  Čistá  míra  reprodukce  i  úhrnná  plodnost  jsou  stále  pod           kritickou  hodnotou  1,0  resp.  1,5.  Hrubá  míra  úmrtnosti  je  dlouhodobě           stabilizovaná. Pohybuje se mezi 9,5 až 10,0 ‰. Relativně hodnoty natality byly           každým  rokem  o  něco  vyšší  než  hodnoty  mortality,  čímž  Slovensko           zaznamenalo  kontinuální  ale  jen  mírný  přirozený  přírůstek.  Z  pohledu           zahraniční  migrace  se  více  osob  na  Slovensko  přistěhovalo,  jak  se  z  něho           vystěhovalo.  Migrační  saldo  svou  nízkou  hodnotou  podstatnější  neovlivnilo           celkový přírůstek obyvatelstva.           Průběh demografických procesů se promítá do populačních struktur, zejména           věkové, pro kterou je charakteristický pokračující proces stárnutí obyvatelstva.           Podíl  dětské  složky  se  postupně  vyrovnává  se  složkou  65  +  ročních  (v  roce           2016 byl rozdíl jen 0,5 bodu).           Populační  vývoj  je  nejednoznačný,  v  mnoha  směrech  zejména  při  migraci           těžko  předvídatelný.  V  populaci  Slovenska  bude  při  nízké  úrovni  plodnosti           ubývat nejprve dětí, později pravděpodobně i vnuky. Zřejmě klesne podíl dětí           vychovávaných oběma stabilními rodiči a bude pokračovat relativní růst dětí           narozených mimo manželství.                                           354","POLISH MINORITY IN THE CZECH PART OF TĚŠÍN SILESIA IN 2017: CAN                   ACCENT ON SCHOOLS PREVENT THE ENTIRE ASSIMILATION?                                          Hynek Böhm                Technical University of Liberec, Studentská 2, 461 17 Liberec, Czech Republic                                       hynek.bohm@tul.cz              Abstract:  The territory of Těšín Silesia was divided between Czechoslovakia             and  Poland  in  1920.  This  artificial  division  forced  about  200 000  non-Czech             first language speakers – 64 000 of them declared themselves to be Poles - to             become  Czechoslovak  citizens.  Almost  90  years  afterwards  only  26 000             inhabitants declared Polish nationality during the last census in 2011.             The article analyses activities of both civic (non-governmental organisations -             NGOs) as well as public institutions working for the Polish minority in Těšín             Silesia region. It identifies strong efforts to stop the progressing assimilation             of  Polish  minority  into  Czech  society  by  multiple  means,  spreading  from             establishing  special  financial  instruments  supporting  Polish  minority             organisations towards paradiplomatic activities. The research shows that the             education in Polish and accent on the Polish language are the crucial tools to             slow-down the assimilation, yet the entire assimilation seems to be inevitable.             Key words: Polish minority, Těšín Silesia, education, assimilation                           INTRODUCTION AND GOALS OF THE PAPER             In a long-term horizon I have focused attention of my research on the cross-             border co-operation (CBC) of the subject from (my home) Moravian-Silesian-             Region. One of the active actors of the cross-border co-operation with Polish             partners have been the subjects coming the Těšín region, which is the home             of the Polish minority in the Czech Republic. Therefore, I decided to analyse             their relations with the kin-state of Poland. The article is mostly a translation             of  a  more  complex  text,  which  is  assessing  the  paradiplomatic  activities  of             actors from Moravia-Silesia. What differs that from the previously mentioned             more complex text is an accent on the role of education in the Polish minority             organisations.             As mentioned, in two years time more profound results will be presented by             the  means  of  a  complex  publication  focusing  on  paradiplomacy  of  subjects             from Moravia-Silesia. The aim of a current article is therefore rather modest,             as  it  plans  to  present  the  principal  organisations  safeguarding  the  rights  of             Polish  minority  or  working  for  this  minority  in  the  region  of  Těšín.  Special             attention will be given to the role of education and schools as the principal             actors,  which  can  slow-down  the  assimilation  of  the  Polish  minority  in  the             very  east  of  the  Czechia.  Těšín  region.  We  will  in  more  details  analyse             activities of two non-governmental organisations (NGOs): Congress of Poles in             the Czech Republic and the Polish Association for Culture and Education. To                                             355","bring a more complex and balanced picture we will also analyse activities of           the Pedagogical Centre for Polish Minority Schools, founded and managed by           Czech Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, representing thus interest of           the public authorities of the Czech Republic.                            Czech Part of Těšín Region – Zaolzie                                                Fig. 1. Localisation of region.           Source:  (Mahdal  2015),  available  at  http://www.moderni-dejiny.cz/clanek/obsazovani-           Těšínska-polskou-armadou/            The  whole  territory  of  Czech  part  of  Těšín  Silesia  is  called  Zaolzie  in  Polish           language,  which  means  the  territory  behind  Olza  river,  which  creates  the           borders between Poland and Czechia. There is no Czech name used for the           territory, which refers to the lower sensitivity of Czechs towards it. Therefore           I will use either term Zaolzie, once the context will require it, and the term           Těšín Region, having more neutral and “purely” geographic meaning. Another           geographical  term  Těšínské  Slezsko  –  Těšín  Silesia  –  needs  an  explanation.           Historically it is a territory of the former  Duchy of Těšín,  which is  moreless           identical to the scope of a current Euroregion Těšínské Slezsko (Těšín Silesia in                                           356","English), which involves municipalities from both countries. Therefore author             will  prefer  using  term  Těšín  Region,  which  he  tends  to  understand  for  the             purposes of this paper as a territory in the Czech Republic.             Studied territory a was subject of a war between Czechoslovakia and Poland             after the end of World War I (1919), which eventually resulted in the division             of the area by an international arbitrage (Böhm, Drápela 2017). Mainly Poles             felt (and some have been feeling it until now) this division as unfair, as most             of  the  inhabitants  who  stayed  on  the  Czech  side  identified  themselves  as             Poles.    Almost  100  years  after,  approximately  1/5  of  the  entire  population             living in the territory declare themselves to be Poles and use Polish as their             mother tongue.             As studied actors enter in cross-border relation with their kin-state, Poland,             we  should  explain  several  principal  theoretical  concepts.  We  will  start  with             a term “paradiplomacy”, which was introduced into the academic debate and             developed theoretically by Panayotis Soldatos (1990) and Ivo Duchacek (1988,             1990) in the late 1980s (Klatt and Wassenberg 2017). This insinuates a form of             parallel diplomacy besides “real” diplomacy, but it also alludes to the fact that             the  subnational  and  non-state  actors  involved  have  limited  capacities  and             legal  powers  compared  to  those  of  national  governments  (Joenniemi             \& Sergunin, 2014: 18).              Another  term  to  be  used  is  proto-diplomacy,  which  has  been  applied  to             designate foreign activities of regions aspiring to become themselves nation             states such as the Canadian province of Québec, the British region of Scotland             or  the  Spanish  autonomous  community  Catalonia  (Duchacek,  1988:  22;             McHugh, 2015).             It  is  necessary  to  state  that  after  the  fall  of  communism,  eventual  proto-             diplomacy of Polish organisation resulting into irredentism did not manifest             significantly.  Representatives  of  the  Polish  interest  groups  repeatedly             demanded the consistent safeguarding of the rights of the Polish minority at             all possible occasions, mainly during their visits to Warsaw and Prague. Only             a small  radical  group  Zaolzie,  which  operates  on  both  sides  of  the  borders,             considers Czech dominion over the territory being unjustifiable (Mareš, 2010).             Therefore no proto-diplomacy of Polish organisations representatives can be             expected.             We will also study cross-border relation of Polish organisations with those in             Poland.  While  it  is  central  for  minorities  to  maintain  and  improve  relations             with  their  kinstate,  majorities  are  interested  in  tangible  financial  or  other             qualitative  gains  from  cross-border  co-operation.  The  minorities  interest  in             overcoming a border might also be contrary to the majorities’ interest in the             preservation  of  the  border  because  of  its  protective  functions.  CBC  then             generally  intensifies  when  a  financial  incentive,  for  example  in  the  form  of             Interreg programme, is given to the majority population. (Klatt 2013).                                                   357","Congress of Poles           The Congress of Poles in the Czech Republic (Kongres Polaków w Republice           Czeskiej)  is  the  umbrella  organization  of  the  Polish  national  minority  in  the           Czech Republic. Its largest member is the Polish Association for Culture and           Education  (PZKO),  which  will  be  described  later  on.  As  an  organization           safeguarding the interests of Polish citizens in the Czech Republic, it gathers           30  Polish  organizations,  whose  representatives  form  the  Council  of           Representatives  (Rada  Przedstawicieli),  the  executive  body  of  the  Congress           (Smolová  2010),  which  is  elected  for  a  four-year  term.  The  current  board,           serving  between  2016  and  2020,  leads  a  successful  entrepreneur,  Mariusz           Walach,  founder  of  the  Walmark  company  and  recent  Businessman  of  the           year of the Czech Republic. Congress has two main tasks:           • Coordinates the activities of all organizations of the Polish national minority           in the Czech Republic.           •  Represents  a  Polish  national  minority  in  safeguarding  its  interests  in           negotiations with the Government of the Czech Republic.           The  Congress  was  established,  under  the  name  of  Polish  Council,  in  Český           Těšín  on  3  February  1990.  According  to  a  current  Vice-Chairman  of  the           Congress, Jozef Szymeczek, Congress can be seen as a “Havel´s” child of the           concept  of  civil  society.  According  to  the  statute  it  should  execute  mainly           following activities (modified, Congress of the Poles, 2016):           ·   Unifying and coordinating members' activities aimed at realizing common               goals and safeguarding interests of Polish society living in the territory of               the Czech Republic (Polish national minorities), protecting their rights and               interests and supporting the organization of social life ......, in cooperation               with public administration bodies and local authorities,           ·   Promoting the interests of the Polish national minority, in particular, vis-               a-vis  local  government  and  public  administration  and  political  leaders.               The Congress is a connection line between Poland and the Czech Republic               bringing their interests closer together,           ·   Congress defends the rights of Poles to use their language at all levels,               especially in the field of education, it also defends the right to promote               multilingual inscriptions (road signs, signs on the public buildings etc.),           ·   Congress  seeks  to  consolidate  and  deepen  the  relationship  with  the               homeland (meaning Poland) and the universal expansion of the cultural               heritage  of  Polish  society  in  the  Czech  Republic.  This  is  done  inter  alia               through the use and promotion of Polish language and culture,           ·   Congress  implements  its  activities  mainly  through  the  organization  of               cultural,  sporting,  social  events,  conducting  editorial,  documentation,               educational and training activities, including trips,           ·   Congress supports cross-border and international co-operation activities               and works with (Polish) expatriate organizations around the world.           The Statute clearly shows the emphasis on building and maintaining relations           with the homeland – Poland, with an emphasis on the use of Polish language,           principally  –  but  not  only  –  In  the  field  of  education.  The  motivation  for           focusing activities in this direction is relatively clear: as it is the case for the                                           358","most of European minorities, also the Polish minority has faced progressive             assimilation.  While  64 000  inhabitants  of  the  region  declared  Polish             nationality in 1920, only 26,000 inhabitants reported Polish nationality during             last census in 2011 – this was more than 10 000 less compared to the census             of  2011.  The  change  of  nationality/identity  change  in  the  region  is  nicely             illustrated in the following chart:                               Chart 1: development of number of Czech and Polish inhabitants of Czech part of             Těšín Region             Source: Szczyrba 2012              The  dramatic  decline  in  the  population  of  Polish  nationality  is  clearly             attributable  to  the  assimilation,  which  brings,  among  other  things,  also  the             gradual reduction of the number of elementary and secondary schools with             Polish as a language of tuition, which plays an irreplaceable role in preserving             their national identity. The right of national minorities to have education in             their  own  language  is  defined  in  the  Charter  of  Fundamental  Rights  and             Freedoms and in the Act on the Rights of Members of  National Minorities.             Therefore there are nursery, elementary and secondary schools with a Polish             as a language of tuition in Těšín region. Pedagogical Center for Polish Minority             Education  in  Český  Těšín,  established  by  the  Czech  Ministry  of  Education,             Youth and Sports, is the institution caring for the needs of these schools and             in-service training of their teachers and it will be studied later on in this paper.             The decresing number of  Polish schools and pupils  is dramatic:  while there             were still almost 3 400 pupils in the region in 1988, the current number of             pupils is just the half of that size in 20 schools. Hence, Congress is trying to             reverse this trend, although it is a difficult task - pupils' loss is related, among             other things, to a large number of mixed marriages in the territory of Těšín             Region.  Mixed  married  couples  in  most  cases  send  children  to  the  Czech             school (Zormanová 2012). The author of the study himself considers that as             a mistake,  as  graduates  of  these  schools  master  both  Polish  and  Czech  at             a native  speaker  level.  Moreover,  Polish  minority  schools  offer  significantly             lower  number  of  pupils  in  classes  and  contribute  towards  much  larger             community  spirit  creating  local  elites,  which  are  often  famous  nation-wide.             Recent examples include popular singer Ewa Farna, Walach brothers running                                              359","successful family business Walmark or Ewa Katrušáková, the founder of “The           whole Czechia reads to its children” NGO.           Another major activity of Congress is the publishing of newspaper Głos Ludu           (Voice of the People) as well as books written by Polish writers in the Czech           Republic. The Congress of Poles has also conducted documentary work, as it           has  been  collecting  documents  and  archival  records  on  the  history  of  the           mutual  coexistence  of  Poles  and  Czechs,  and  has  been  documenting  the           activities  of  Poles  living  in  the  Czech  Republic.  Other  activities  include  the           organization  of  cultural  events,  youth  gatherings,  cultural  festivals,  and  the           festival  That´s  Us  (Tacy  jesteśmy)  presenting  achievements,  articles  and           cultural  achievements  of  representatives  of  Polish  nationality  in  the  Czech           Republic  since  1993.  The  Congress  is  also  a  member  of  the  European           Federation  of  National  Minorities,  one  of  the  consultative  bodies  to  the           European institutions.           The  establishment  of  the  Zaolzie  Development  Fund,  which  supports  the           activities  of  the  Polish  minority  also  financially,  was  an  important  novelty           introduced in 2017.  It was created as one of the follow-ups of the process of           drafting a Strategy 2035, which will be described later on. The first projects           supported by this Fund focused mainly on culture, education and sports, part           of the projects supports travelling to the significant places in Polish homeland:           Krakow as the spiritual center of the country, Warsaw as the capital city or           Opole  as  a  place  where  a  national  song  contest  is  held  every  year.  In           particular, the fund will be  made up of private sponsors and will distribute           about four million crowns per year, an amount that exceeds the potential of           many  other  local  foundations.  Its  donors  recruit  from  the  Polish           entrepreneurial elite, which declared their willingness to keep this status until           the year 2035.                                                       1            Vision and Development Strategy of “Polishness ” in Zaolzie until 2035           The Congress decided to proceed to a “soft form” of strategic planning and           decided to elaborate a document called “Vision and Development Strategy of           Polishness  in  Zaolzie  until  2035”  (Congress  of  Poles,  2016).  The  document           should help to formulate the desirable status of the Polish national minority in           Těšín in the 20 years horizon, which authors consider the shortest possible           period in which the positive turn can be clearly seen.           According to the authors of the strategy and representatives of the Congress,           the motivation for drafting the document was driven by the need to respond           to the “waning Polish flower in Zaolzie”, as poetically co-authored by Zygmunt           Rakowski  (Glos  Ludu,  2015).  According  to  the  initiators  and  authors  of  the           document, this is mainly due:               ·   decreasing number of Poles who report this nationality in census in                  the region,               ·   decreasing interest in mother tongue and its deteriorating level,               ·   the low interest in contacts with the homeland,            1  Term Polishness should mean „being Polish or feeling Polish“, its original Polish wording is           „polskość“                                          360","·   the  low  level  of  involvement  of  Polish  minority  representatives  in                    organizational structures that would help to reverse this trend.             The authors of the document emphasize its importance, especially in terms of             the “moral appeal” on members of the Polish minority, which is intended to             encourage  their  greater  participation  in  public  affairs  and  greater  self-             identification  with  Polish  nationality,  for  example  through  membership  of             organizations associating Poles in Zaolzie. The authors of the vision want to             actively  pursue  the  already  established  cooperation  with  the  Polish             authorities,  including  the  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs,  the  Polish  Unity             Foundation  (Wspólnota  Polska)  and  the  “Help  the  Poles  in  the  East”             Foundation,  although  the  primary  focus  of  the  last  is  on  the  Poles  living  in             Ukraine, Lithuania and Belarus.             The main measures of the Strategy should be focused on the following areas:               •  Supporting the use of Polish language and local dialect, Silesian gwara,                  both in everyday life and in literary use,               •  Promoting the concept of Těšín Silesia as a “small homeland in Europe”                  (thus, it enters the concept of a high degree of self-identification with                  the region, including the cross-border “Euroregional” dimension),               •  An appeal on higher degree of self-identification with Polish nationality                  accompanied by a higher degree of civic engagement,               •  Higher  level  of  communication  and  promotion  of  the  Polish  national                  minority in Zaolzie both towards the members of the community as well                  as outside to the Czech majority in the Těšín region and to the Poles in                  Poland,               •  Supporting and further development of entrepreneurial activities of the                  Polish national minority members,               •  Support of Polish culture in Zaolzie,               •  Support for scientific activities focusing on fundamental problems of the                  Polish minority in Zaolzie.             The authors of the strategy, including academics respected in both Czech and             Polish  scientific  environment  (notably  the  former  chairman  of  the  Czech             Geographic  Society,  professor  Siwek  of  the  University  of  Ostrava)  are             obviously aware of the difficulty of communicating and implementing strategy             effectively. However, they seem to be determined to implement the strategy's             goals. This can be evidenced by one of the main tools to be used to achieve             these objectives - the Development Fund of the Zaolzie, which has really come             into being. The strategy also anticipates the emergence of new entities, which             will support the Polish minority and which should operate within an informal             partnership called the Zaolzie Development Center. It is worth mentioning, in             particular, the plan to establish a think tank that should bring new impetus to             the development of the Polish minority in the Těšín region, as well as great             emphasis on the need to be active and implement own projects.             The Congress of the Poles has been active in submitting own projects since             the begining of 2000s. One of their recent project called Map of Zaolzie region             brought  a  major  controversy,  which  consisted  mainly  from  two  points:  the             first  was  the  fact  that  only  the  Polish  name  and  the  man  in  the  costume                                              361","bearing  the  Polish  flag  were  shown  on  the  cover  of  the  map;  the  second           problem was the mapping of historical borders from 1918 and 1938, where           the territory was controlled by Poland.           The  project  caused  major  and  unprecedented  controversy  in  the  region           among self-government representatives, which resulted in a declaring parts of           the project costs ineligible by the euroregional steering committee, The cuts           of projects´costs have never  been cut because of the content, the cuts are           acused by administrative omissions (Böhm and Drapela, 2017). However, it is           necessary to say that there has been no real deterioration of the Czech-Polish           relations.           As it has already been said, the international activity of the Congress of Poles           focuses mainly on the relationship with the kin state, Poland. In particular, the           relationship  with  the  Polish  Unity  (Wspólnota  Polska)  and  the  Foundation           “Assistance to the Poles in the East” has provided Congress in particular with           easier access to financing its activities from Polish public finances. Congress           representatives have also been active in the consultative bodies, which have           supported  the  Polish  language  teaching  and  minority  schools  outside  of           Poland.  Congress representatives have used these funds to finance the stays                           th           of all pupils of the 7  class of Polish minority schools on the Baltic coast, they           have  also  launched  a  new  initiative  sending  pupils  of  the  eighth  and  ninth           classes  to  weekly  stays  in  schools  in  Poland  to  be  in  contact  with  the           “mainstream” Polish.           The Congress has also been involved in pan-European networks dealing with           national minorities, which also applies to their newspaper, Glos Ludu. A very           specific role was played by Congress in the framework of the Czech-German           reconcilliation,  as  it  helped  approximately  3  500  people  from  the  region  to           obtain compensation for forced labor during the Second World War.                         Polish Association for Culture and Education           Polish  Association  for  Culture  and  Education  (PZKO)  is  together  with  the           Congress  of  Poles  in  the  Czech  Republic  the  principal  organization  of  the           Polish  national  minority  in  the  Czech  Republic  and,  at  the  same  time,  the           largest organization of Poles in the Czech Republic. The PZKO was established           in 1947. It was also the consequence of the intergovernmental treaty between           the  then  Czechoslovakia  and  Poland  (the  Treaty  on  Friendship  and  Mutual           Assistance),  when  part  of  this  agreement  was  a  supplementary  protocol,           governed  by  the  principle  of  reciprocity  of  the  Polish  minority  law  in           Czechoslovakia.  One  of  the  rights  contained  in  this  Additional  Protocol  was           the  right  to  establish  the  Association  of  Polish  Youth  and  the  Polish           Association  for  Culture  and  Education,  which  was  established  in  1947.  The           authorities were not allowed to re-establish pre-war Polish organizations.           In the days of socialism, the PZKO was the only organization associating the           Poles  in  Czechoslovakia  for  decades,  and  the  life  of  the  Polish  minority           unfolded within this organization, subsidized by the state but only allowing           cultural and artistic activities. Political revival in the 1960s affected the PZKO.           The Polish minority in Czechoslovakia sought to transform the PZKO into an           organ of its political representation, but after the suppression of the Prague           Spring and the invasion of Warsaw Pact troops – including those from Poland -                                           362","to Czechoslovakia was PZKO forced to develop activities exclusively in the field             of  culture  and  leisure-time.  After  1989  the  political  representation  of  the             Polish  minority  was  overtaken  by  Congress  of  Poles  in  the  Czech  Republic.             PZKO has continued to focus primarily on cultural and educational activities,             as their goal is to preserve the ethnic identity of Poles in the Czech Republic             (Szczyrba 2012).                          Pedagogical centre for Polish minority schools             The  Pedagogical  Center  for  Polish  minority  schools  is  an  organization             established  by  the  Ministry  of  Education,  Youth  and  Sports  of  the  Czech             Republic.  It  is  based  in  Český  Těšín  with  the  aim  of  providing  the  needs  of             schools with Polish as an instruction language in the Czech Republic and also             with the aim to organise in-service training for teachers of these schools. The             centre  claims  it  is  an  education  and  training  institution  supporting  actively             European  cooperation.  Its  unique  feature  is  an  accent  on  the  identity  and             specificity of the Těšín Silesia Euroregion.             The  Pedagogical  Center  differs  thus  from  the  two  above-mentioned             organizations,  the  Congress  of  Poles  and  PZKO,  by  the  fact  that  it  is             established  and  controlled  by  the  Czech  Ministry  of  Education,  who             commissions  the  Pedagogical  Center  and  approves  its  annual  work-plans.             These workplans foresee following main activities:               •  In-service teachers´ training,               •  supporting national minority education,               •  issuing methodological didactic tools - Jutrzenka and Ogniwo,               •  organising competitions for pupils and students,               •  lifelong learning,               •  cross-border cooperation,               •  European cooperation,               •  managing pedagogical library.             The  staff  of  the  Center  is  bilingual  and  recruits  almost  exclusively  from             members  of  the  Polish  national  minority.  The  activities  of  the  centre  don´t             focus  on  Polish  minority  schools  only,  as  centre  has  offered  its  services  to             teachers from the Czech environment. Moreover, the Center participates in             activities of the so-called Czech-Polish expert group on textbooks in subjects             whose  interpretation  may  cause  potential  controversy  -  especially  history,             geography  and  social  sciences,  while  trying  to  suggest  a  mutually  sensitive             approach  to  some  painful  places  in  the  past.  At  present,  this  cross-border             group  of  experts  is  preparing  for  events  in  2018,  when  both  countries                             th             celebrate their 100  anniversary of independent existence.             The Center is also active at European level, as it is participating in EU-funded             community  programs,  as  well  as  by  the  programmes  funded  by  the  Czech             Education  Ministry.  It  has  been  actively  participating  in  international             congresses  of  Polish  language  teachers  abroad.  The  centre  has  also  been             actively  engaged  in  manifold  cross-border  cooperation  initiatives  and  the                                              363","grant-giving  authorities  have  valued  its  projects  very  highly,  mostly  those           representing INTERREG programme.           Most of the international activities of the Center are those with Poland. These           projects are not limited to the cooperation of the Center and “Polish” schools           from  the  Czech  part  of  Těšín  with  partners  in  Poland,  but  they  have  been           actively involving also Czech schools from the entire length of the Czech-Polish           border.    In  terms  of  content,  these  cross-border  cooperation  projects  have           aimed  at  networking  schools  from  both  sides  of  the  border,  supporting           regional education with a focus on the Euroregion Těšín Silesia and supporting           the teaching of Polish language. It should be said that a short analysis of the           projects carried out by the Center, enriched by the author's own experience           with these projects, points to the politically correct approach of the Center, as           it respects the fact that it is a contributory organization of the Czech Ministry.           In  this  context  it  is  also  worth  noting  the  recent  repeatedly  endeavours  of           some representatives of the Czech part of the Těšín Silesian Euroregion (body           administering part of INTERREG Fund, Micro-projects scheme for Těšín Silesia           Euroregion) to complicate the access to these funds to the Centre. They were           arguing that they did not wish to support Polish-Polish cooperation. It should           be noted that this approach did not limit the ability of the Pedagogical Center           to implement these projects and was rather connected with individuals in the           Czech Secretariat.                                      CONCLUSIONS           As  mentioned  in  the  introduction,  Polish  minority  has  been  facing  a  rapid           assimilation with the Czech majority environment. The elites gathered in the           organisations safeguarding the interest of Polish minority in Czechia are well           aware of that and try to find an appropriate set of responses.           For  the  first  time  in  history  a  strategic  document  “Vision  2035”  was           elaborated to prevent an entire assimilation. It is based on a mix of manifold           measures, but the principal instrument is seen in education, support of Polish           minority schools and support of the use of Polish language. To ease fulfilling           the  strategy  the  financial  instrument  was  set-up,  to  which  wealthy           representatives of Polish minority promised to contribute annually until 2035           and the first subsidies were distributed in 2017.           The  elaboration  of  a  strategy  itself  was  an  important  step.  As  mentioned,           education has a crucial role in achieving the goals of strategy and preventing           assimilation of Polish minority in Těšín. Hence, Polish minority representatives           have  been  successful  in  fundraising  for  Polish  minority  schools,  who  are           except for the core tuition expected to play an active role in community life           and promote by all means the use of Polish language.           CBC and paradiplomacy are the tools used by Polish minority organisations to           safeguard  the  interests  of  Poles  in  the  Czech  Republic  as  well  as  to  raise           sources  for  their  own  functioning.  Primary  they  have  co-operated  with  the           public  authorities  and  foundation  from  Poland  as  their  kin-state,  but  they           have  also  been  active  in  European  networks  gathering  national  and  ethnic           minorities.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  no  proto-diplomacy  or  irredentism           could  have  been  observed  from  the  Polish  minority  representatives,  who                                            364","seem appreciate the membership in the EU, as an organisation, which inter             alia funds CBC and keeps an eye on the rights of minorities, much more than             majority societies both in the Czech Republic and Poland.             However,  despite  all  unprecedented  efforts  described  in  the  paper  the             gradual assimilation of Poles in Czech Republic seems very likely to happen.             General  census  of  2021  will  indicate  the  speed  of  the  assimilation:  if  the             number of those indicating Polish nationality drops dramatically again it will             result  in  further  reducing  the  number  of  schools  with  Polish  as  tuition             language and pupils in these schools. This will just speed-up the assimilation.                                         REFERENCES             BÖHM, H. \& DRÁPELA, E. (2017): Cross-border cooperation as a reconciliation             tool: Example from the East Czech-Polish borders, Regional \& Federal Studies,             https://doi.org/10.1080/13597566.2017.1350650             Congress of Poles (2016): “Vision and Development Strategy of Polishness in             Zaolzie  until  2035”  (Congress  of  Poles,  2016).  Available  from             http://www.polonica.cz/content/Wizja_2035_tekst.pdf, accessed 30 July 2017             Congress   of   Poles   (2016):   Navrhovaný   statut   (available   from             http://polonica.cz/content/Proponowany_statut_Kongresu_Polakow.pdf,             accessed 27 July 2017             DUCHACEK,  I.  D.  (1988),  Multicommunal  and  Bicommunal  Politics  and  their             International Relations, in: I.D. Duchacek, D. Latouche and G. Stevenson (eds),             Perforated  Sovereignties  and  International  Relations:  Trans-Sovereign             Contacts of Subnational Governments, pp.12-13. New York: Greenwood Press.             DUCHACEK, I. D. (1990), Perforated Sovereignties: Towards a Typology of New             Actors in International Relations, in: H.J. Michelmann and P. Soldatos (eds),             Federalism and International Relations. The Role of Subnational Units, pp.1-             33. Oxford: Clarendon Press.             JOENNIEMI, P. and SERGUNIN, A. (2014), Paradiplomacy as a Capacity-Building             Strategy, Problems of Post-Communism, Vol.61, No.6, pp.18-33.             KLATT, M. (2013), National minorities as a model for cross-border integration.             Lessons  from  Schleswig’,  in  J.  Beck.  and  B.  Wassenberg  (eds),             Grenzüberschreitende  Zusammenarbeit  leben  und  erforschen  (Bd.  5):             Integration  und  (trans-)regionale  Identitäten,  pp.  301–320.  Stuttgart:  Franz             Steiner Verlag.             KLATT, M. \& WASSENBERG, B. (2017), Secondary foreign policy: Can local and             regional  cross-border  cooperation  function  as  a  tool  for peace-building  and             reconciliation? Regional \& Federal Studies Vol. 27, Iss. 3,2017, p. 205 – 2018,             https://doi.org/10.1080/13597566.2017.1350652             MAHDAL,  M.  (2015),  Obsazování  Těšínska  polskou  armádou.  Available  at             http://www.moderni-dejiny.cz/clanek/obsazovani-Těšínska-polskou-             armadou/ , accessed on 31 October 2017.             MAREŠ, M. (2010), Iredentismus: tradiční a nová dimenze hrozby pro Českou             republiku.     Obrana     a      strategie,    available    from             http://www.obranaastrategie.cz/cs/aktualni-cislo-2-                                              365","2010/clanky/iredentismus-tradicni-a-nova-dimenze-hrozby-pro-ceskou-           republiku.html#.WX2gSIjyhPY, accessed on 30 September 2017.           McHUGH, J. T. (2015), Paradiplomacy, Protodiplomacy and the Foreign Policy           Aspirations of Quebec and other Canadian Provinces, Canadian Foreign Policy           (CFP), Vol.21, No.3, p.238-256.           SMOLOVÁ,  I.,  (2010),  Poláci  v  České  republice,  available  from           https://geography.upol.cz/soubory/lide/smolova/RGPOL/Polaci-v-CR.pdf,           accessed 31 October 2017.           SOLDATOS, P. (1990), An Explanatory Framework for the Study of Federated           States  as  Foreign-policy  Actors,  in:  H.  J.  Michelmann  and  P.  Soldatos  (eds),           Federalism and International Relations. The Role of Subnational Units, pp.34-           53. Oxford: Clarendon Press.           SZCZYRBA,  Z.  (2012).  Polsko-  regionální  geografie  (e-textbook).  available           http://geography.upol.cz/soubory/lide/szczyrba/RGPOL/ucebnice/vztahy/pol           aci_cesi.html, accessed 29 October 2017           ZORMANOVÁ,  L.  (2012),  Polské  národnostní  školství  v  ČR.  Available  from           http://clanky.rvp.cz/clanek/a/16247/15555/POLSKE-NARODNOSTNI-           SKOLSTVI.html/ , accessed on 29 July 2017.                                         Shrnutí           Území Těšínského Slezska bylo rozděleno mezi Československo a Polsko v roce           1920.  Toto  umělé  rozdělení  přispělo  k  tomu,  aby  se  stali  československými           občany  stalo  asi  200  000  lidí,  kteří  nehovořili  češtinou  jakožto  mateřštinou.           64 000  z  nich  se  prohlásilo  za  Poláky.  Téměř  90  let  poté  se  pouze  26  000           obyvatel  během  posledního  sčítání  lidu  v  roce  2011  přihlásilo  k polské           národnosti.           Článek  analyzuje  činnost  nevládních  i  veřejných  institucí  pracujících  pro           polskou  menšinu  v  regionu  Těšínsko  Slezska.  Pojmenovává  velkou  snahu           zastavit  postupující  asimilaci  polské  menšiny  s českou  většinou  společností           různými  způsoby,  od  rozvoje  zvláštních  finančních  nástrojů  na  podporu           polských  menšinových  organizací  k  paradiplomatickým  aktivitám.  Výzkum           ukazuje, že vzdělávání  v polštině a důraz na polský jazyk jsou rozhodujícími           nástroji pro zpomalení asimilace, která se ale se jeví jako nevyhnutelná.                                                           366","METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES OF USING THE GRAVITY MODEL TO                          DETERMINE THE POWER OF BORDER EFFECT                                   Emil Drápela, Nikola Kárníková                    Technical University of Liberec, Komenského 314/2, 460 01 Liberec                                     emil.drapela@tul.cz              Abstract: Using modelling is one of the ways how to recognize the power of             spatial  interactions  between  sites.  Output  from  the  model  is  the  inherent             power of this spatial interaction, which should not be too different from real             interactions when correctly calibrating the model. In cases when the model             shows  good  results  in  most  areas,  but  in  certain  locations  its  results  are             significantly different from reality, it is necessary to ask what is the reason of             these deviations. In border areas, the results are often significantly affected             by the border effect.             This article describes how to measure border effect strength using geographic             spatial  interaction  models.  The  gravity  model  is  used,  for  the  individual             masses are used data about the number of inhabitants of municipalities. Real             interactions, expressed in measured data on the daily frequency of vehicles in             individual sections, are compared with the expected values, their share being             the border effect strength.             Key words: transport geography, regional development, border effect, spatial             interactions, gravity model, cross-border cooperation.                                       INTRODUCTION             Gravity model is very successful empirical model in geography and economics,             which is widely used for many types of scientific problems. We can find papers             dealing  with  international  transactions  in  financial  assets  and  goods  trade             (Portes  and  Rey,  2005),  role  of  geographic  barriers  on  trade  (Eaton  and             Kortum,  2002),  international  migration  flows  (DeWaard,  Kim  and  Raymer,             2012), explanation of stock market correlations (Flavin, Hurley and Rousseau,             2002),  describing  strength  of  spatial  interactions  between  regional  centres             (Drápela, 2017), etc. Thanks to the wide applicability of this model, there are a             number of variations depending on the type of use. Moreover, as remarked             by Anderson (2011), “incorporating deeper theoretical foundations of gravity             into  recent  practice  has  led  to  a  richer  and  more  accurate  estimation  and             interpretation of the spatial relations described by gravity”, which means that             with the correct use of the model and good input data, this model gives very             good results.             The key concept when using gravity model  is a  spatial interaction, which is             described by Roy and Thill (2004) as “the process whereby entities at different             points in physical space make contacts, demand/supply decisions or locational             choices. The entities can be individuals or firms and the choices can include             housing, jobs, production quantities, exports, imports, face-to-face contacts,                                              367","schools, retail centres and activity centres”. These spatial interactions occur           most often in places where there is a large concentration of people, resources           and  capital;  most  often  they  are  described  by  a  function  of  the  number  of           inhabitants in municipalities and the distance between them. Though recently           there have been noticed some opinions that thanks to technological advances           and ongoing globalization, the importance of distance is suppressed, Maggioni           and  Uberti  (2009)  in  their  work  proves  that  this  “death  of  distance”  is  not           based on real data and is more wish than reality.           Spatial interactions may be attenuated in certain regions by various effects,           such as the effect of geographic parameters of the area, the effect of political           or  administrative  boundaries,  the  effect  of  economic  deprivation  on  the           territory, etc. One of the most common is the border effect. Border effects           refer to asymmetries in spatial interactions’ patterns between municipalities           of different countries that share a national border and those that are located           in  the  same  country  -  it  acts  as  an  invisible  barrier  which  attenuates  the           intensity of the spatial interactions. This barrier may be based on real territory           parameters  -  e.g.  on  a  worse  or  less  dense  transport  infrastructure  across           borders, a different language on both sides of the border, which complicates           communication between entities, or complications associated with different           legislation. On the other hand, sometimes borders (or parameters of border           areas)  are  only  a  mental  barrier  that  is  not  based  on  objective  reality  (see           Drápela and Böhm, 2016). The negative impact of the border effect can be           overcome through cross-border cooperation (Böhm, 2015; Böhm and Drápela,           2016,  2017).  The  force  of  the  border  effect  can  then  be  described  as  the           difference between the expected spatial interaction value calculated using the           gravitational  model  and  the  real  spatial  interaction  value  measured  in  the           field.                                        METHOD           Gravity model in its basic version explains the power of spatial interactions by           two factors: the size or importance of area, and the distance between areas.           Marshall (2016) uses following definition:                                             ; ; 9                                              8                                     7 = :                                      89                                             < 89           Where, F ij  is the number of flows between area i and area j, P i  and P j  are the           population size of areas i and j, d ij  is the distance between i and j, and k is a           scaling factor which relates the number of flows (F ij ) to the ratio P i P j /d ij . The           values  of  P i   and  P j   are  taken  from  actual  data  of  Continuous  population           register and for d ij  is used Euclidean distance of city centres in m. The value of           scaling factor k is crucial for further calculations, because all results  will be           relativized  by  it.  Drápela  (2017)  recommended  as  typical  for  the  Czech           Republic values for Prague-Liberec, Prague-Hradec Králové and Praha-Ústí nad           Labem  routes,  which  are  routes  between  regional  centres  where  it  was           possible to separate the influence of other routes (especially transit routes)           on  values  of  spatial  interactions.  Therefore,  this  article  uses  the  value           obtained  from  the  calibration  on  the  Prague-Liberec  route  (see  Results           chapter).                                           368","In  the  literature  there  is  a  strong  debate  if  the  waveform  attenuation  of             gravity between the two sites have a linear character, as foreseen in the basic             pattern,  or  not.  Henderson  and  Millimet  (2008)  demonstrated  that  this             mathematical function may be a bit complicated, when splitting the dataset to             multiple levels to receive valid results. The assumption of a different value of             the coefficient k for different size groups of municipalities is also used in this             work  where  the  value  for  regional  centres  may  not  be  suitable  for  smaller             towns and municipalities. For this reason, the analysis will also use non-border             locations, which will be used for comparison. Halás, Klapka and Kladivo (2014)             then argued that the intensity decrease with distance is not linear at all but             can be described by curve. However, the authors only analysed commuting,             for  the  general  simplification  of  all  kinds  of  spatial  interactions  the  linear             function can be used.             For quantification of border effect, expected values of spatial interactions (F ij ),             calculated by gravity model, will be compared to real-measured values (C ij ), to             reveal the intensity of spatial interactions on this route (I ij ):                                               > 89                                         = =                                          89                                               7 89             The intensity will be lower where the border effect is stronger and vice versa.             Real-measured values (C ij ) are represented by values of annual average daily             traffic (AADT), which is the total volume of vehicle traffic in the road for a year             divided  by  365  days.  There  were  used  data  from  the  Census  of  Transport,             which was implemented in 2016 by the Directorate of Roads and Highways.             These data were calculated from shorter measured periods – methods how to             do this are described in Gastaldi et al. (2013), Lam and Xu (2000), or Rossi et             al.  (2012),  however,  precise  methodology  is  not  known  because  the  data             provider protects it as secret know-how.             AADT  values  on  a  certain  section  of  road  are  never  the  result  of  only  one             interaction  between  two  locations,  but  the  result  of  the  sum  of  the  many             interactions whose shortest route runs through this section. This means that             in  order  to  calculate  the  supposed  value  of  the  spatial  interaction  it  is             necessary  to  first  find  all  the  pairs  of  municipalities  that  interact  together             through  this  section.  There  are  usually  many  thousands  of  these  couples,             fortunately, some of them produce so little value of spatial interaction that it             can be neglected. On the contrary, the largest settlements typically produce             80-90%  of  the  total  spatial  interaction  value,  allowing  us  to  use  a  smaller             number  of  pairs  to  approximate  very  closely  the  value  that  would  give  us             a much  more  complex  calculation.  This  simplified  method  requires             a researcher's experience, but it is very time efficient, so it will be used in this             paper.                                          RESULTS             The first step to quantifying the border effect is to calibrate the model. In this             case, the Prague-Liberec route, or part of the D10 motorway between exits             67 and  71,  was  used.  This  section  of  motorway  is  suitable  for  calibration             because  there  are  strong  spatial  interactions  in  the  form  of  commuting  to             work  between  North  Bohemian  towns  on  one  side  and  Prague,  Mladá                                             369","Boleslav and some other cities along this motorway on the other. The result of           the calibration was the value of the k coefficient: 0.007245.           In  the  next  step,  it  was  possible  to  proceed  to  quantification  of  expected           spatial  interactions  (F ij ).  The  simplified  model  uses  only  larger  centres,           depending on the distance from the monitored route. In the most proximity           the model counts municipalities with a population of more than 2,000, with           growing distance the required minimum size of the city is increasing,  while           over 100 km are used only cities with more than a million inhabitants. The           example  of  expected  spatial  interaction  value  calculation  for  one  selected           route is shown in Tab. 1.           Tab.  1:  Example  of  expected  spatial  interaction  value  (Fij)  calculation  –  route           Nové Město pod Smrkem – Świeradów-Zdrój             Name (i)    Name (j)    P i     P j      d ij    k       F ij            Frýdlant   Mirsk          7536    3967   21920  0.007245   9.88                       Świeradów-            Frýdlant                  7536    4240   17830  0.007245   12.98                       Zdrój            Frýdlant   Gryfów Slaski   7536   6693   26300  0.007245   13.89            Frýdlant   Jelenia Góra   7536   80524   45980  0.007245   95.62            Nové Město   Mirsk        3753    3967   11820  0.007245   9.13            pod Smrkem            Nové Město   Świeradów-   3753    4240    7460  0.007245   15.45            pod Smrkem   Zdrój            Nové Město   Gryfów Slaski   3753   6693   17250  0.007245   10.55            pod Smrkem            Nové Město            pod Smrkem   Jelenia Góra   3753   80524   35470  0.007245   61.73            Raspenava   Mirsk         2820    3967   18960  0.007245   4.27                       Świeradów-            Raspenava                 2820    4240   13790  0.007245   6.28                       Zdrój            Raspenava   Gryfów Slaski   2820   6693   24150  0.007245   5.66            Raspenava   Jelenia Góra   2820   80524   41920  0.007245   39.25            Hejnice    Mirsk          2724    3967   17460  0.007245   4.48                       Świeradów-            Hejnice                   2724    4240   11140  0.007245   7.51                       Zdrój            Hejnice    Gryfów Slaski   2724   6693   23410  0.007245   5.64            Hejnice    Jelenia Góra   2724   80524   38830  0.007245   40.93            Liberec    Mirsk        103853    3967   31890  0.007245   93.60                       Świeradów-            Liberec                 103853    4240   24740  0.007245   128.95                       Zdrój            Liberec    Gryfów Slaski   103853   6693   38120  0.007245   132.11            Bogatynia   Mirsk        17984    3967   30620  0.007245   16.88                       Świeradów-            Bogatynia                17984    4240   26270  0.007245   21.03                       Zdrój            Bogatynia   Jelenia Góra   17984   80524   54420  0.007245   192.79            Zittau     Mirsk         25636    3967   41200  0.007245   17.88                       Świeradów-            Zittau                   25636    4240   36920  0.007245   21.33                       Zdrój            Zittau     Jelenia Góra   25636   80524   65070  0.007245   229.84            Fij TOTAL                                                1197.7           Source: Czech statistical office, Central statistical office of Poland, Statistical regional office of           the Free State of Saxony, own calculation.            After  the  values  of  expected  spatial  interactions  were  calculated  for  all           selected sections, it was possible to compare them with the real measured           AADT values. This comparison is shown in Tab. 2.; in the first part of the table           there are cross-border routes, in the second section the domestic routes. Low           intensity values then indicate the strong influence of border effect.                                          370","Tab. 2: Intensity of spatial interactions on selected routes in Liberec region and             surroundings                          Route              Road     F ij     C ij      I ij              Harrachov-Szklarska Poreba      I/10   15966.9     1112    6.96%              Hrádek nad Nisou-Zittau         I/35   11544.8     5468   47.36%              Habartice-Zawidów               I/13    3368.6     2065   61.30%              Petrovice-Lückendorf           II/270    971.3     669    68.88%              Nové Město p. S.-Świeradów-Zdrój   II/291   1197.7   846   70.64%              Varnsdorf-Seifhennersdorf      II/265   1799.8     2707   150.41%              Varnsdorf-Großschönau          II/264   1348.6     2568   190.41%              Hrádek nad Nisou-Zittau         35J     1708.9     3321   194.33%              Frýdlant-Bogatynia             3511      827.2     2074   250.73%              Česká Lípa-Mladá Boleslav       I/38    8108.9     7147   88.14%              Turnov-Jičín                    I/35    8578.9     7604   88.64%              Desná-Hejnice                  II/290    328.3     668   203.46%              Chrastava-Nový Bor              I/13    4980.3    10203   204.87%             Source: Czech Directorate of Roads and Motorways, General Directorate for National Roads and             Motorways of Poland, own calculation.              The table shows three main results:                 ·   there  are  significant  differences  between  first  class  and  second  or                    lower class roads,                 ·   the border effect is stronger on cross-border routes,                 ·   in some routes the expected values are significantly lower than real                    values.             The  following  chapter  explains  the  nature  of  these  three  most  significant             phenomena.                                         DISCUSSION             The  results  presented  in  the  previous  chapter  show  that  the  proportion  of             expected  and  real  values  of  spatial  interactions  can  be  very  different  and             three main patterns can be observed. First of them is existence of differences             between first class roads on the one side and second or lower class roads on             the another side, when I ij  values are significantly lower on the first class roads.             An  explanation  for  this  may  be  the  fact  that  first-class  roads  form  the             backbone  network  between  regions  and  regional  centres,  while  lower-class             roads are usually used only to transport locally. Thus, big masses of the large             centres were included in the gravity model for the first class roads, but on the             other  hand,  there  was  a  significant  impact  of  border  effect  on  the  borders             between the regions. This impact is most evident in the Harrachov-Szklarska             Poreba  route,  where  I ij   is  only  6,96%.  On  contrary,  large  centres  are  not             included in the calculations on lower-class roads because the route of these             roads mostly only complements the higher-class network and the inhabitants             of large centres do not use them. For this reason, it can be concluded that the             border effect is more pronounced at the regional level than at the local level,             because there is a significantly stronger border effect among the big centres             than among the smaller towns near the border.             The  second  above  mentioned  result  is  the  fact  that  the  border  effect  is             stronger on cross-border routes. This is the supposed result, because it has             already been confirmed by Drápela (2017) on regional level. However, at the             local level, this effect has much less influence, results are different, but no so                                             371","different  as  in  above  mentioned  work.  We  can  say  that  the  differences           between  road  types  are  considerably  larger  than  the  differences  between           cross-border and domestic roads. This may be a surprise.           Finally, in some routes the expected values were significantly lower than real           values,  which  means  that  the  rate  of  intensity  of  spatial  interactions  is           unexpectedly high. This is again due to the fact that the border effect is more           pronounced at the regional level than at the local level. The gravity model was           calibrated using the Prague-Liberec route, which is domestic, but there is also           a  border  effect  between  the  regions  of  the  Czech  Republic.  On  the  other           hand,  some  areas  at  national  borders  function  as  integrated  regions,  the           border  effect  does  not  appear  much  here  and  the  intensity  of  spatial           interactions is paradoxically higher than in the calibration route. This excellent           result  may  not  only  be  thanks  to  good  cross-border  cooperation,  but  also           because  the  state  border  in  the  Liberec  region  is  rather  rugged  and  some           territories  serve  mainly  for  transit:  namely  Varnsdorf-Großschönau,           Varnsdorf-Seifhennersdorf  and  Hrádek  nad  Nisou-Zittau  routes  serve  for           Czech  Republic  to  Czech  Republic  transit  and  Frýdlant-Bogatynia  and  Nové           Město p. S.-Świeradów-Zdrój routes serve for Poland to Poland transit. From           this point of view, consideration should be given if such routes as cross-border           or not. However, the intensity of the working and business relations between           the Czech and German border regions is supporting this “cross-borderness”,           when German shops are often the destinations of Czech customers and both           regions benefit from cross-border tourism.                                      CONCLUSION           In  this  article  we  tried  to  describe  how  the  border  effect  affects  spatial           interactions intensity on selected routes in the Euroregion Nisa-Neisse-Nysa.           We  chose  the  routes  where  the  road  crosses  the  national  border  with           Germany or Poland and added several domestic routes for comparison. For           each route, we calculated the value of spatial interactions intensity (I ij ) using           gravity model and then we tried to explain how this value is affected. During           this process, we have come up with interesting findings that relate to both the           results themselves and the methodology used.           Regarding  the  methodology,  we  can  say  that  the  use  of  the  gravitational           model for this type of task proved to be good. However, it is necessary to take           into account the factor that has somewhat distorted the results, namely the           regional or local level of the survey. At the regional level, even distant larger           centres  are  included  in  the  calculation  as  the  routes  are  used  by  the           inhabitants of these large cities. As a result, the impact of the border effect           will be greater. On the other hand, a large number of lower-class roads serve           only for local transport and the inhabitants of large agglomerations do not use           them. If these local roads do not overcome a significant geographical barrier           (as  in  the  case  of  the  Harrachov  Road),  the  border  effect  will  show  lower           intensity. Therefore, when calibrating the gravity model, it is necessary to take           into account the road class and to distinguish the core infrastructure and the           roads of the lower classes.           The main hypothesis of our work that the border effect will be recorded at           national  borders  is  confirmed,  but  this  effect  was  not  as  strong  as  we                                            372","expected (especially when we take into account the results of the previous             study: Drápela, 2017). This is caused by the fact that the border area of the             Liberec region is, from a geographic point of view, mostly well permeable, the             border is very curvy, so some border areas act as transit for daily commuting             from  abroad  to  abroad.  However,  the  results  also  reflect  the  long-term             successful  cross-border  cooperation  between  the  Czech  Republic,  Germany             and Poland in this region, which has significantly reduced the negative impact             of the border effect.              Acknowledgements: This article was created thanks to the project SGS-FP-TUL             10/2017  “Quantifying  the  border  effect  using  geographic  models  of  spatial             interactions”.                                         REFERENCES             ANDERSON, J. E. The Gravity Model. Annual Review of Economics. 2011, 3(1),             133-160.  ISSN  1941-1383.  https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-             111809-125114             BÖHM, H. New forms of  cross-border co-operation governance as a tool of             environmental  protection  strategies  –  example  from  Czech-Polish-Slovak             borders. In: International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference. Albena:             SGEM, 2015, 15(3), 739-747. ISBN 978-619-7105-40-7.             BÖHM, H. a DRÁPELA, E. Selected cross-border cooperation governance forms             within  the  EU.  In:  Central  Europe  Area  in  View  of  Current  Geography.             Proceedings  of  23rd  Central  European  Conference.  Brno:  Masarykova             univerzita, 2016, 472-481. ISBN 978-80-210-8314-1.             BÖHM,  H.  a  DRÁPELA,  E.  Cross-border  cooperation  as  a  reconciliation  tool:             Example  from  the  East  Czech-Polish  borders.  Regional  \&  Federal  Studies.             2017, 27(3), 305-319. ISSN 1359-7566.             https://doi.org/10.1080/13597566.2017.1350650             DEWAARD,  J.,  KIM,  K.  a  RAYMER,  J.  Migration  Systems  in  Europe:  Evidence             from  Harmonized  Flow  Data.  Demography.  2012,  49(4),  1307-1333.  DOI:             10.1007/s13524-012-0117-9. ISSN 0070-3370.             https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-012-0117-9             DRÁPELA, E. Quantification of border effect on different types of borders: case             study  of  the  Czech  Republic.  In:  International  Multidisciplinary  Scientific             GeoConference. Albena: SGEM, 2017, 17(53), 687-693. ISBN 978-619-7408-10-             2.             DRÁPELA,  E.  a  BÖHM,  H.  Perceptions  of  barriers  to  cycle  commuting:  The             geographic perspective. In: Central Europe Area in View of Current Geography.             Proceedings  of  23rd  Central  European  Conference.  Brno:  Masarykova             univerzita, 2016, 464-471. ISBN 978-80-210-8314-1.             EATON,  J.  a  KORTUM,  S.  Technology,  Geography,  and  Trade.  Econometrica.             2002,  70(5),  1741-1779.  ISSN  0012-9682.  https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-             0262.00352                                               373","FLAVIN, T., HURLEY M.J. a ROUSSEAU, F. Explaining Stock Market Correlation:           A Gravity Model Approach. The Manchester School. 2002, 70(S1), 87-106. ISSN           1463-6786. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9957.70s1.5           GASTALDI, M., ROSSI, R., GECCHELE, G. a Della LUCIA L. Annual Average Daily           Traffic  Estimation  from  Seasonal  Traffic  Counts.  Procedia  -  Social  and           Behavioral   Sciences.   2013,   87,   279-291.   ISSN   18770428.           https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.10.610           HALÁS, M., KLAPKA, P. a KLADIVO, P. Distance-decay functions for daily travel-           to-work  flows.  Journal  of  Transport  Geography.  2014,  35,  107-119.  ISSN           09666923. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.02.001           HENDERSON,  D.J.  a  MILLIMET,  D.L.  Is  gravity  linear?  Journal  of  Applied           Econometrics. 2008, 23(2), 137-172. ISSN 08837252.           https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.974           LAM, W. H. K. a XU, J. Estimation of AADT from short period counts in Hong           Kong  -  A  comparison  between  neural  network  method  and  regression           analysis.  Journal  of  Advanced  Transportation.  2000,  34(2),  249-268.  ISSN           01976729. https://doi.org/10.1002/atr.5670340205           MAGGIONI, M. A. a UBERTI, T. E. Knowledge networks across Europe: which           distance matters? The Annals of Regional Science. 2009, 43(3), 691-720. ISSN           0570-1864. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00168-008-0254-7           MARSHALL, A. Quantitative Modelling in Human Geography, In: Clifford N. et           al., Key Methods in Geography, 3rd Ed., London: Sage, 2016, 302-322. ISBN           978-1-4462-9860-2.           PORTES, R. a REY, H. The determinants of cross-border equity flows. Journal of           International   Economics.   2005,   65(2),   269-296.   ISSN   00221996.           https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinteco.2004.05.002           ROSSI,  R.,  GASTALDI,  M.,  GECCHELE,  G.  a  KIKUCHI,  S.  Estimation  of  Annual           Average  Daily  Truck  Traffic  Volume.  Uncertainty  Treatment  and  Data           Collection Requirements. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2012, 54,           845-856. ISSN 18770428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.09.800           ROY,  J.  R.  a  THILL,  J.-C.  Spatial  interaction  modelling.  Papers  in  Regional           Science. 2004, 83(1), 339-361. ISSN 1056-8190.           https://doi.org/10.1007/s10110-003-0189-4                                         Shrnutí           Použití  modelování  je  jednou  z  možností,  jak  poznat  sílu  prostorových           interakcí  mezi  lokalitami.  Výstupem  z  modelu  je  očekávaná  síla  této           prostorové interakce, která by se při správném nakalibrování modelu neměla           příliš  lišit  od  reálných  interakcí.  V  případech,  kdy  model  vykazuje  dobré           výsledky  pro  většinu  území,  avšak  v  určitých  lokalitách  se  jeho  výsledky           výrazně odlišují od reality, je třeba se ptát, čím jsou tyto odchylky způsobeny.           Pokud se jedná o pohraniční oblasti, bývají výsledky často významně ovlivněny           border effectem.                                              374","Tento  článek  popisuje  metodu,  jak  změřit  sílu  border  effectu  pomocí             geografických  modelů  prostorových  interakcí.  Pro  úlohu  je  využit  gravitační             model, pro jednotlivé masy jsou použita data o počtu obyvatel obcí. Reálné             interakce,  vyjádřené  naměřenými  daty  o  denní  frekvenci  vozidel  na             jednotlivých  úsecích,  jsou  porovnávány  s  očekávanými  hodnotami,  přičemž             jejich podíl vyjadřuje sílu border effectu.                                                                                                    375","ACTORS OF TERRITORIAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE CITY OF BRNO:            FOCUSED ON SIGNIFICANT DEVELOPERS OF HOUSING CONSTRUCTION                              Zdeněk Dvořák, Josef Kunc, Petr Tonev            Masaryk University, Faculty of Economics and Administration, Lipová 41a, 602 00                                         Brno               dvorak.zdenek@mail.muni.cz; kunc@econ.muni.cz; tonev@econ.muni.cz            Abstract: For some time, the economic crisis of the last decade had paralyzed           territorial  and  specific  development  projects  in  urban  environments  of  the           Czech  Republic,  as  well  as  other  countries.  After  many  major  development           projects  were  suspended  or  canceled,  territorial  development  activities           started  to  revert  to  their  pre-2008  state  characterized  by  a  large-scale           development boom. In the long run, the construction of above-standard non-           residential  (offices,  administration  buildings)  and  residential  (suburbs  and           villas)  complexes  predominates.  Recently,  there  has  been  an  increasing           number  of  resonating  projects  that  focus  on  research,  development  and           innovation,  as  well  as  culture  and  education.  These  are  built  either  on           greenfields, or, more frequently, in previously utilized locations (brownfields).           Investors  are  generally  recruited  out  of  private,  mostly  multi-national           companies. However, the public sector (cities, regions) is also showing activity           in  this  regard.  The  aim  of  the  paper  is  to  present  the  current  state  of  the           functional and spatial aspects (morphology) of the development environment           in the city of Brno from the point of view of developers focusing on housing           construction.           Keywords: territorial development, developers, housing construction, city of           Brno                                     1 INTRODUCTION           “Development”  has  been  linked  to  planning  (Escobar,  2010).  In  European           conditions,  planning  has  been  helping  in  the  development  of  cities  facing           issued connected to rapid growth in the context of industrialization since the           19th century. There has also been a rise in social planning and governmental           interventions for the greater good of the society (Hall, 2002). The very idea of           “development”  is  related  to  the  economic  changes  which  took  place  in           individual states after World War II, whereas the last 40 years or so could be           called  the  development  age  (Sachs,  2010).  Planning,  especially  regional           planning, does therefore have a considerable influence on the development of           a given location. As stated by Maier and Čtyroký (2000), in face of investors,           regional planning is primarily regulatory. Territorial development is a closely           related  concept,  referring  to  the  purposeful  assessment  of  the  territory  in           order to increase its utility.                                             376","Maier  and  Čtyroký  (2000)  also  speak  of  territorial  development  subjects,             which they divide according to the way in which they engage in investment             construction  processes  and  the  way  they  treat  the  finished  structure.  The             categories are: builders, investors and developers. As Achour (2004) states, the             main  difference  between  a  developer  and  an  investor  is  that  the  investor             wishes to own the resulting structure/property while not being willing to bear             construction-related  risks.  Subjects  are  further  divided  by  territorial             development  investment  criteria:  commercial  entrepreneurs,  public  bodies             and non-profit subjects. The list of subjects concerned is, naturally, not finite.             Property owners, financial institutions, real estate agents, brokers, appraisers,             legal advisers, construction companies, architects, and others enter into the             process of territorial development.             Another important concept is a development project. In their study, Achour             (2004)  states  that  a  development  project  falls  into  project  financing  and  is             therefore a body of economic, technical, and other elements. As such, it can             be divided into three phases:                i.   preparatory - assessment of project feasibility and financing,               ii.   implementation  -  purchase  of  property,  legal  audit  of  the  land,                    obtaining the necessary permits, contracts about future leases, etc.,               iii.   and the final phase - the project is sold to the final investor.             With any development project, limitations posed by the authorities, especially             by the ground plan or historic preservation must be considered. Based on any             limitations, it is then essential to decide whether the project will be residential             or non-residential. The technical and economic feasibility of the project also             play a key role (Esteva, 2010).             Development projects and regional planning are connected primarily (but not             exclusively) to the urban environment, which is the object of interest in the             present  contribution.  It  should  be  noted  that  there  is  no  comprehensive             definition of a city – it depends on the science that discusses it. The dictionary             of  human  geography  considers  cities  business  centers  and  marketplaces             where non-agricultural work has been separated from the land, or a society of             free citizens belonging to higher territorial units (Gregory et al., 2009: 85). In             the  1920s,  Ernest  W.  Burgess  (1924)  of  the  Chicago  sociological  school             examined  the  internal  structure  of  a  city,  which  still  has  its  general             applications and it important for our contribution. His concentric zone model,             in which the city is divided into functional areas was followed by others, such             as the sector model or the multiple nuclei model (Fyle and Kenny, 2005).             Over the last 20 years or so, the urban environment of Central and Eastern             Europe has undergone very significant changes. These are connected not only             to  the  economic  and  social  transformations  (as  well  as  the  intensive             deindustrialization), but also to new elements of regional planning, which are             linked,  among  other  things,  to  the  dynamic  construction  of  residential,             administrative,  and  commercial  complexes  (Sýkora,  2008;  Krzysztofik  et  al.,             2016; Mulíček and Malá, 2016). Cities, which have gone through such classic             historical development have a similar urban structure traditionally tied to the             definition of the aforementioned concentric zones - i) the historical core, ii)             the transitional zone, sometimes also called the inner city with a deteriorating             residential  environment  and  factories,  iii)  the  working  class  zone,  iv)  the                                             377","residential zone, and v) the commuter zone in the suburbs (originally Burgess,           1924; Park et al., 1925, later Horská, 2002; Pike et al., 2006 and many other           authors across disciplines).           The  aim  of  the  paper  is  to  present  the  current  state  of  the  functional  and           spatial aspects of the development environment in the model city of Brno. It           focuses on the most significant actors (housing construction developers) and           the internal structure (morphology) of the city, as well as the specifics of the           respective analyses.                      2 AREA UNDER STUDY, THE DATA AND METHODS           Brno  is  the  second  largest  city  of  the  Czech  Republic,  home  to  nearly           400 thousand  inhabitants.  As  early  as  in  the  pre-industrial  era,  the  city           became an important administrative and economic center. The main element           which  facilitated  city  creation,  as  was  the  case  in  other  historically  formed           European  cities,  was  the  intensive  industrialization  in  the  19th  and  20th           centuries,  including  the  Socialist  industrialization  after  the  Word  War  II           (Horská  et  al.,  2002).  The  1990s  and  later  years  are,  however,  typical  of           economic  base  deindustrialization  processes.  As  in  other  transitional           economies, the formerly under-proportioned retail trade and services started           to develop, new industrial zones and technological parks were created, the           first  wave  of  residential  and  commercial  suburbanization  occurred,  etc.           Emphasis  moved  to  the  support  of  research  and  development,  innovation,           creativity, education and increasing the quality of life (Sýkora, 2002; Jackson,           2002; Wu, 2003; Mulíček and Toušek, 2004; Kunc and Tonev, 2008; Kunc et           al.,  2008,  2014a;  Chaloupková,  2017).    Over  the  years,  number  of  studies           regarding the transformations of functional and spatial structures and/or the           development environment of the city have been carried out and published in           the city of Brno and its vicinity (such as Mulíček, 2002, 2007; Dvořák, 2016;           Dvořák and Fránková, 2016; Foral and Andráško, 2012; Malachová and Kunc,           2014;  Kunc  et  al.,  2014b;  Frantál  et  al.,  2015;  Tonev  et  al.,  2017).  Our           contribution aims to follow up on these and discuss current events.           The data base comprises research of websites of development or construction           companies,  with  the  addition  of  information  sources  of  the  Brno  City           Municipality  (Magistrát  města  Brna,  MMB).  During  the  current  research           phase,  we  focus  mainly  on  housing  construction.  Methodically,  the  text  is           based on the interpretation, evaluation and comparison of available sources           and  information.  Furthermore,  field  investigations  took  place  in  selected           locations,  photo-documentation  was  obtained  and  interviews  with  the           representatives  of  Brno  (specifically  the  MMB)  were  conducted.  The           morphogenetic  zones  of  the  city  were  adapted  from  Mulíček  (2007).  The           graphical presentation of the data was created in the program ArcGIS.                       3 CURRENT STATUS OF CONSTRUCTION IN BRNO           Within the Czech Republic, Brno is currently a significant science and research           center  and  has  been  receiving  good  appraisal  on  an  international  scale.  It           must be noted that it did not achieve its status right away. The policies of the           city, which aimed to focus on science and research, played a significant part.                                            378","The fact that Brno (unlike, for example, Prague) could utilize European funds             to finance its science and research infrastructure is no less important. Another             informal status of Brno is also closely related to science and research – it is             considered  a  student  city.    At  the  same  time,  it  is  the  core  of  the  Brno             metropolitan area, which makes it the main center of commuting for work,             education and services. However, it must be noted that its territorial plan is             not up-to-date, which has a significant impact on its successful development.             This critical document has a considerable effect on the current construction             situation in the city, which shall be further discussed below.             The Association of Brno architects and builders (ABRAST) comments on this             fact.  ABRAST  aims  to  create  a  platform  which  will  address  the  future             development of the city in relation to regional planning. It also notes that the             Brno territorial plan falls short of the actual demand, both in the commercial             and housing areas. In recent years, Brno and its outskirts have been battling             the  problem  of  suburbanization.  One  of  the  reasons  for  this  are  rising  real             estate  prices,  which  force  the  inhabitants  to  move  to  the  outskirts.  The             amount  of  areas  free  for  new  construction  is  decreasing,  which  causes  the             prices  of  existing  homes  to  increase.  Prices  of  real  estate  and  land  in  the             immediate  vicinity  of  Brno  are,  however,  also  increasing.  In  this  and  the             following  year,  limitations  of  mortgages  are  being  implemented.  Still,  it  is             difficult  to  predict  how  large  an  impact  this  might  have  on  the  supply  and             demand for housing. However, complicated the real estate market situation in             Brno might be, it is critical to resolve the issue of a new territorial plan. Until             then,  it  is  necessary  to  work  with  the  current  territorial  plan  and  utilize             brownfields.                  3.1 Spatial aspects of housing development construction in Brno             The  members  of  ABRAST  are  among  the  significant  players  in  the             development of Brno. Over the last twenty years, tens of housing construction             projects  were  executed  thanks  to  them.  There  were  both  small-scale  and             large-scale projects. The following findings emerged from an analysis of the             available information:                 •  if the projects are executed close to the city center, they are small-                    scale projects,                 •  larger projects were executed in the outer parts of the city,                 •  investors/developers  focus  on  projects  which  can  be  executed  on                    greenfields.             The  investigation  further  revealed  that  the  largest  and  most  significant             housing construction projects of the last two decades were executed in the             outer  parts  of  Brno,  namely  Medlánky,  Slatina,  Lesná,  Bystrc,  and  Žebětín.             Data from subjects, which are members of ABRAST, and selected large-scale             projects outside of the association were entered into the list, while projects             with  a  budget  under  50  million  CZK  were  not  considered.  Due  to  the             information, which individual developers or builders share on their websites,             the  analysis  focused  on  the  following  subjects  in  particular:  Impera  style,             REKO,  IMOS,  Bemett,  Stavos,  and  Kaláb.  Despite  the  aforementioned             limitations,  the  selection  is  highly  representative  of  the  most  significant             housing construction development projects in Brno.                                              379","Tab. 1: Districts of Brno with the highest concentration of housing construction           projects              City district   Number of         Investors/builders/developers                               projects           Bystrc and Žebětín     8           Reko, Impera styl, IMOS, Moravská                                                        stavební                Slatina           3               IMOS, Bemett, STAVOS                Lesná             3              Reko, IMOS, Pancommerc              Medlánky            2                  Impera styl, Reko           Other city districts   20           Stavos Brno a.s., Bemmet, Aplus,                                               Impera styl, Reko, IMOS, Kaláb           Source: Original table according to the websites of individual developers and MMB data.            The following map shows the distribution of selected analyzed projects in the           area of Brno (morphogenetic zones) and brief comments on selected locations           (city districts).                                            Fig. 1. Biggest projects of housing construction in Brno.           Source: Web pages of particular projects, own processing.                                                 380","Bystrc and Žebětín             By area, Bystrc is the largest city district, home to one of the largest housing             estates of prefabricated houses in Brno, which was added to the original rural             settlement.  A  hilly,  wooded  landscape  and  a  significant  body  of  water,  the             Brno reservoir, are typical of the northwest  estate.  Together with the Brno             ZOO,  the  reservoir  and  the  surrounding  forests  are  among  the  greatest             attractions of the area, which is also sought after by housing developers. The             same is true for the city district Žebětín, which is adjacent to Bystrc. Žebětín             was originally a typical rural municipality, but in recent years, it has gained             a significantly more suburban character. The largest modern housing estate in             Brno (Kamechy and Pod Chvalovkou, forming one complex which may house             up to several thousand people) is being finished in the cadastral territories of             both  districts  (Bystrc  and  Žebětín).  Neither  district  is  affected  by  industrial             production. They are serviced by trams, buses and trolleybuses (in Bystrc, only             buses in the case of Žebětín) and do not have a direct railway link.             Tab. 2: Significant housing construction development projects in the districts of             Bystrc and Žebětín                                                          Year of   Number of              Builder/developer/investor   Project name                                                        completion   apartments                                        Bytové domy                      IMOS              Farské zahrady,   2004         210                                            Brno              Moravská stavební – INVEST   Bystrc, Přístavní   2005    32              Moravská stavební – INVEST   Bystrc, Šemberka   2009     60                    Impera styl        Bystrc – Kamechy   2012         750                                      Adamcova - bytové                    Impera styl            domy           2014         110                                      Polyfunkční soubor                      REKO             Brno – Kamechy,    2016         250                                      sector 16, 17, AB24                                      Polyfunkční soubor                      REKO             Pod Chvalovkou,    2016         220                                       Brno, sectors 37                                           and 38              Moravská stavební – INVEST   Panorama I and II   2017/2018   321             Sources:  original  table;  http://www.reko.cz/reference-ukoncene-developerske-projekty/;             http://www.imperastyl.cz/reference;   http://www.imos-development.cz/realizace/bytove-             domy-farske-zahrady-brno                                           Slatina             Slatina  has  preserved  the  core  of  the  original  village.  Following  railroad             development  (Slatina  has  its  own  station),  significant  industrial  production             began to form in its vicinity. Although this district is located southeast of Brno             on  flat  land  and  temporarily  retains  its  agricultural  character,  housing             construction  has  always  been  supported  here.  The  construction  of             a prefabricated housing estate in the 1970s and 80s, the regression of army             and  partly  industrial  objects,  and  modern  apartment  buildings  can  be             mentioned. At the beginning of the millennium, one of the largest industrial             zones of the region – Černovická terasa – was constructed in its immediate             vicinity. On the other hand, the project Slatina – Zelené město (Green city) is                                             381","among the most important new housing construction projects in Brno. More           than 800 apartments were finished in this location in the year 2017 alone. The           district is serviced by buses and trolleybuses.           Tab. 3: Significant housing construction development projects in the district of           Slatina            Builder/developer/investor   Project name   Year of   Number of                                                     completion   apartments                 STAVOS Brno         Obytný soubor      2012        285                                     Šmahova, Brno -                                         Slatina                   Bemett            Brno - Slatina II   2017     about 180                    IMOS              Zelené město      2017        655           Sources:   http://www.bydlenibrno.cz/byty/brno-slatina-ii/bytove-domy/zakladni-informace           http://www.slatina-zelenemesto.cz/o-projektu/           http://www.stavos.cz/file/photo_gallery/20140527_083514_bs_obytny_soubor_smahova_brn           o_slatina.jpg                                         Lesná           Aside  from  a  couple  dozen  small  houses,  the  district  of  Lesná  comprises           a prefabricated housing estate, which was constructed in the 1960s and 70s           on  a  gentle  slope  in  the  northern  part  of  the  city.  The  housing  estate,           surrounded by forests and containing several forest parks, is considered the           most well-constructed and sought after one in Brno. In the last two decades,           some  not  very  successful  development  activity  has  been  in  progress  at  the           northern tip of the district. The emerging apartments complexes and houses           fall  short  of  the  Socialist  construction  qualities  in  all  aspects.  Small-scale           industrial production has not been a limiting factor for the quality of life and           housing, as in the case of the large machine plant in Královo Pole, which is           adjacent  from  the  south.  The  district  is  very  easily  accessible  by  trams  and           buses. There is also a direct rail link and a train station on the south edge of           the district.           Tab. 4: Significant housing construction development projects in the district of           Lesná            Builder/developer/investor   Project name   Year of   Number of                                                     completion   apartments           Moravská stavební – INVEST   Majdalenky      2000         390                    REKO             Polyfunkční dům    2006         67                                    „LUČINA“, Brno –                                         Lesná                    IMOS             Bytový komplex     2009         371                                    Nové Majdalenky,                                         Brno                 Pancommerc          Bytový komplex     2009         105                                         Orion           Sources:  original  table;  http://www.imos-development.cz/realizace/bytovy-komplex-nove-           majdalenky-brno; http://www.reko.cz/reference-ukoncene-developerske-projekty/                                        Medlánky           The district of Medlánky is, by its nature, quite suitable for housing and makes           for a very popular location. It is located in the northern part of the city, known                                           382","for  its  rolling  hills  and  strong  green  elements  (parks,  gardens,  meadows,             forests), and it is not affected by the industrial infrastructure. The district is             a combination  of  the  original  rural  settlement  and  both  Socialist  housing             estates and newly constructed houses and apartment complexes, which have             been emerging around it since the early 1990s. The project Nové Medlánky             (New Medlánky) is among the largest non-prefabricated residential complexes             built in Brno after the year 1990. A direct rail link does not exist in the district;             however, the area is serviced by buses, which are linked to a central tram line.             Tab. 5: Significant housing construction development projects in the district of             Medlánky              Builder/developer/investor   Project name   Year of   Number of                                                       completion   apartments                    Impera styl          Medlánky        2007         270                     REKO a.s.         Bytový komplex    2009         1100                                       Nové Medlánky,                                           Brno             Source:    http://www.imperastyl.cz/reference;http://www.reko.cz/reference-ukoncene-             developerske-projekty/                            Fig. 2. Projects of Bystrc – Kamechy and Slatina – Green City.             Source: Josef Kunc                                4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION             In recent years, housing policy has been a very sensitive and largely discussed             topic in the Czech Republic. Both the Czech Ministry of Regional Development             (which  oversees  housing  policy)  and  the  government  itself  have  been             criticized for weak programme support and new laws. Insufficient support of             communal  housing  construction,  starter  homes  and  homes  for  low-income             groups  are  among  the  most  heavily  discussed  issues.  The  unfavorable             situation  is  further  intensified  by  a  long-term  shortage  of  homes  and  the             increase in real estate prices, which is inevitable in times of economic growth.             Still,  in  2017,  the  Czech  construction  industry  has  been  showing  certain             parameters that indicate a future improvement. So far, however, the ongoing             construction is effectively designated for population groups with the highest             income.             In Brno, housing construction and the housing market are representative of             the situation in the whole country. In the long term, there is a lack of new                                             383","homes, and although prices of the ones that are being built are at a record           high,  the  demand  still  significantly  exceeds  the  supply.  According  to  some           statistics,  the  number  of  homes  on  the  market  is  lower  by  about  a  third           compared to previous years. The main reasons are:               -  the ongoing trend of moving to large cities,               -  more investors who buy and rent apartments,               -  the prices significantly increase due to the shortage,               -  sometimes, the apartments in a new complex will be sold out before                  the house is finished, often because of financial speculation.           Housing  construction  development  projects  on  which  we  focused  in  our           contribution show certain spatial and functional specifics in the city of Brno.           These  have  been  indicated  on  the  map  (Figure  1).  The  projects  are  mostly           residential  complexes,  with  small  houses  being  rather  an  exception.  Large           projects of 500 and more apartments in building with a low number of storeys           (typically  3-5)  are  located  in  the  outer  parts  of  Brno  and  are  usually           constructed on greenfields. Solo projects with a lower number of apartments           and a higher number of storeys tend to fill formerly used locations in the inner           parts of the city. The localities which are the most sought after by developers           are attractive districts with a lot of greenery, namely Bystrc, Žebětín, Jundrov,           Medlánky, Královo Pole-Sadová and Lesná in the north and northwest of the           city, and Slatina in the flat southeastern part of Brno (one of the large new           projects, Slatina – Green City, is being built here in place of old barracks).           A  number  of  development  projects  which  could  also  revive  the  real  estate           market  is  being  developed  or  realized.  Examples  include:  the  project           Maloměřické  nábřeží,  which  focuses  on  the  construction  of  single-family           detached  houses,  the  construction  of  an  apartment  building  in  Juliánov,  or           a larger  project,  the  complex  Na  Kamenkách  –  Černovice,  which  should  be           finished in 2020. However, for a developer, housing construction on its own is           not  as  profitable  as  the  construction  of  commercial  buildings,  or           a combination  of  the  two.  Additionally,  considering  that  the  amount  of           suitable  greenfields  in  Brno  is  neither  increasing,  nor  are  they  “politically           desirable”  (criticism  of  uncoordinated  city  growth  and  disintegrated           construction), one should search for locations with pre-existing construction,           which are not being utilized in the long term. A typical example of this is the           former  machine-industrial  area  Zbrojovka.  In  place  of  the  former  industrial           plant, a new city quarter Nová Zbrojovka will be constructed, containing about           800 apartments, large office spaces, shops, and light industry (the developer           CPI Property Group). The revitalization of a Siemens factory building in Berlin,           where  several  functions  were  joined  together,  was  the  inspiration  for  this           project. A project of CTP Invest. the largest development company operating           in Brno, is another example of brownfield utilization. In place of the former           textile factory Vlněna, office spaces and apartment buildings (in later stages of           construction, according to the current plans) will be constructed. The use of           brownfields  or,  in  general,  places  formerly  utilized  (not  only)  for  housing           construction  is  an  important  element  for  the  revitalization  of  the  city  and           a desired future state.                                             384","Acknowledgement: This paper has been elaborated in the scope of an internal             grant  of  the  Faculty  of  Economics  and  Administration,  Masaryk  University,             entitled  “Metropolitan  processes  formating  traditional  city  structure:  an             example of Brno Metropolitan Area” (MUNI/A/0976/2016).                                         REFERENCES             A PLUS A.S. [online] 2017. [cit. 2017-10-14] URL: http://www.aplus.cz             ABRAST.   O   asociaci.   [online]   2015.   [cit.   2017-10-10].   URL:             http://www.brast.cz/o-asociaci/             ACHOUR, G. EPRAVO.CZ Developerské projekty I. - financování developerského             projektu.   [online]   2004.         [cit.   2017-05-22].   URL:             http://www.epravo.cz/top/clanky/developerske-projekty-i-             financovanideveloperskeho-projektu-22654.html             ARCHIWEB. Víceúčelový komplex ORION. [online] 2009 [cit. 2017-10-14] URL:             https://www.archiweb.cz/buildings.php?action=show\&id=2166             BEMETT, A.S. [online] 2017. [cit. 2017-10-14] URL: http://www.bydlenibrno.cz             BURGESS, E. W. The Growth of the City: An Introduction to a Research Project.             Publications of the American Sociological Society, no. 18, 1924. pp. 85-97.             DVOŘÁK,  Z.  and  FRÁNKOVÁ,  Š.  Potenciál  soukromých  investic  pro  inovační             infrastrukturu  města  Brna.  In  Fakulta  regionálního  rozvoje  a mezinárodních             studií. Region v rozvoji společnosti 2016. Brno: Mendelova univerzita, 2016.             pp. 201-214. ISBN 978-80-7509-459-9.             DVOŘÁK, Z. Velké developerské projekty na území města Brna. In Nováček, A             (ed.): Geografické myšlení jako aktuální společenská výzva. České Budějovice:             Jihočeská univerzita, 2016. pp. 73-78. ISBN 978-80-7394-619-7.             ESCOBAR,  A.  The  Development  dictionary:  a  guide  to  knowledge  as  power.             New York: Zed Books. 2010, pp. 145-160. ISBN 978-1-84813-379-2.             ESTEVA,  G.  The  Development  dictionary:  a  guide  to  knowledge  as  power.             Development. New York: Zed Books, 2010. pp. 1-23. ISBN 978-1-84813-379-2.             FORAL,  M. and ANDRÁŠKO,  I.  Developerské  kancelářské  projekty  v Brně.  In             Andráško,  I,  Dvořák,  P.,  Ira,  V.  (eds): Časoprostorové  změny  regionálních             struktur ČR a SR.  Brno: Ústav geoniky AV ČR, 2012. pp. 12-19. ISBN 978-80-             86407-25-8.             FRANTÁL,  B.,  GREER-WOOTTEN,  B.,  KLUSÁČEK,  P.,  KREJČÍ,  T., KUNC,             J. and MARTINÁT,  S.  Exploring  spatial  patterns  of  urban  brownfields             regeneration:  The  case  of  Brno,  Czech  Republic. Cities,  Amsterdam,             Netherlands:  Elsevier,  Ltd.,  2015,  vol. 44,  pp. 9-18.  ISSN 0264-2751.             https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2014.12.007             FYFE,  N.  R.,  KENNY,  J.  T.  The  Urban  Geography  Reader.  London:  Routledge,             2005, pp. 404. ISBN 0-415-30701-5.             GREGORY, D. The dictionary of human geography. 5th edition. Malden, MA:             Wiley-Blackwell, 2009, vol. XVI, pp. 1052. ISBN 978-1-4051-3287-9.                                                385","HALL,  P.  Cities  of  tomorrow:  an  intellectual  history  of  urban  planning  and           design in the twentieth century. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers, 2002. ISBN           0-631-23264-8.           HORSKÁ,  P.,  MAUR,  E.  and  MUSIL,  J.  Zrod  velkoměsta:  urbanizace  českých           zemí a Evropa. Praha: Paseka, 2002. pp. 352. ISBN 80-7185-409-3.           CHALOUPKOVÁ, M. Subjective dimension of the quality of life: case study of           the Lelekovice municipality. In: Klímová, V., Žítek, V. (eds): XIX. Mezinárodní           kolokvium o regionálních vědách. Sborník příspěvků. 2017. Brno: Masarykova           univerzita, pp. 481-488. ISBN 978-80-210-8586-2           IMOS DEVELOPMENT [online] 2016. [cit. 2017-10-14] URL: http://www.imos-           development.cz           IMPERA    STYL,   A.S.   [online]   2016.   [cit.   2017-10-14]   URL:           http://www.imperastyl.cz           JACKSON, J. Urban sprawl. Urbanismus a územní rozvoj. Brno: Ústav územního           rozvoje, 2002, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 21-28.           KALÁB  STAVEBNÍ  FIRMA  S.R.O.  [online]  2017.  [cit.  2017-10-14]  URL:           http://www.kalab.cz/cs/           KRZYSZTOFIK,  R.,  TKOCZ,  M.,  SPÓRNA,  T.  and  KANTOR-PIETRAGA,  I.  Some           dilemmas of post-industrialism in a region of traditional industry: The case of           the  Katowice  conurbation,  Poland.  Institute  of  Geonics,  Czech  Academy  of           Sciences,  Moravian  Geographical  Reports,  2016,  vol.  24,  no.  1,  pp.  42–54.           ISSN 1210-8812. https://doi.org/10.1515/mgr-2016-0004           KUNC, J. and TONEV, P. Funkční a prostorová diferenciace brownfields: příklad           města Brna. Regionální studia, Praha: Vysoká škola ekonomická v Praze, 2008,           vol. II, no. 1, pp. 30-37. ISSN 1803-1471.           KUNC, J., TONEV, P. and ANDRÁŠKO, I. Rozvojové zóny a soukromý developer:           vybraný  příklad  ve  střední  Evropě  (CTP  Invest).  Geographia  Cassoviensis,           Košice: Univerzita P. J. Šafárika v Košiciach, 2008, vol. II, no. 1, pp. 93-97. ISSN           1337-6748.           KUNC,  J., NAVRÁTIL,  J., TONEV,  P., FRANTÁL,  B., KLUSÁČEK,  P.,  MARTINÁT,           S., HAVLÍČEK, M. and ČERNÍK, J. Perception of urban renewal: reflexions and           coherences  of  socio-spatial  patterns  (Brno,  Czech  republic). Geographia           Technica,  Cluj-Napoca:  Cluj  University  Press,  2014,  vol.  9,  no.  1,  pp. 66-77.           ISSN 1842-5135.           KUNC,  J., MARTINÁT,  S., TONEV,  P. and FRANTÁL,  B.  Destiny  of  urban           brownfields:  spatial patterns and perceived consequences of post-socialistic           deindustrialization. Transylvanian  Review  of  Administrative  Sciences.  Cluj-           Napoca: Babes-Bolyai University, 2014, vol. 10, 41E, pp. 109-128. ISSN 1842-           2845.           MAIER, K. and ČTYROKÝ, J. Ekonomika územního rozvoje. Praha: Grada, 2000.           ISBN 80-7169-644-7.           MALACHOVÁ,  A. and KUNC,  J.  Developerské  projekty  na  brownfields:           případové  studie  z  Brna.  In  Klímová,  V.,  Žítek,  V  (eds): XVI.  mezinárodní           kolokvium  o  regionálních  vědách.  Sborník  příspěvků.  Brno:  Masarykova           univerzita, 2013. pp. 245-255. ISBN 978-80-210-6257-3.                                            386","MALÝ, J. and MULÍČEK, O. European territorial cohesion policies: Parallels to             socialist  central  planning? Moravian  Geographical  Reports,  Institute  of             Geonics,  Czech  Academy  of  Sciences,  2016,  roč. 24,  vol. 1,  pp. 14-26.             ISSN 1210-8812.             MORAVSKÁ  STAVEBNÍ  –  INVEST,  A.S.  [online]  2013.  [cit.  2017-10-14]  URL:             http://ms-invest.cz/byty-panorama/             MULÍČEK,  O. and TOUŠEK,  V.  Changes  of  Brno  Industry  and  their  Urban             Consequenses. Bulletin of Geography (socio-economic series), Toruń: Nicolaus             Copernikus University, 2004, vol. 3, pp. 61-70. ISSN 1732-4254.             MULÍČEK, O. Prostorové aspekty současného vývoje brněnské maloobchodní             sítě. Urbanismus  a  územní  rozvoj.  Brno:  Ústav  územního  rozvoje,  2007,             2007/6, pp. 14-20. ISSN 1212-0855.             MULÍČEK,  O.  Suburbanizace  v  Brně  a  jeho  okolí.  In:  SÝKORA,  Luděk             (ed.). Suburbanizace a její sociální, ekonomické a ekologické důsledky. Praha:             Ústav pro ekopolitiku, o.p.s., 2002, pp. 171-181. ISBN 80-901914-9-5.             PARK, R. E., BURGESS, E. W. and MCKENZIE, R. D. The city. Chicago: University             of Chicago Press, 1926, XI.             PIKE, A., RODRÍGUEZ-POSE A. a TOMANEY, J. Local and regional development.             London: Routledge, Taylor \& Francis Group, 2006. ISBN 0-415-35717-9.             REKO, A.S. [online] 2011. [cit. 2017-10-14] URL: http://www.reko.cz             SACHS,  W.  The  Development  dictionary:  a  guide  to  knowledge  as  power.             Introduction. New York: Zed Books, 2010. ISBN 978-1-84813-379-2.             STAVOS    BRNO    A.S.   [online]   2017.   [cit.   2017-10-14]   URL:             http://www.stavos.cz/cs/             SÝKORA,  L.  Suburbanizace  a  její  důsledky:  výzva  pro  výzkum,  usměrňování             rozvoje   území   a   společenskou   angažovanost.   In: SÝKORA,   Luděk             (ed.). Suburbanizace a její sociální, ekonomické a ekologické důsledky. Praha:             Ústav pro geopolitiku, o.p.s., 2002, pp. 9-19. ISBN 80-901914-9-5.             SÝKORA, L. Urban Development, Policy and Planning in the Czech Republic and             Prague.  In:  Altrock,  U.,  Günter,  S.,  Huning,  S.,  Peters,  D.  (eds.):  Spatial             Planning  and  Urban  Development  in  the  New  EU  Member  States.  From             Adjastment  to  Reinvention.  Burlington:  Ashgate,  2008.  pp.  113-140.  ISBN             9781138273214.             TONEV,    P., DVOŘÁK,   Z., ŠAŠINKA,   P., KUNC,   J.,   CHALOUPKOVÁ,             M. and ŠILHAN, Z. Different approaches to defining metropolitan areas (Case             study: cities of Brno and Ostrava, Czech Republic). Geographia Technica, Cluj:             Cluj  University  Press,  2017,  vol.  12,  no.  1,  pp. 108-120.  ISSN 1842-5135.             https://doi.org/10.21163/GT_2017.121.11             WU,  F.  “Transitional  cities.  Commentary”.  Environment  and  planning  A.             London: SAGE, 2003, vol. 35, no. 8, pp. 1331-1338. ISSN 0308-518X.                                                   387","Shrnutí           Hospodářská krize, která začala zhruba před deseti lety, ochromila na určitou           dobu územní rozvoj i konkrétní developerské projekty v urbánním prostředí           nejen  v České  republice.  Poté,  co  byla  řada  významných  developerských           projektů  pozastavena  či  zrušena,  se  aktivity  aktérů  územního  rozvoje  již  po           několik let vrací ke stavu před rokem 2008, který byl charakteristický velkým           developerským  boomem.  Dlouhodoběji  převažuje  výstavba  nadstandardních           nerezidenčních  komplexů  (administrativa,  kanceláře),  obytných  souborů           „sídlištního“  i  vilového  typu  a  v posledních  letech  také  stále  více  rezonují           projekty,  jejichž  klíčovou  náplní  je  výzkum,  vývoj  a  inovace,  příp.  kultura           a vzdělávání. Staví se jak na zelené louce, tak častěji na dříve již využívaných           lokalitách  (brownfields).  Investoři  se  v zásadě  rekrutují  z řad  privátních           společností, většinou nadnárodních, aktivní se však snaží být i veřejný sektor           (města,  kraje).  Cílem  příspěvku  je  představit  aktuální  stav  funkčně-           prostorových aspektů (morfologii města) developerského prostředí ve městě           Brně z pohledu developerů zaměřujících se na bytovou výstavbu.           Bytová výstavba a trh s byty v Brně kopírují celorepublikovou situaci. Ve městě           je dlouhodobě nedostatek nových bytů, a přestože cena těch, co se postaví, je           rekordně vysoká, poptávka stále výrazně převyšuje nabídku. Na trhu je podle           některých statistik až o třetinu méně bytů, než tomu bylo v minulých letech.           Jedná se hlavně o tyto důvody:               -  pokračuje trend stěhování do větších měst,               -  je více investorů, kteří byty skupují a dále pronajímají,               -  nedostatek bytů výrazně zvyšuje jejich cenu,               -  byty z nové výstavby někdy zájemci vykoupí ještě před dokončením                  domu, často také za účelem finanční spekulace.           Developerské projekty bytové výstavby, na které jsme se v našem příspěvku           zaměřili,  vykazují  v Brně  určitá  prostorová  a  funkční  specifika.  Staví  se           převážně komplexy bytových domů, rodinné domy jsou spíše výjimkou. Velké           projekty s 500 a více byty v domech s nižším počtem pater (typicky 3-5) jsou           lokalizovány v okrajových částech Brna a jejich výstavba probíhá většinou na           zelené  louce,  sólo  projekty  s malým  počtem  bytů  a  vyšším  počtem  pater           vyplňují  dříve  využívaná  území  spíše  ve  vnitřních  částech  Brna.  Developery           nejvíce  vyhledávané  lokality  se  nacházejí  v přírodně  atraktivních  městských           částech  Bystrc,  Žebětín,  Medlánky,  Královo  Pole-Sadová  a  Lesná  na severu           a severozápadě Brna, a na jihovýchodě v rovinaté části Slatina (právě zde je           jeden  z velkých  a  nových  projektů,  Slatina  –  Zelené  město,  stavěn  na  ploše           bývalých kasáren). Vzhledem k tomu, že volných ploch pro výstavbu dalších           bytových jednotek ubývá, bude zajímavé do budoucna sledovat, jak se bude           trh s nemovitostmi (nejen v Brně) vyvíjet.                                                  388","HEALTH GEOGRAPHY – THE CONTEXT OF HEALTH AND THE                    ENVIRONMENT ON THE EXAMPLE OF ASTHMA DIAGNOSIS                                                    1                                 1                                                                     2                     Dana Hübelová , Alice Kozumplíková , Jarmila Überhuberová              1               Fakulta regionálního rozvoje a mezinárodních studií Mendelovy univerzity v Brně,                                  Třída gen. Píky 7, Brno 613 00                2                Dětská léčebna se speleoterapií v Ostrově u Macochy, Ostrov u Macochy 389,                                           679 14                     dana.hubelova@mendelu.cz, alice.kozumplikova@mendelu.cz,                                 uberhuberova@detskelecebny.cz              Abstract:  Non-communicable  diseases  are  the  most  common  cause  of             morbidity and mortality in developed countries.  The aim of the paper is to             present the development of patients with asthma diagnosis and mortality on             diseases  of  the  respiratory  system  in  relation  to  the  emissions  of  major             pollutants  in  2006–2015  and  the  air  pollution  load  expressed  in  five-year             averages  between  2011  and  2015.  Model  regions  represent  deliberately             selected  regions  of  the  Czech  Republic.  The  growth  of  the  number  of             dispensarized patients with asthma diagnosis is reported by the whole Czech             Republic and selected regions in the period 2006–2015. The highest share of             growth by age groups has populations aged 20+. The number of patients with             asthma  diagnosis  (per  100,000  inhabitants)  significantly  exceeds  the  Czech             Republic  in  the  Moravian-Silesian  Region,  while  the  low  number  of  these             patients is in the South Bohemian Region. These trends also correspond to the             emission and values of the main air pollutants transferred to the burden of             the territory, despite the improvement in their status compared to 2006 and             2015.             Key words: population health, asthma diagnosis, mortality on diseases of the             respiratory system, emissions of major pollutants                                       INTRODUCTION             Health is fundamental for the reproduction process and development of the             work potential an thus for the overall economic growth of the country. The             level of health and health condition of the population reflects the standard of             development of the society and its history reflects historic conditions affected             by environmental, demographic, economic and other factors. Morbidity is the             basic  indicator  of  the  health  of  the  population.  Morbidity  study  monitors             prevalence of individual diseases in the population under the subject name             epidemiology (Tobiasz-Adamczyk et al., 2011). The relationship between the             environmental  factors  and  human  health  is  studied  by  the  newly  formed             subject of environmental health, with a very broad and very topical scope of             interest. Environmental health focuses on disease prevention and creation of             a health-supporting environment (Lakes et al., 2014). A correlation between             human  health  and  the  environment  has  been  found,  inter  alia,  in  the                                              389","prevalence  of  paediatric  asthma  and  allergies  (Friis,  2011),  in  the  recent           decades  representing  the  most  frequently  occurring  non-communicable           diseases (NCD; Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic, 2016).                               THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS           The theoretical part of this contribution offers a brief survey of the subject of           health  geography,  presenting  disease  classification,  specifying  NCD  and           environmental effects and focusing on asthma and the role of speleotherapy.                     Health Geography in Context of Health and Morbidity           Health geography deals with environment effects on human health, trying to           penetrate  into  the  synergies  of  the  phenomena  affecting  the  landscape           sphere,  including  the  landscape  population.  Health  geography  significantly           contributes to discovering and potential elimination of diseases, encouraging           support of prevention, development of human health care and improvement           of  its  availability  (Preis,  2011).  Supportive  non-geographical  disciplines  of           health  geography  include  medicine  (traditional,  human,  veterinary,  social,           occupational  medicine,  hygiene  etc.),  environmental  studies,  psychology,           sociology etc. (Goovaerts, 2010).           While abroad the themes of health geography are paid substantial long-term           attention  (for  a  survey  see  Cummins,  Milligant,  2000),  in  our  country  only           sporadic  contributions  have  recently  begun  to  appear  after  a  considerable           attenuation since 1990s (for details see Pavlík et al., 2017). Health geography,           unlike clinical medicine, specifically follows flat processes with an emphasis on           the location and spatial issues (for example disease spread in connection with           the way people are organised in space and in relation to the environment;           Lakes et al., 2014). Geographers often use mapping as a visual instrument of           search  for  and  examination  of  spatial  models  in  relation  to  health  and  the           subject  cooperates  with  geo-statistics  (Goovaerts,  2009;  2010)  and  also           represents an important instrument of planning and implementation of public           health policies (Guimarães, 2010).                     Disease Classification, NCD and Environmental Effects           With  regard  to  their  nature  and  the  possibility  to  affect  their  prevalence           diseases can be classified as follows: (1) infectious (contagious) and (2) non-           infectious (non-communicable diseases; NCD), which may further be divided           to  (a)  preventable  with  the  potential  of  timely  prevention,  and (b) non-           preventable.  NCD  become  a  great  threat  for  future  population  health  and           their highest prevalence is noted in developed countries with the highest level           of  social  and  economic  progress.  After  having  mastered  prevention  and           treatment of the most common infectious diseases the structure of chronic           morbidity has changed substantially. NCD represent about 80% of all diseases           in the developed countries. NCD can be perceived as degenerative diseases           related  to  the  way  of  life,  lifestyle  and  environmental  factors  (Komárek,           Provazník, 2011). NCD mean for the affected individual and for the society loss           of quality of life manifested by a high level of limitation of work and leisure-           time  activities  with  economic  impact  and  increasing  number  of  premature           deaths  (Santos,  Moreira,  2012).  For  the  next  couple  of  decades  there  are                                             390","global  predictions  of  NCD  growth,  as  the  currently  most  frequent  cause  of             morbidity and the main cause of mortality worldwide (Ribeiro et al., 2012).             In the Czech Republic (CR) population health is significantly determined by air             quality affected by transport, fossil fuel burning in industry and households.             The effect of air pollution on human health, especially on the respiratory and             the  cardiovascular  system,  is  documented  by  numerous  studies  (such  as             Dockery  et  al.,  1993;  Pope,  2002;  Tonne  et  al.,  2016).  The  relationship             between  air  pollution  by  transport  (substances  PM 10 ;  PM 2,5 ;  NO 2 ;  BaP)  and             prevalence of asthma in the paediatric population is mentioned by a number             of authors (Wilhelm et al., 2009; Weinmayr et al., 2010; Di Novi, 2013; Šrám et             al., 2013).                               Asthma and Role of Speleotherapy             Bronchial  asthma  (asthma  bronchiale)  is  chronic  disease  of  the  respiratory             tract  characterised  by  chronic  inflammation  of  the  bronchial  tube  wall.  As             shown by epidemiology studies, the global count of patients with diagnosed             asthma  bronchiale  exceeds  300  million,  with  different  prevalence  and             significant  geographic  variability.  The  ISAAC  (International  Study  of  Asthma             and Allergy in Children) proved prevalence of wheezes in the past 12 months             in  children  of  the  age  group  6–7  ranging  between  4–32%,  respectively             between  2.1–32%  in  the  age  group  14–15  years.  The  lowest  values  were             recorded in India, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Albania, China and Greece and             the  highest  values  were  noted  in  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Great  Britain             and Brazil.  The  prevalence  is  lower  in  the  adult  population  with  the  same             geographical  distribution  (Asher  et  al.,  2006).  The  ECRHS  (European             Community  Respiratory  Health  Survey)  reports  asthma  prevalence  in             Germany,  Spain,  Estonia,  Greece  and  Italy  between  2–3%,  while  in  Great             Britain, Australia and New Zealand between 8–11.9%. The difference is mainly             attributed  to  environment  effects,  civilisation  factors  and  the  way  of  life             (Hazenkamp-von Arx et al., 2004). Estimated asthma prevalence in the Czech             Republic  is  8%  (800 thousand  individuals),  with  over  10%  recorded  in  the             paediatric  population.  Despite  this  relatively  high  share  many  patients  are             believed not yet to be diagnosed at all (Pohunek, Svobodová, 2007).             Asthma  is  classified  by  severity  of  symptoms  and  level  of  their  therapeutic             management.  Medication  is  inevitable,  biological  therapies  are  available  in             the  cases  of  hard-to-treat  asthma.  Other  officially  recommended             complementary  therapeutic  procedures  include  specific  immunotherapy,             speleotherapy, breathing rehab, yoga, psychotherapy etc. (Asher et al., 2006).             Speleotherapy is a climatic therapeutic method using the specific cave climate             as  a  natural  healing  resource.  Speleotherapy  represents  a  complementary             element  of  the  complex  therapy  of  asthmatic  patients,  including             pharmaceuticals, reducing their need to a minimum. Speleotherapy reduces             asthma  episodes  up  to  five  times  and  minimises  administration  of  the             otherwise frequently needed antibiotic therapy. The origins of speleotherapy             in  the  Czech  environment  date  back  to  1970s  when  speleotherapy  was             provided  at  three  locations:  (1) paediatric  sanatorium  Edel  in  Zlaté  Hory  in             a reconstructed  mine,  (2) stalagmite  cave  Císařská  used  by  paediatric             sanatorium  with  speleotherapy  at  Ostrov  u  Macochy,  and  (3)  paediatric             sanatorium  Vojtěchov.  The  first  two  sanatoria  still  continue  to  use             speleotherapy exclusively for paediatric patients. The cave microclimate must                                             391","comply with the strict requirements defined by the Permanent Committee for           Speleotherapy  working  under  the  NGO  called  International  Union  of           Speleology of UNESCO (UIS, 2014). The controlled parameters include stable           temperature  (7–8  °C),  minimum  air  flow,  high  relative  humidity  (close  to           100%), dust-free environment and microbial and allergen sterility, increased           CO 2  level, low pH, negative ion concentration etc. (Uhlíř et al., 2015).           The  complex  speleotherapeutic  programme  in  the  paediatric  sanatorium  at           Ostrov  u  Macochy  is  operated  in  3.5-hour  daily  runs  in  the  unique           microclimate of the Císařská cave inaccessible to the public. The original and           the  ongoing  studies  of  the  speleotherapeutic  sessions  in  the  paediatric           sanatorium at Ostrov u Macochy indicate that the clinical symptoms of the           patients  are  reduced  during  and  after  the  treatment  to  varied  extents.           Repeated  speleotherapeutic  therapies  deepen  the  effects  and  extend  the           time of their duration after treatment. Three successive therapies significantly           improved the condition of 60–65% of the patients and in 30% of cases the           clinical effect was more moderate and required more rounds. The prediction           is  good  in  the  case  of  early  diagnosis  and  early  preventive  care.  Paediatric           asthma  in  the  second  decade  of  life  often  reaches  spontaneous  remission           allowing for discontinuation of the chronic medication. Unfortunately, in up to           half  of  these  asthmatic  children  the  disease  relapses  at  a  later  age           (unpublished data).               STUDY ENDPOINT, METHODS, MODEL LOCALITIES AND DATA USED           The purpose of the present article is to present the relationship between the           development of the dispensary patients with diagnosed asthma (2005–2013)           and emissions of the main air pollutants in the period 2005–2015. Dispensary           patients mean patients actively sought and early diagnosed and treated and           requiring systematic preventive or therapeutic care. Out of the basic statistical           methods  of  timeline  and  spatial  data  analyses  this  study  used  statistical           processing of chain indices and mean growth coefficients. With regard to data           availability the defined time period was 2005–2015. The model localities were           intentionally chosen in three regions of the Czech Republic: (1) South Moravia           Region  (SMR),  (2)  Moravian  Silesia  Region  (MSR)  and  (3)  South  Bohemia           Region  (SBR).  (1)  South  Moravia  Region  was  selected  for  the  reason  of  the           existing  paediatric  sanatorium  with  speleotherapy  at  Ostrov  u  Macochy,           (2) Moravian Silesia Region for the reason of the maximum pollutant emission           stress of the population, and (3) South Bohemia Region on the contrary for           the  lowest  long-term  stress  of  the  population  with  emissions  of  the  main           pollutants.           The data on the dispensary patients with diagnosed asthma were taken from           Healthcare Yearbooks of the Institute of Health Information and Statistics of           the Czech Republic for the regions of interest in the years 2005–2013 (2013 is           so far the last year for which the data are published; IHIS CR, 2004–2014). The           data  on  the  development  of  mortality  related  to  respiratory  tract  diseases           were  taken  from  the  Public  Database  of  the  Czech  Statistical  Office  (CSO,           2016). Pollutant emissions for the selected regions and for the whole country           are interpreted as the sum of emissions (solid particles, SO 2 , NO x , CO, VOC,                      -1                          -2           NH 3 ) in t.year .km  recorded in the database of the Register of Emissions and           Sources of Air Pollution (REZZO 1-4) for the period 2006–2015. The definition                                          392","of  time  periods  is  determined  by  the  difference  in  data  availability             (dispensarized  patients  versus  pollutant  emissions).  For  the  purpose  of             interpretation  of  emission  burdens  of  the  Czech  regions  the  substances             polluting the air and contributing to asthma prevalence in the Czech Republic             were chosen. The table below shown the substances and their air pollution             limits defined by the Air Protection Act (Tab. 1). Regional burdens with these             substances  are  shown  by  figures  (Fig.  1  to  4)  based  on  five-year  means             concentrations of the air pollution (2011–2015) in a 1x1 km grid in the regions             of the Czech Republic.             Tab. 1: Selected air pollutants and their air pollution limits for CR             Pollutant                               Air pollution limit             NO 2                                    40 µg.m-3             PM 10                                   40 µg.m-3             PM 2,5                                  25 µg.m-3             BaP (in particles PM 10 )               1.0 ng.m-3             Source: Air Protection Act                                          RESULTS             Development  of  the  number  of  dispensary  patients  with  diagnosed  asthma             was monitored for the Czech Republic and for the selected regions and for the             sake of comparability recalculated to 100 thousand inhabitants. While in the             South Bohemia Region the development of the numbers of registered patients             with  diagnosed  asthma  in  the  period  2005–2013  was  stabilised,  the  South             Moravia Region showed a slightly growing trend over the same period. The             highest increase was seen in Moravian Silesia with the peak in 2009 (Chart 1).                   5000                dispensarized patients / 100   ths. inhabitants  4000    CR                   4500                    3500                                                                         SMR                   3000                                                                         MSR                                                                         SBR                   2500                   2000                   1500                   1000                      2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013             Chart  1:  Development  of  numbers  of  registered  asthmatic  patients  per  100             thousand inhabitants in the Czech Republic and in selected regions (2005–2013)             Source: IHIS CR (2006–2014), in-house calculations and data processing              Data evaluation in time and records of year-on-year changes used the growth             coefficient (in %). The development of the numbers of registered asthmatic             patients in South Moravia and South Bohemia in fact copies the development             in the whole country, with South Bohemia keeping stable development of the             number (the curve ranges around 100%). A similar situation may be observed             in South Moravia, only with a higher increase in 2006. Moravian Silesia shows                                              393","stable  year-on-year  growth  from  the  baseline  lowest  value  with  the  most           significant  peak  increase  in  2009.  Only  the  years  2011,  2012  and 2013  are           stabilised in analogy to the other two regions (Chart 2).              260,00              240,00              220,00              200,00                                                                       CR              180,00                                                   SMR             %              160,00                                                   MSR              140,00                                                   SBR              120,00              100,00               80,00               60,00                  2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013           Chart 2: Growth coefficient of registered asthmatic patients per 100 thousand           inhabitants in the Czech Republic and in selected regions (2005–2013)           Source: IHIS CR (2006–2014), in-house calculations and data processing            Negative  development  of  emissions  and  the  highest  pollution  with  the           selected  pollutants  are  shown  by  Moravian  Silesia,  while  South  Bohemia           shows the lowest pollution level (Chart 3). Thanks to the introduction of new           industrial  technologies  and  application  of  administrative  instruments  of  air           pollution reduction the annual emissions decrease with slight fluctuations in           all the monitored indicators.               60               50                                                     CR              Emmissions (t/year/km 2 )  30                           SMR               40                                                                       MSR                                                                      SBR               20               10                 0                2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015           Chart  3:  Development  of  emissions  of  the  main  pollutants  in  selected  regions           and the country situation in the period 2006–2015           Source: REZZO 1-4 (Czech Hydro Meteorological Institute), in-house processing            Figs.  1–4  show  five-year  means  of  selected  substance  concentrations  (NO 2 ,           PM2,5; PM10; BaP) (2011–2015) in the 1x1 km grid in the regions of the Czech           Republic.  The  red  colour  highlights  the  regions  where  the  legislative  air           pollution  limits  pursuant  to  the  Air  Protection  Act  (201/2012  Coll.)  and  the                                           394","Decree  on  the  Method  of  Assessment  and  Evaluation  of  Pollution  Levels             (330/2012 Coll.) were exceeded. Clearly NO 2  pollution most strongly affects             urban  agglomerations  (Prague,  Brno,  Ostrava)  due  to  traffic  (Fig.  1).             Suspended  particles  PM 10   and  PM 2,5  most  heavily  burden  industrial  zones             (Fig. 2 and 3). Problematic and hard to control in this respect is the transport             of pollutant particles across long distances by air flows including from regions             outside the Czech Republic to Silesia and Moravia (mainly from Poland). The             greatest  danger  in  this  context  is  represented  by  suspended  particles  with             bound  polycyclic  aromatic  hydrocarbons  with  proven  carcinogenic  effects             (C-PAU mainly represented by benzo[a]pyrene; Fig. 4).                                                                          -3            Fig.  1.  Five-year  mean  concentrations  of  NO 2   (µg.m )  across  1x1  km  grid  in            regions of CR (2011–2015).                                                                            -3            Fig. 2. Five-year mean concentrations of PM2.5 (µg.m ) across 1x1 km  grid in            regions of CR (2011–2015).                                                395","-3            Fig.  3.  Five-year  mean  concentrations  of  PM10  (µg.m )  across  1x1  km  grid  in            regions of CR (2011–2015).                                                                                   -3            Fig. 4. Five-year mean concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene (ng.m ) across 1x1 km            grid in regions of CR (2011–2015).            Source: ISKO CHMI                                                        396","Monitoring  of  the  development  in  the  numbers  of  asthmatic  patients  in                the individual regions by age group indicates that the incidence grows in                the  20+  age  group,  while  age  groups  6–14  and  15–19  show  a  rather                decreasing  tendency.  The  youngest  age  group  of  0–5  is  relatively  stable                (Chart  4a;  4b).  The  year  2009  in  Moravian  Silesia  shows  a  very  specific                break  in  the  development,  which  may  be  due  to  transiently  increased                diagnosing  of  the  disease  by  reporting  the  new  age  group  of  0-5  and                worsened smog situation (Chart 4c).                              (a) SMR                      (b) SBR                  70,00                        60,00                  60,00                                               50,00                  50,00                                               40,00                  40,00                  %                            30,00                  30,00                  20,00                        20,00                  10,00                        10,00                  0,00                                                0,00                         age 0-5      age 6-14                         age 15-19    age 20+                                            (c) MSR                             80,00                             70,00                             60,00                             50,00                             40,00                             30,00                             20,00                             10,00                              0,00                 Chart 4: Proportions of registered patients by age group in SMR (a), MSR (b)                and SBR (c) in the years 2005–2013                Source: IHIS CR (2006–2014), in-house calculations and processing                               RESULT SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION                Unfavourable  health  condition  is  one  of  the  global  problems,  therefore                health  and  health  condition  of  the  population  is  every  society´s  first                priority.  Heath  is  one  of  the  major  assumption  of  quality  of  human  life.                Health is also an indispensable condition for economic growth and social                progress  (Pavlík  et  al.,  2017;  Somerlíková,  Hübelová,  2016).  Clearly  the                activities  of  the  various  entities  in  the  field  of  health  support,  healthy                nutrition and adequate physical activity do not show the expected results                                             397","in  a  broader  scale.  What  is  need  is  measures  across  all  areas  of           governmental  policy  and  on  all  levels  of  public  administration  using           different  including  legislative  tools.  The  private  sector  should  also           contribute to health support (for example the food processing industry),           together  with  civic  associations,  families  and  individuals  (Kalman  et  al.,           2011).           Our analytical results show continual growth of the numbers of dispensary           (registered) patents with diagnosed asthma in the period 2006–2013, on           the  level  of  the  Czech  Republic  as  a  whole  and  in  the  selected  model           regions.  The  highest  increase  of  asthma  incidence  was  noted  in  the           20+ age group. The count of known asthmatic patients per 100 thousand           inhabitants  significantly  outnumbers  country  values  in  Moravian  Silesia,           while  South  Bohemia  shows  constantly  lowest  values.  These  trends           correspond to emission stress by the main pollutants per territory despite           the improvement of air quality between the baseline in 2006 and the final           year  of  the  monitored  period,  2015.  The  same  results  documenting           existence of a relation between air pollution by traffic (PM 10 ; PM 2,5 ; NO 2 ;           BaP) and paediatric asthma incidence are presented by a number of other           authors (compare Wilhelm et al., 2009; Weinmayr et al., 2010; Šrám et al.,           2013).           The therapeutic effect of speleotherapy is in improvement of the condition           of  the  child  with  the  chronic  respiratory  disease  in  a  dust-free,  sterile           environment,  overall  reduction  of  morbidity  and  minimisation  of           medication  needed  to  maintain  good  control  over  asthma.  Thus           speleotherapy   significantly   and   unquestionably   contributes   to           improvement of quality of life of its subjects.            The text was created in the project “The spatial dimensions of demographic           factors, health and health status of the population in the Czech Republic”           with registration number 2017/008 supported by the Internal Grant Agency           of  the  Faculty  of  Regional  Development  and  International  Studies  of           Mendel University in Brno.                                     REFERENCES           ASHER, M. I., MONTEFORT, S., BJÖRKSTEN, B., LAI, C. K., STRACHAN D. P.,           WEILAND  S.  K,  WILLIAMS  H.  (and  the  ISAAC  Phase  Three  Study  Group).           Worldwide time trends in the prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic           rhinoconjunctivitis, and eczema in childhood: ISAAC Phases One and Three           repeat multicountry cross-sectional surveys. Lancet, 2006, 368(9537): 733–           743. ISSN 0140-6736.           CSO. Selected demographic data by district. [online]. Praha: CSO, 2016 [cit.           25.09.2017]. Available at: <https://www.czso.cz/csu/xb/okresy>           CUMMINS, S., MILLIGANT, C. Taking up the challenge: new directions in the           geographies of health and impairment. Area, 2000, 321: 7–9. ISSN 1475-           4762.                                          398","DI NOVI, C. The indirect effect of fine particulate matter on health through                individuals’ life-style. Journal of Socio-Economics, 2013, 44(C): 27–36. ISSN                1759-3441.                DOCKERY, D. W., POPE C. A., XU, X., SPENGLER, J. D., WARE, J. H., FAY, M.                E., FERRIS, B. G., SPEIZER, F. E. An association between air pollution and                mortality  in  six  U.S.  cities.  The  New  England  Journal  of  Medicine,  1993,                329(24): 1753–1759. ISSN 0028-4793.                FRIIS, R. H. Essentials of Environmental Health. Sudbury: Jones \& Bartlett,                2011. ISBN 978-07-637-7890-3.                GOOVAERTS,  P.  Combining  areal  and  point  data  in  geostatistical                interpolation:  applications  to  soil  science  and  medical  geography.                Mathematical  Geosciences,  2010,  42(5):  535–554.  ISSN  1874-8953.                https://doi.org/10.1007/s11004-010-9286-5                GOOVAERTS,  P.  Medical  geography:  a  promising  field  of  application  for                geostatistics. Mathematical Geosciences, 2009, 41(3): 243–264. ISSN 1874-                8953. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11004-008-9211-3                GUIMARAES, M. C. Geography of science makes a difference: an appeal for                public health. Cadernos de Saude Publica, 2010, 26(1): 50–58. ISSN 1678-                4464                HAZENKAMP-VON ARX, M., GOTSCHI, T., MATHYS, P., STERN W. B. et al.                Final  Report  of  Work  Package  7  (WP7).  Los  Angeles,  London:  European                Community Respiratory Health Survey, 2004.                IHIS CR. Health Statistics Yearbook of the regions [online]. Praha: IHIS CR,                2005–2014 [cit. 2017-08-10]. Available at: <http://www.uzis.cz/category/                edice/publikace/rocenky>                KALMAN,  M.,  SIGMUND,  E.,  SIGMUNDOVÁ,  D.,  HAMŘÍK,  Z.,  BENEŠ,  L.,                BENEŠOVÁ, D., CSÉMY, L. HBSC - Národní zpráva o zdraví a životním stylu                dětí a školáků 2010. Olomouc: Universita  Palackého, 2011. ISBN 978-80-                244-2986-1                KOMÁREK,  L.,  PROVAZNÍK,  K.  Ochrana  a  podpora  zdraví.  Praha:  Nadace                CINDI, UK, 2011. ISBN 978-80-260-1159-0.                LAKES, T., BRUCKNER, M., KRÄMER, A. Development of an environmental                justice  index  to  determine  socio-economic  disparities  of  noise  pollution                and  green  space  in  residential  areas  in  Berlin.  Journal  of  Environmental                Planning  and  Management,  2014,  57(4):  538–556.  ISSN  0964-0568.                https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2012.755461                Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic. Zpráva o zdraví obyvatel České                republiky 2015. Praha: Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic, 2016. ISBN                978-80-85047-49-3.                PAVLÍK, I., HÜBELOVÁ D., KONEČNÝ O. Contribution to Health Geography:                Sources  of  the  contamination  of  surface  waters  and  health  risks  in  the                Moravian Karst Protected Landscape Area. Geographia Cassoviensis, 2017,                11(1): 33–50. ISSN 1337-6748.                POHUNEK, P., SVOBODOVÁ, T. Průduškové astma v dětském věku. Praha:                Maxdorf, 2007. ISBN 978-80-7345-118-9.                                               399","POPE, C. A. Mortality Effects of Longer Term Exposures to Fine Particulate           Air  Pollution:  Review  of  Recent  Epidemiological  Evidence.  Inhalation           Toxicology,   2002,    19(1):    33–38.    ISSN     1091-7691.           https://doi.org/10.1080/08958370701492961           PREIS,  J.  Geografické  rysy  pandemie  HIV/AIDS:  Kolaps  v  ohrožených           regionech  světa,  rizika  pro  střední  a  východní  Evropu  [online].  Brno,  PrF           MU, 2011 [cit. 2017-09-03]. Available at: <http://is.muni.cz/>           RIBEIRO, A. G., Cotta, R. M. M., Ribeiro, S. M. R. The promotion of health           and integrated prevention of risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. Ciênc           Saúde Coletiva, 2012, 17(1): 7–17. ISSN 1413-8123.           SANTOS,  J.  C.,  MOREIRA,  T.  M.  M.  Risk  factors  and  complications  in           patients  with  hypertension/diabetes  in  a  regional  health  district  of           northeast Brazil. Rev Esc Enferm USP, 2012, 46(5): 1125–1132. ISSN 1980-           220X.           SOMERLÍKOVÁ,  K.,  HÜBELOVÁ,  D.  The  importance  of  monitoring  health           status  of  the  population  for  the  development  of  the  region  -  selected           determinants  of  university  students’  health.  In  XIX.  Kolokvium           o regionálních  vědách.  Brno:  MU,  ESF,  2016,  513–521.  ISBN  978-80-210-           8273-1.           ŠRÁM,  R.  J.,  BINKOVÁ,  B.,  DOSTÁL,  M.,  MERKEROVÁ-DOSTALOVÁ,  M.,           LÍBALOVÁ, H. et al. Health impact of air pollution to children’. International           Journal  of  Hygiene  and  Environmental  Health,  2013,  216:  533–540.  ISSN           1438-4639.           TOBIASZ-ADAMCZYK, B., BRZYSKI, P., GALAS, A., BRZYSKA, M., FLOREK, M.           Relationship  between  characteristics  of  social  network,  health-related           quality of life and mortality patterns in older age. Krakow study. Journal of           Epidemiology and Community Health. 2011, 65 (supl. 1), A215. ISSN 1470-           2738. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2011.142976h.23           TONNE,  C.,  HALONEN,  J.  I.,  BEEVERS,  S.  D.,  DAJNAK,  D.,  GULLIVER,  J.,           KELLY, F.  J.,  WILKINSON,  P.,  ANDERSON,  H.  R.    Long-term  traffic  air  and           noise  pollution  in  relation  to  mortality  and  hospital  readmission  among           myocardial  infarction  survivors.  International  Journal  of  Hygiene  and           Environmental Health, 2016, 219: 72–78. ISSN 1438-4639.           UHLÍŘ,  P.,  OPAVSKÝ,  J.,  SLAVÍK,  P.  Efekt  terapeutického  pobytu  se           speleoterapií na variabilitu srdeční frekvence dětských pacientů s asthma           bronchiale.  Rehabilitace  a  fyzikální  lékařství,  2015,  22(4):  185–189.  ISSN           1803-6597.           UIS What is the UIS? [online]. Lyon: UIS, 2014 [cit. 2017-09-02]. Available           at:           <http://www.uisspeleo.org/index.php?option=com_content\&view=article           \&id=60\&Itemid=184>           WEINMAYR, G., ROMEO E., SARIO, DE M., WEILAND, S. K., FORASTIERE, F.           Short-Term effects of PM 10  and NO 2  on respiratory health among children           with  asthma  or  asthma-like  symptoms:  A  systematic  review  and  Meta-           Analysi.  Environmental  Health  Perspectives,  2010,  118(4):  449–457.  ISSN           0091-6765. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0900844                                         400","WHO.  Asthma  [online].  Geneva:  World  Health  Organization,  2006  [cit.                2017-08-28].                   Available                   at:                <http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs307/en/                index.html>                WILHELM,  M.,  QIAN,  L.,  RITZ,  B.  Outdoor  air  pollution,  family  and                neighborhood environment, and asthma in LA FANS children. Health and                Place, 2009, 15(1): 25–36. ISSN 1353-8292.                                             Shrnutí                Základním  ukazatelem  zdravotního  stavu  je  nemocnost,  jejíž  studium  se                zabývá  výskytem  jednotlivých  onemocnění  v populaci.  Korelace  mezi                životním prostředím a zdravím člověka byl shledán mj. při výskytu astmatu                a alergií, které se v posledních desetiletích stávají jedněmi z nejčastějších                neinfekčním  onemocněním.  Z  epidemiologických  studií  vyplývá,  že  se                celosvětový počet nemocných s diagnózou asthma bronchiale pohybuje na                více  než  300  milionů,  přičemž  se  vyskytuje  s  různou  prevalencí                a významnou geografickou variabilitou.                Výsledky  analýz  vývoje  počtu  dispenzarizovaných  pacientů  s  diagnózou                astma  v  letech  2006–2013,  a  to  jak  na  úrovni  České  republiky,  tak                modelových  krajů  (Jihomoravský,  Jihočeský  a  Moravskoslezský  kraj)                ukázaly  kontinuální  růst.  Nejvyšší  podíl  růstu  podle  věkových  skupin                zaznamenává populace ve věku 20 a více let. Počet sledovaných pacientů                na  100  tis.  obyvatel  významně  převyšuje  hodnoty  České  republiky                v Moravskoslezském  kraji,  naopak  ve  všech  letech  vykazuje  nízké  počty                těchto pacientů Jihočeský kraj. Daným trendům odpovídají také hodnoty                emisí a imisního zatížení hlavních znečišťujících látek převedené na zátěž                území,  přestože  ve  srovnání  let  2006  a  2015  dochází  ke  zlepšení  stavu                ovzduší.  Výsledky  dokládají  vztah  mezi  znečištěním  ovzduší  dopravou                (látkami  PM 10 ;  PM 2,5 ;  NO 2 ;  BaP)  a  výskytem  astmatu  u  dětské  populace.                Léčebný  efekt  speleoterapie  spočívá  v  navýšení  kondice  chronicky                nemocného dítěte v prakticky bezprašném, sterilním prostředí, celkovém                snížení  nemocnosti  a  minimalizaci  medikace  nutné  k  udržení  dobré                kontroly nad astmatem.                                                                401","COMPARISON OF CZECH REGIONS USING CREATIVITY INDEX                                  Markéta Chaloupková           Ekonomicko-správní fakulta, Masarykova univerzita, Lipová 41a, 602 00, Brno-                                      Pisárky                                 390728@mail.muni.cz            Abstract:   Globalization,   development   of   information   and           telecommunication  technologies  as  well  as  innovation  development  and           research are one of the main factors that form contemporary society. As           such, economies of most countries face many challenges. One of them is           a search  of  an  alternative  source  that  would  allow  their  further           development. Therefore, creative economy goes into prominence. The aim           of this article is to map conditions for creative economy development in           the regions of the Czech Republic. Based on the selected methodology, we           computed and analysed the Creativity Index which is composed of talent,           technology, and tolerance areas. We  chose the 2011-2015 timeframe to           capture the development trend.           Keywords:  creativity,  creative  economy,  Creativity  Index,  talent,           technology, tolerance                                   INTRODUCTION           Economies  of  most  countries  undergo  significant  changes  in  the  recent           years. Therefore, it is important to search for alternative sources, which           will  enable  their  further  and  sustainable  development.  The  so-called           creative economy goes into forefront as its concept and foundation can be           a vital source of potential for future development. Creative economy can           be generally considered as competitiveness based on creativity, which can           contribute to region and whole country development.                            1 CREATIVE ECONOMY CONCEPT           There  is  neither  universal  nor  single  terminology  regarding  the  creative           economy.  However,  the  term  “creative  economy”  was  first  used  by           Howkins (2002)  when  he  analysed  relationships  between  creativity  and           economy.  According  to  the  author,  creative  economy  represents  15           different  creative  industries  (such  as  art,  architecture,  design,  film,  or           music).  Howkins  is  also  concerned  with  the  advent  of  a  new  creative           workforce on which Florida (2002) elaborates.           The  author,  Richard  Florida,  is  probably  the  most  fruitful  author  of  this           domain. He published the theoretical base in the publication “The Rise of           the Creative Class” (2002). In this book, he defined human creativity as a           main driving force of future development. Florida (2002) mentions that the           ability  to  come  up  with  innovative  ideas  and  with  better  solution  is  the           factor  increasing  productivity,  which  in  turn  increases  standard  of  living                                        402","and  life  quality.  He  considers  human  creativity  to  be  determining                competitive advantage.                Human creativity was also defined by Marget  A. Boden  as an “ability to                come  up  with  ideas  or  artefacts  which  are  new,  unexpected,  and  which                have  some  value”  (Boden,  2004:1).  The  idea  of  human  ability  to  create                meaningful  new  forms  was  also  mentioned  by  Howkins  (2002),  who                described human creativity as a new idea meeting four basic conditions (an                idea must be personal, original, meaningful, and useful).                As  opposed  to  classical  production  sources,  we  can  consider  human                creativity  as  an  unlimited  and  hardly  identifiable  input.  The  above-                mentioned statement is also confirmed by Kloudová (2010), who says that                creative  economy  is  based  on  a  potential  of  an  unlimited  resource  of                human creativity, and its exhibition of an idea.                From  all  the  sources,  2010  UNCTAD  report  has  probably  the  most                comprehensive concept of the creative economy. The report defined the                creative  economy  as  “developing  concept  based  on  creative  assets                generating  economic  growth  and  development.  It  includes  economic,                cultural, and social aspects in interaction with technology and intellectual                property.  It  can  support  income  generation,  job  creation  and  export                revenues,  as  well  as  social  inclusion,  cultural  diversity,  and  the                development of human resources” (Selada et al., 2010).                                2 MEASURING CREATIVE ECONOMY                Existing  statistical tools do not allow  evaluating a creative economy and                the measurement of its output is very difficult. This is due to discrepancy in                the  conceptual  apparatus,  methodologies  used,  and  because  human                creativity  is  an  input  but  not  an  output  of  a  creative  economy.  Experts'                attention is therefore focused on measuring the conditions for developing                a creative economy.                                     2.1 Creativity index 3T                For  the  basics  of  measuring  the  creative  environment,  Florida  (2002)                formulated  the  so-called  “creative  index”,  which  is  composed  from  the                “3T” model. That is the talent, technology, and tolerance. The goal of the                indicator is to express the ability of a defined region to attract a creative                class  and  to  transform  its  potential  into  realistic  outputs  of  the  creative                economy.  Each  of  the  components  of  the  Creativity  index  is  significant.                However,  to  attract  creative  people,  to  generate  innovation  and  to                stimulate economic growth, their combination is essential.                 Tab. 1: Creativity index                             Human     The percentage of population with a university                              capital                  Talent      index             degree in a specific region                   index                             Creative   The proportion of creative job positions to total                            class index       employment in a specific region                Technology   Innovation   The number of patents per person in a specific                   index      index                     region                                              403","High-tech   The proportion of the high-end industry outcome                        index                to the total outcome                                    The number of registered gay couples in the                       Gay index         population of a specific region           Tolerance   Bohemian    The percentage of population with focus on             index      index               art in a specific region                      Immigration   The percentage of immigrants in a specific region                        index           Source: Florida (2002), edited            Regions  that  achieve  satisfactory  results  in  the  Creativity  index  are           generally  called  creative  centres.  These  places  are  diverse,  tolerant,  and           open  to  new  ideas,  which,  according  to  Florida  (2002),  leads  to           a concentration  of  creative  capital  in  the  region  and  consequently  to           a higher  degree  of  innovation,  development  of  high-tech  trade,  job           creation,  economic  growth,  and  generally  positive  economic,  social,  and           environmental effects. (Cikánek, 2009)                              2.2 Euro-creativity index           Florida's  creativity  index  was  subsequently  edited  in  2004  by  Florida           himself,  in  collaboration  with  Tinaglie,  in  the  publication  “A  study  on           creativity index”, which adjusts the measurement methodology for the use           in European countries. The overall Euro-creativity index is composed from           three sub-areas (see the table below).           Tab. 2: Euro-creativity index                       Human     The percentage of population in the age of 25-64                       capital             with a university degree                        index             Euro-     Creative             talent                  The proportion of creative job positions             index    class index                      Research   The number of researchers and engineers per one                        talent               thousand workmen                        index                      Innovation   The  number  of  patent  applications  in  the                        index    population             Euro-           technology   High-tech   The proportion of the high-end industry outcome             index      index               to the total outcome                      R\&D index   The proportion (in percentage) of research and                                         development cost to the GDP                       Attitude   The  percentage  of  population  tolerant  of                        index    minorities             Euro-     Values      The importance of traditions in people values           tolerance    index             index      Self-       The attitude to the rights and opinions of                      expression                individuals                        index           Source: Florida and Tinagli (2004), edited            The  Euro-talent  index,  like  the  previous  talent  index,  is  based  on  the           Creative class index with two more additional indexes. The Creative class                                        404","index is based on the International Labour Organization methodology and                includes  scientists,  engineers,  artists,  musicians,  architects,  managers,                professionals,  and  other  creative  activists.  The  main  difference  from  the                basic 3T base model lies in tolerance due to the difficulty of gathering data                in  European  countries.  A  research  in  the  area  of  tolerance  is  based  on                broader surveys of citizens' attitudes and opinions. It is de facto an attitude                index identifying relations with minorities, an index of values that finds the                relationship  of  citizens  to  traditional  values,  and  an  index  of  self-                expression,  which  identifies  the  attitude  of  the  individual  towards  the                individual rights and the self-expression of the individual. (Kloudová, 2013)                                         2.3 5 C Model                In 2005, a creative index study was also published for Hong Kong. It was                created on the initiative of the Office of Internal Affairs by a research team                of  Desmond  Hui.  This  study  has  extended  Florida's  theory  with  other                factors that stimulate the development of a creative class. The output of                creativity results from the interaction of four forms of capital:                     -   Structural/institutional  capital  (eight  criteria  are  proposed  that                       influence  the  growth  of  creativity,  such  as  legal  system,                       corruption,  freedom  of  expression,  financial,  ICT  social  and                       cultural  infrastructure,  community  facilities,  and  business                       activity),                    -   Human capital (three criteria are proposed here: the ability of a                       company to ensure the development of a “knowledge bank”, the                       availability  of  educated  and  skilled  workers  and  the  mobility  of                       human capital),                    -   Social  capital  (including:  general  trust  in  society,  trust  in                       institutions,  participation  in  politics,  social  participation,                       approaches  to  human  rights,  foreign  migrants,  or  the  ability  to                       accept diversity),                    -   Cultural capital (the willingness and ability of the public sector and                       institutions  to  use  financial  resources  for  art,  culture,  and                       education in the specific area).                The  effects  of  these  four  kinds  of  capital  are  mutually  reinforcing,                influencing,  and  contributing  to  the  growth  of  creativity,  and  their                cumulative  effect  creates  an  output  of  creativity,  that  is  the  fifth                component of the model. (Hui, Chung-Hung, and Mok, 2004)                                   3 METHODOLOGY AND DATA                To explore the conditions of creative economy development in the Czech                Republic, a methodology inspired by Florida (2002) and Kloudová (2009)                was created. The method of compiling the overall index of creativity for                individual regions of the Czech Republic was created by calculating partial                sub-indexes  –  talent,  technology,  and  tolerance.  The  following  table                summarizes the calculation of the sub-indexes.                                               405","Tab. 3: Method of Creative index sub-indexes calculation             Talent     Human capital index   Ratio of population with university                              (HCI)         education in the region to the total                                                population of the region                        Creative class index   Ratio of creative professionals in the                              (CCI)         region to the total employment of                                                     the region           Technology      Research and     Ratio of research and development                        development (R\&D)   spending to the GDP of the region                              index                        Innovation index (INI)   Number of patent applications per                                                inhabitant of the region            Tolerance      Gay index (GI)   Share of registered partnerships in                                           the region on the total population of                                                     the region                         Immigration index   The share of foreign migrants in the                              (IMI)        region on the total population of the                                                       region           Source: Florida (2002) and Kloudová (2009); edited            Two  indexes  were  used  to  discover  the  concentration  of  talent  in  the           regions of the Czech Republic. The data for the calculation of the human           capital index was taken from the Czech Statistical Office. In particular, data           regarding  the  number  of  inhabitants  and  the  number  of  university           educated inhabitants in the concerned regions was found. The data from           the  Czech  Statistical  Office  and  from  the  National  Information  and           Consulting  Centre  for  Culture  were  used  to  calculate  the  index  of  the           creative  class.  There,  data  regarding  the  number  of  employees  and  the           number of creative jobs in the region were determined.           The ability of the region to create and develop new technologies, as well as           the  willingness  of  the  public  and  the  private  sector  to  invest  in  new           technologies,  indicate  the  rate  of  technology  development.  Technology           development  was  evaluated  using  the  Research  and  development  index           (R\&D) and the Innovation index (INI). Data from the Czech Statistical Office           and  the  Industrial  Property  Office  of  the  Czech  Republic  were  used  to           calculate both indexes. There, we retrieved data regarding the number of           patent applications, research and development spending, and GDP in the           regions concerned.           Society's  openness  to  new  identities  and  the  ability  to  accept  different           personalities and cultures indicates the degree of tolerance. Two indicators           were  measured  to  determine  the  situation  of  the  tolerance.  The  data           related to the calculation of the immigration index were taken from the           Czech Statistical Office (region population) and the immigration portal of           the Ministry of the Interior (number of foreign migrants in the region). The           calculation  of  the  second  indicator,  the  Gay  Index,  encompassing  the           number of registered partnerships in a region, was based on information           from relevant matrices and the Czech Statistical Office.           After sub-indexes calculation, the individual regions were sorted from the           best  (with  the  highest  score  achieved)  to  the  worst.  Consequently,  the           values  for  each  region  were  transformed  according  to  the  “Min-Max”                                        406","standardized  method  (Joint  Research  Center  –  European  Commission,                2008), which is used to transform the data to values between 0 and 1. This                allows expressing the distance from the best result (region) to the worst.                The aggregate Creativity index was calculated based on the average of the                sub-indexes values (talent, technology, tolerance). The order of individual                regions was determined by the Creative index value.                                   4 RESULTS OF THE RESEARCH                                            Talent                The  level  of  talent  determines  the  ability  of  society  to  create,  innovate,                come up with new ideas, and to implement these ideas in practice. The                level  of  talent  in  individual  regions  is  based  on  the  evaluation  of  the                Human capital index and the Creative class index. As can be seen from the                following  table,  Prague  is  clearly  dominating  all  the  years  under  review.                South  Moravian  Region  also  reached  a  high  level,  and  Vysočina  Region                ended up last. It is important to mention the huge year-on-year increase in                talent  in  2014-2015  due  to  a  significantly  higher  share  of  creative                employment to total employment in the region (a significant increase of                the Creative class index). The growth was most affected by Karlovy Vary                Region (200% increase), Pardubice Region (increase by 100%), Plzeň Region                (70%  increase),  Liberec  Region  (increase  by  60%),  and  South  Bohemian                Region (increase by 58%).                Tab. 4: Development of the Talent index in the regions of the Czech Republic                (2011-2015)                    Talent index                      Year                      Region        2011     2012     2013     2014     2015                      Prague        1.00     1.00     1.00     1.00     1.00                  Central Bohemian   0.17    0.19     0.18     0.10     0.11                  South Bohemian    0.36     0.26     0.25     0.31     0.49                      Plzeň         0.30     0.20     0.17     0.27     0.46                    Karlovy Vary    0.26     0.29     0.15     0.16     0.48                  Ústí nad Labem    0.23     0.23     0.06     0.28     0.39                      Liberec       0.23     0.20     0.24     0.30     0.48                   Hradec Králové   0.28     0.24     0.30     0.25     0.36                     Pardubice      0.09     0.09     0.02     0.13     0.26                     Vysočina       0.11     0.09     0.02     0.02     0.01                  South Moravian    0.47     0.49     0.53     0.47     0.62                     Olomouc        0.19     0.22     0.18     0.23     0.37                       Zlín         0.25     0.19     0.21     0.25     0.36                  Moravian-Silesian   0.22   0.25     0.32     0.34     0.38                Source: ČSÚ (2011-2015), own calculations                                                407","Technology           In the field of technologies, year-on-year changes in the monitored years           within the Czech Republic are the least noticeable. The Prague Region is on           the  first  place  in  all  observed  years,  but  it  does  not  reach  the  net           maximum.  The  reason  for  this  is  the  lower  value  of  the  R\&D  index           compared  to  the  South  Bohemian  Region,  which  clearly  leads  in  this           respect. The high values of the Technology index were also measured in           the  Liberec  region.  On  the  contrary,  the  worst  is  the  Vysočina  Region,           especially due to the almost zero value of the Innovation index.           Tab.  5:  Development  of  the  Technology  index  in  the  regions  of  the  Czech           Republic (2011-2015)            Technology index                    Year                Region        2011     2012     2013     2014     2015                Prague         0.93    0.85     0.86     0.89     0.94            Central Bohemian   0.35     0.28    0.40     0.35     0.33            South Bohemian     0.21     0.21    0.21     0.22     0.19                 Plzeň         0.33     0.34    0.35     0.38     0.33              Karlovy vary     0.01     0.00    0.05     0.00     0.00             Ústí nad Labem    0.08     0.06    0.04     0.08     0.05                Liberec        0.51    0.48     0.49     0.48     0.43             Hradec Králové    0.24     0.22    0.31     0.22     0.17               Pardubice       0.37     0.42    0.40     0.35     0.35               Vysočina        0.07     0.07    0.11     0.10     0.09            South Moravian     0.67     0.66    0.69     0.68     0.66               Olomouc         0.22     0.29    0.28     0.29     0.22                 Zlín          0.32     0.26    0.28     0.26     0.20            Moravian-Silesian   0.34    0.30    0.27     0.28     0.24           Source: ČSÚ (2011-2015), ÚPV ČR (2011-2015), own calculations                                      Tolerance           Prague is the  most tolerant, which de facto confirms the  idea of Florida           (2002)  regarding  the  existence  of  a  creative  city  in  which  people  with           different races, opinions, or orientations concentrate. All other regions are           far behind Prague. There is an interesting development in the Karlovy Vary           Region, which has the second highest share of foreign migrants to the total           population of the region (high value of Immigration index) in all observed           years. On the other hand, the development of the Gay index is interesting           to follow in the Ústí nad Labem Region, which (after Prague) reached the           highest values in 2012 (0.52) and 2014 (0.51). The high value of Gay index           was also measured in 2011 in the Plzeň Region (0.68) and Liberec Region           (0.66).                                          408","Tab.  6:  Development  of  the  Tolerance  index  in  the  regions  of  the  Czech                Republic (2011-2015)                  Tolerance index                     Year                      Region        2011     2012     2013     2014     2015                      Prague        1.00     1.00     1.00      1.00    1.00                 Central Bohemian   0.26     0.26     0.20      0.23    0.29                  South Bohemian    0.16     0.11     0.08      0.09    0.08                      Plzeň         0.46     0.32     0.18      0.19    0.25                    Karlovy vary    0.35     0.42     0.24      0.33    0.25                  Ústí nad Labem    0.25     0.36     0.23      0.36    0.21                     Liberec        0.44     0.24     0.22      0.25    0.28                  Hradec Králové    0.12     0.08     0.12      0.09    0.17                    Pardubice       0.15     0.19     0.08      0.05    0.04                     Vysočina       0.01     0.01     0.01      0.01    0.05                  South Moravian    0.31     0.22     0.18      0.23    0.20                     Olomouc        0.13     0.16     0.10      0.05    0.07                       Zlín         0.02     0.05     0.10      0.02    0.01                 Moravian-Silesian   0.10    0.19     0.10      0.08    0.10                Source: ČSÚ (2011-2015), MV ČR (2011-2015), own calculations                                         Creativity index                One can see the clear dominance of Prague from the development of the                aggregate Creativity index measured for the regions of the Czech Republic.                Second  place  belongs  to  the  South  Moravian  Region  and  the  third  to                Liberec Region. The permanent (worst) position holds the Vysočina Region,                which lags far behind all other regions.                                                                           2011                                                                         2012                                                                         2013                                                                         2014                                                                         2015                       Fig.  1.  Development  of  the  Creativity  index  in  the  regions  of  the  Czech                Republic (2011-2015).                Source: own processing                                                409","In total, the most volatile development was recorded in the Hradec Králové           Region,  which  shifted  four  ranks  downwards  in  2011-2012  thanks  to           a significant decline in the value of the Gay index (by 43%). By contrast, in           the period of 2012-2013, the region shifted seven ranks upwards due to an           increase  in  the  Creative  class  index  (41%)  and  in  the  number  of  patent           applications (up 57%). In the 2013-2014 periods, the region again fell from           fifth to tenth rank due to a decline in CCI (26%), INI (46%), and GI (40%).           Another region with volatile overall ranking is the Ústí nad Labem region,           which experienced the biggest increase in the 2013-2014 periods due to           a significant  increase  of  the  Creative  class  index.  The  index  shifted  from           negative  value  in  2013  (-0,01)  to  positive  value  in  2014  (+0.43).  In  that           period, the growth of the Gay index was significant (96%). On the contrary,           the  largest  descent  was  experienced  by  the  Ústí  nad  Labem  Region  in           2014-2015. The fall was caused by a decline of the Gay Index value (59%).           The South Bohemian Region jumped significantly due to fluctuation of the           Innovation index in 2011-2012 (a fall of five ranks down due to INI's decline           by  140%)  and  in  2014-2015  (a  shift  of  three  ranks  upwards  due  to  INI           growth of 44%). The shift in the last year under review was also due to an           increase in the Creative class index (by 109% as compared to 2014).           The development of the Karlovy Vary region was also volatile. The biggest           downfall (by five ranks) in 2012-2013 was due to a decline in the Creative           class  index  (46%),  which  was  caused  by  a  decline  in  the  number  of           employees and creative jobs in the region. On the contrary, a significant           increase of six ranks occurred in 2014-2015 due to rise of the Creative class           index.           The Zlín Region appears on the lower positions. The exception was 2013           when  there  was  an  increase  in  Technology  and  the  Gay  indexes,  which           shifted the region five ranks upwards as opposed to the situation in 2012           The order of the other regions was relatively stable. The Central Bohemian           Region  averaged  on  sixth  rank.  The  exception  was  the  year  2013-2014,           when the region experienced a three-rank drop due to a fall in the value of           the Creative class index (42%) and in the Innovation index (23%). The Plzeň           Region appears on the fourth rank, while the Moravian-Silesian Region on           the  seventh  and  Olomouc  Region  on  the  ninth.  The  Pardubice  Region           appears on the eleventh rank, except for 2012, when it has improved in           three ranks due to the increase in the number of patent applications.                                    CONCLUSION           The aim of this paper was to explore the conditions for the development of           the  creative  economy  in  the  regions  of  the  Czech  Republic  using  the           methodology of exploiting a Creativity index. To capture development and           identify  the  development  trend,  the  five-year  period  of  2011-2015  was           chosen. The overall Creativity index was comprised of three sub-indexes –           talent, technology, and tolerance, which further contain other sub-indexes.           Talent development was analysed using the Human capital index and the           Creative class index. The evaluation of the technology field was based on           the  Innovation  index  and  the  R\&D  index.  The  degree  of  tolerance  and                                        410","openness  to  diverse  cultures  was  explored  using  the  Gay  index  and  the                Immigration index.                The results of the research clearly showed the unquestionable primacy of                Prague Region. Nevertheless, the analysis has shown that South Moravian                Region dominates in the field of technologies, specifically in R\&D. In all the                years under the review, the Liberec Region has also achieved good results                by  keeping  the  third  rank,  but  the  region  experienced  improvement  in                2014-2015. A similar upward shift was observed at the South Bohemian,                Plzeň,  Karlovy  Vary,  and  Hradec  Králové  Regions.  The  reason  for  the                growth  in  these  regions  was  a  significantly  higher  share  of  creative                employment to total employment in the region that is a higher value of the                Creative class index.                On  the  other  hand,  significantly  worse  results  were  recorded  for  the                regions of Vysočina, Ústí nad Labem, Zlín, and Pardubice Regions. In these                regions,  the  low  value  of  Human  capital  Index  (ratio  of  population  with                university  education  in  the  region  to  the  total  population  of  the  region)                and the low Immigration index (the share of foreign migrants in the region                on  the  total  population  of  the  region)  were  the  reasons  of  the  bad                situation. Vysočina Region significantly lags behind all other regions in all                of the measured indicators.                 Acknowledgement: This contribution was supported by an internal grant of                the Faculty of Economics and Administration, Masaryk University, entitled                “Metropolitan Processes Formatting Traditional City Structure: an Example                of Brno Metropolitan Area” (MUNI/A/0976/2016).                                           REFERENCES                BODEN,  M.  A.  The  creative  mind:  Myths  and  mechanisms.  Psychology                Press, 2004.                CIKÁNEK, M. Kreativní průmysly: příležitost pro novou ekonomiku. 1. vyd. V                Praze: Institut umění, 2009, 79 s. ISBN 978-80-7008-231-7.                FLORIDA, R. The Rise of the Crative Class–and how it’s transforming work,                leisure, community and every day life. New York, 2002.                FLORIDA,  R.,  GATES,  G.  Technology  and  tolerance:  The  importance  of                diversity  to  high-technology  growth.  In:  The  city  as  an  entertainment                machine. Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2003. p. 199-219.                HOWKINS, J. The creative economy: How people make money from ideas.                Penguin UK, 2002.                HUI, D. et al. A study on creativity index. Home Affairs Bureau, The Hong                Kong Special Administrative Region Government, 2005.                JOINT  RESEARCH  CENTRE-EUROPEAN  COMMISSION,  et  al.  Handbook  on                constructing  composite  indicators:  Methodology  and  user  guide.  OECD                publishing, 2008.                                               411","KLOUDOVÁ,  J.  Kreativní  ekonomika  a  její  měření.  Ekonomický  časopis,           2009, 57.3: 247-262.           KLOUDOVÁ,  J.  Kreativní  ekonomika-Trendy,  výzvy,  příležitosti.  Trends           Economics and Management, 2013, 4.7: 163-164.           SELADA, C. et al. Creative Clusters in low density urban areas: a case study           approach. In: ERSA conference. 2010.                                       Shrnutí           V rámci  teoretické  části  výzkumu  byla  provedena  rešerše  literárních           pramenů  vhodných  pro  vymezení  základních  pojmů.  Představeni  byli           stěžejní odborníci zabývající se kreativní ekonomikou a tři základní metody           měření  kreativní  ekonomiky  (Index  kreativity  3T,  Euro-kreativity  index,           Model 5C). Na základě uvedených metod byla vytvořena vlastní metodika           pro měření podmínek pro rozvoj kreativní ekonomiky v podmínkách České           republiky. Sestaven byl Index kreativity, který se skládal ze tří sub-indexů           (talentu,  technologie,  tolerance).  Každý  sub-index  byl  vypočten  pomocí           dalších  dvou  ukazatelů.  V oblasti  talentu  se  jednalo  o  Index  lidského           kapitálu  a  Index  kreativní  třídy.  Index  technologie  byl  vypočten  pomocí           Indexu inovace a Indexu výzkumu a vývoje. Třetí sub-index tolerance byl           vypočten  pomocí  gay  indexu  a  imigračního  indexu.  Na  základě  řady           výpočtů  byl  tedy  analyzován  současný  stav  a  vývoj  kreativního  prostředí           v jednotlivých  krajích  ČR.  Pro  zachycení  vývoje  a  identifikaci  trendu  bylo           zvoleno pětileté časové období 2011–2015.           Na základě výsledků výzkumu bylo potvrzeno jednoznačné prvenství Prahy.           Nicméně z analýzy vývoje vyplynulo, že ve výzkumu a vývoji dominuje kraj           Jihomoravský.  Ve  všech  sledovaných  letech  dosáhl  dobrých  výsledků           i Liberecký  kraj,  který  se  drží  na  standardní  třetí  příčce,  nicméně  posun           k lepšímu  kraj  zaznamenal  zejména  v letech  2014–2015.  Obdobný  posun           směrem  vzhůru  byl  pozorován  u  kraje  Jihočeského,  Plzeňského,           Karlovarského  a  Královéhradeckého.  Důvodem  růstu  byl  u  všech           jmenovaných krajů výrazně vyšší podíl kreativních zaměstnání na celkové           zaměstnanosti v regionu čili vysoký index kreativní třídy.           Naopak výrazně horší výsledky byly naměřeny u krajů Vysočina, Ústecký,           Zlínský  a  Pardubický.  Ve  zmíněných  krajích  byl  důvodem  nízký  Index           lidského kapitálu (podíl osob vysokoškolsky vzdělaných na celkové populaci           v kraji)  a nízký  Imigrační  index  (podíl  zahraničních  migrantů  v regionu  na           celkové  populaci  kraje).  Ze  všech  krajů  je  na  tom  nejhůře  s výrazným           odstupem Vysočina, která zaostává ve všech naměřených ukazatelích.                                                  412","MILITARY TRAINING AREAS AND THEIR HINTERLAND IN THE CZECH                               REPUBLIC WITH FOCUS ON TOURISM                                   Martina Jaňurová, Aneta Krajíčková                  Masaryk University, Faculty of Economics and Administration, Lipová 41a,                                          602 00 Brno                      martina.janurova@mail.muni.cz, aneta.krajickova@mail.muni.cz                 Abstract: After the fall of the Iron curtain and due to the deployment of                Warsaw  Pact  army,  the  use  of  Military  Training  Areas  (MTA)  use                significantly  decreased.  Since  1989,  four  out  of  the  original  eight  MTAs                have been canceled and it is probable that the territorial reductions will                continue. The hinterlands of MTA and MTAs themselves are characterized                by  a  low  population  density,  a  greater  share  of  woods  and  agricultural                areas and, thanks to a restricted entry, also by relatively untouched nature.                These  specific  features  can  contribute  to  the  development  of  tourism,                hiking and cycling, bio agriculture, etc., in general to the sustainable forms                of tourism and business. The aim of this paper is to point out the possible                potential  for  tourism  development  in  municipalities  situated  in  the                hinterland  of  MTA  Boletice,  Březina,  Libavá,  Hradiště  and  former  MTA                Brdy.  Via  selected  tourism  indicators  (employment,  tourism-recreational                functions  of  municipalities,  tourism-recreational  load  of  municipalities…)                and  more  general  indicators  of  agriculture  and  business,  the  current                development  potential  of  the  municipalities  in  designated  areas  is                presented.  Furthermore,  the  possibilities  of  future  activities,  not  only  in                the near vicinity, but also with the envisaged further territorial reductions                and MTAs themselves, are discussed with an emphasis on tourism.                Key words: hinterland, Military Training Area, nature protected area, rural                tourism                                        1 INTRODUCTION                To  support  the  development  of  the  tourist  industry  in  rural  and  border                areas,  for which the  Military Training  Areas and their hinterlands are so                typical, is desirable for various reasons. Already in the early 1990s, authors                mainly from the US, where the rural tourism is bound with up to two thirds                of population, began to show interest in this area. Gibson (1993) sees here                a chance for rising of new local businesses and Woods (1992), Burr (1995)                and Brass (1996) confirm this hypothesis to some extent, saying that for                the proper functionality and growth, it is necessary to include local public                as  well  as  private  subjects  in  the  development  and  secure  their  mutual                cooperation. Unlike the US, Europe’s rural tourism is not as widely popular.                It  is  perceived  rather  as  a  more  traditional  way  of  development  in  the                rural, that is peripheral and marginal, areas. However, Holland et al. (2003)                state that, in particular after the fall of the Iron curtain, its importance has                been  gradually  growing.    Despite  the  norm  being  at  first  seen  rather  as                                              413","a low-cost (McMahon, 1996), with its increasing popularity it caught the           attention  of  wealthier  Western  tourists  to  such  extent  that  in  2000  the           European  Commission  officially  defined  the  term  ‘rural  tourism’  and  the           activities that relate to it (Giannakis, 2014).           Rural tourism is closely connected to the concept of sustainable tourism,           particularly  in  terms  of  environmental  protection  and  conservation  of           nature for future generations. One of the possible tools for sustainability of           an  area  is  declaring  it  a  Nature  Protected  Area  (NPA).  It  can  be  a  park,           forest,  mountain  range  or  a  larger  unit  under  the  control  of  a  higher           authority. Gazenbeek (2005) suggests that, due to their isolation from the           outside  world,  MTAs  rank  among  the  most  preserved  and  unpolluted           natural  areas.  He  also  highlights  their  inclusion  in  the  Natura  2000           network. Stone (2013), however, claims that such solution does not always           have a positive effect on the local inhabitants (for the sake of restrictions           and prohibitions it causes). Therefore, Eagles et al. (2002) recommend that           local  communities  take  part  in  the  management  of  the  NPA,  mainly           because it provides funds for the local budgets which thus the locals can           control.           The  specific area of tourist industry development in the  MTAs and their           hinterlands is not new to the world, nor Europe. Already in the early 90s,           the idea of conversion of military areas for the purposes of tourism was           established in Sweden (Stromberg, 2010). Baltic states followed as within           the Baltic Green Belt Project a tourist complex (bike paths, museums, etc.)           along  the  fallen  “Iron  curtain”  was  constructed  with  the  aim  to  draw           attention  to  the  remnants  of  the  Cold  War  and  to  preserve  the  natural           heritage  (Celotajs,  2011).  In  the  Czech  Republic,  some  authors  began  to           discuss the development of tourism in MTAs only in connection with the           closing of  former MTA Ralsko (Poštolka, 1998), the optimization of MTA           Boletice  (Seidl,  2008),  and  later  in  reaction  to  the  closing  of  MTA  Brdy           (Matušková, 2015).           The purpose of this contribution is to highlight the potential for tourism           development in the hinterland of MTAs and MTAs as such. Based on the           obtained  information,  new  possible  scenarios  for  the  development  of           studied areas will be presented, with a focus on tourism.                                  2 METHODOLOGIES           Municipalities within the hinterland of MTAs (or in an MTA itself) are the           subject  of  study  here.  Whether  the  area  under  study  has  all  the           characteristics  for successful  development of tourism can be revealed in           several  ways.  For  the  purposes  of  this  contribution,  the  indicators           described below (Table 1 and 2) have been designed. These can be used to           identify the MTA’s hinterland as an area of low, medium, or high tourism           potential.  These  indicators  are  primarily  aimed  at  the  issue  of  tourism.           More universal indicators focusing on business activities, agriculture and           housing are also presented as a supporting source of information. Based           on the synthesis of findings, indicative proposals of how to cultivate the           monitored  areas  are  being  introduced.  The  proposals  and  their                                         414","arrangements  are  reflected  in  three  levels,  that  is  separately  for  local                residents, local government and local business community.                This  article  relies  mainly  on  data  from  the  Czech  Statistical  Office                (Population and housing census from 1991, 2001, 2011), the Cadastre of                Real Estate, the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, the Business Register                and the Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic. These hard data are                used  to  design  the  mentioned  indicators,  which  are  then  presented  in                Chapter 4. As a supplementary source of information were, among others,                used individual web pages of MTAs.                It  should  be  noted  that  the  presented  indicators  were  compiled  as  an                average of the municipalities located within the hinterland of an MTA. It                can  be  assumed  that  within  the  designated  area  the  data  will  stay                homogeneous,  and  therefore  it  is  not  necessary  to  break  the  numbers                down  separately  for  each  municipality.  Not  only  would  it  make  the                research  disorganized,  but  it  would  not  be  able  to  assess  the  tourism                potential of MTAs as a whole either.                Tab. 1: Indicators Aimed at Tourism                    Indicator     Method of calculation      Description                  Employment in    Number of persons   Refers to the share of tourism on                     tourism          employed in     the local labor market, seasonality                                    tourism/Persons     must be taken into account                                    employed in total                    Tourism-      Number of tourist and   Shows the intensity of the                   recreational   recreation beds/Number    touristic activity                   functions of   of permanent residents                  municipalities*                    Tourism-      Number of tourist and   Shows the intensity with which                 recreational load of   recreation beds in the   the region is being used in a way                   the region**      region per km   2  that is crucial for the concept of                                                        sustainable tourist industry                Source: Produced by authors                 Tab. 2: Universal Indicators                    Indicator     Method of calculation       Description                  Business activity   (Businesses/Population) ×   Refers to the potential for                      rate              1000           development of the business                                                          sector and subsequent                                                             cooperation                   Proportion of      Unoccupied      Refers to the potential for setting                   unoccupied    apartments/Apartments in   up recreation beds                   apartments           total                   Proportion of      Permanent       Refers to the possible use of land                   permanent      grasslands/Agricultural   for agro/biotourism                                            2                   grasslands on      land (km )                  agricultural land                Source: Produced by authors                * classification: fully dominant (201 or more), very significant (101-200), significant (51-100),                developing (26-50), minor (25 or less) (Vystoupil, 2007)                ** classification: fully dominant (50 or more), very significant (35-49,9), significant (20-34,9),                developing (10-19,9), minor (9,9 or less) (Vystoupil, 2007)                                                  415","3 RESEARCH                       3.1 The Examined Area: Basic Information           Currently,  there  are  four  Military  Training  Areas  in  the  Czech  Republic-           Boletice, Březina, Hradiště, Libavá and a former MTA Brdy, which was shut           down  by  the  Act  No.  15/2015  Sb.  The  map  presented  below  shows  the           position  of  each  MTA  within  the  Czech  Republic.  It  is  necessary  to  note           here  that  all  the  MTAs  including  their  hinterlands  under  study  can  be           altogether  labeled  as  inner  peripheries,  that  is  areas  located  on  the           outskirts  of  metropolitan  regions  or  at  the  margins  of  regional  centers           (Jaňurová, 2017).                                   Fig. 1. The Locations of Military Training Areas in the Czech Republic.           Source: Produced by authors            Table  3  presents  basic  characteristics  of  examined  MTAs  from  the           perspective  of  tourism.  In  these  areas,  the  emphasis  on  environmental           protection is placed through various forms of natural reserves and NPAs,           and that hiking and bicycle tourism prevail over occasional sight-seeing. In           the  case  of  MTA  Brdy,  the  public  administration  engages  in  the           development of tourism within the area as well as in the rest of the region.           They intend to transform the former training ground into a relaxing zone,           which  would  be  the  closest  for  inhabitants  of  the  capital  of  Prague  and           Central Bohemia.  Currently, it is planned to  expand the network of bike           paths up to 450 km in total.                                            416","Tab. 3: Basic Characteristics of MTAs from the Perspective of Tourism                           Area (in    Natural sights / Nature   Tourist attractions                           1,000 ha)       conservation                 Boletice   16,6      Natura 2000, NPA Šumava,   95 km of bike paths,                                             Blanice          85 km of hiking trails                 Březina    15,9     A great number of man-made   5 bike paths, castles                                          bodies of water      Melice and Vícov                 Hradiště    33       Doupov Mountains, Úhošť,   Bike paths network                                       Rock Garden of Gnomes                                     (Skalka skřítků), Ostrov Ponds,                                             Sedlec                  Libavá     22                               Castle Drahotuš, a                                                               biking event Bílý                                                                   Kámen                  Brdy       26             NPA Brdy         270 km of bike paths                Source: Produced by authors                             3.2 Selected Fundamental Data and Results                The tables below (Table 4 and 5) present the final values of each indicator.                For a variety of objective reasons (availability, the need for a longer-term                comparison), the time spans during which the indicators were monitored                differ. However, the long-term assessment of the monitored area should                not be affected by that significantly.                Tab. 4: Results for Indicators Aimed at Tourism                                  Employment in      Employment in    Change                                  tourism (2001)     tourism (2011)                    Boletice          3,8%               5,9%          + 2,1%                    Březina           0,9%               2,5%          + 1,6%                    Hradiště          2,4%               4,7%          + 2,3%                    Libavá            2,1%               3,3%          + 1,2%                     Brdy              1%                3,3%          + 2,3%                                Tourism-recreational   Tourism-recreational                                   functions of     load of the region                                municipalities (2011)   (2011)                    Boletice          102,6              16,1                    Březina           40,4               36,4                    Hradiště          71,7               40,5                    Libavá            24,3               22,6                     Brdy             50,6               56,7                Source:  Our  own  design  and  data  compiled  from:  Cadastre  of  Real  Estate  2016                (ČÚZK,  2017),  Ministry  of  Labour  and  Social  Affairs  of  the  Czech  Rep.                (2017), Ministry  of  Agriculture  of  the  Czech  Rep.  (2017),  Regional  Information                Service (2017), Business Register 2000, 2010 (ČSÚ, 2017), Population and housing                census from 1991, 2001, 2011 (ČSÚ, 2017)                                                      417","Tab. 5: Results for Universal Indicators                                Business Activity Section                           Rate of business   Rate of business   Change                            activity (2000)   activity (2010)              Boletice         349,4            430,4          + 23,2%              Březina          284,4            347,8          + 22,3%              Hradiště         250,9            317,1          + 26,4%              Libavá           288,7            348,3          + 20,6%               Brdy            336,9            412,8          + 22,5%                           Residential and Housing Stock Section                             Number of        Unoccupied     Proportion of                          apartments in total    apartments    unoccupied                                                              apartments              Boletice          5 837           1 213           20,8%              Březina         16 186            2 527           15,6%              Hradiště        18 955            1 960           10,3%              Libavá          22 139            2 708           12,2%               Brdy           26 446            3 873           14,6%                                Agriculture Section (2006)                          Agricultural land in   Permanent   Proportion of                                  2                                                        2                               km           grasslands in km    permanent                                                              grasslands                                    2                                                     2              Boletice       178,2 km          158,4 km         88,9%                                    2                                                     2              Březina        130,9 km            17,2 km        13,1%                                                     2                                    2              Hradiště       247,2 km          137,4 km         55,6%                                    2                                                     2              Libavá         243,4 km          100,1 km         41,1%                                    2                                                     2               Brdy            84,7 km         29,2 km          34,5%           Source: Our own design and data compiled from: Cadastre of Real Estate 2016 (ČÚZK, 2017),           Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs of the Czech Rep. (2017), Ministry of Agriculture of the           Czech Rep. (2017), Regional Information Service (2017), Business Register 2000, 2010 (ČSÚ,           2017), Population and Housing Census from 1991, 2001, 2011 (ČSÚ, 2017)            On account of what is given above, the examined areas can be looked at in           the  following  way.  In  all  monitored  areas,  an  increase  in  the  number  of           people  employed  in  tourism  was  recorded,  as  well  as  a  growth  in  the           business  sector.  Regarding  the  two  indicators  -  Tourism-recreational           functions  of  municipalities  and  Tourism-recreational  load  of  the  region  -           we can state that the MTA Boletice is one with the greatest potential for           tourism  and  further  possibility  of  development.  MTA  Hradiště  and  Brdy           seem  to  be  areas  with  medium  potential  for  tourism  development,  and           finally  MTA  Březina  and  Libavá  show  a  rather  low  tourism  development           potential.           Additional indicators in the housing stock section suggest that there is an           opportunity to increase the accommodation capacity in the hinterland of           the  MTA  Brdy,  which  would  be  more  than  desirable  given  the  intended           changes. MTA Libavá and Březina are in a similar situation, but this seems           insignificant  due  to  the  low  potential  for  tourism  development  in  these           areas.  Despite  having  the  fewest  available  housing  units  among  all           monitored  areas,  MTA  Boletice  and  Hradiště  still  dispose  of  more  than           1000 apartments in absolute figures, which could be considered sufficient           in case of enlargement of accommodation facilities.                                        418","The  proportion  of  permanent  grasslands  points  out  to  their  use  in                agrotourism and considerate forms of agriculture. The greatest potential                for that provide MTAs Boletice, Hradiště and Libavá with the surface area                                2                larger than 100 km . The hinterlands of MTA Březina and Brdy offer very                limited options. In the MTA Brdy, though, the collected data from 2016 will                possibly rise after the intended remediation of the area.                               3.3 Discussion and Recommendations                With regard to the information acquired from public sources and to the                selected indicators, this subchapter includes concluding recommendations                which are reflected in three layers. The first layer is (representatives of)                public  authorities  at  the  level  of  municipalities.  The  second  are                representatives of the private sector, that is local entrepreneurs, and the                third  one  is  locals  themselves  residing  within  the  hinterlands  of  the                monitored MTAs, who are probably most affected by the development of                tourism.                                    3.3.1 Public Administration                On the ground of what was found above, it would be appropriate if at least                a partial  demilitarization  of  MTA  Boletice  and  Hradiště  took  place.  The                main reason for this is the existence of Natura 2000, NPA Šumava, Doupov                Mountains and others (see Table 3), thanks to which the army does not                have  access  to  a  significant  part  of  the  territory.  Besides  that,  a  great                potential  for  tourism  has  been  identified  here  but  its  development  can                hardly be stimulated while the Army of the Czech Republic is actively using                the area.  If the mentioned demilitarization happened, it would mean for                the  public  administration  organizing  an  administrative  division  of  the                territory  among  the  municipalities  within  the  hinterland  of  the  MTA,                similarly as in the case of the former MTA Brdy.                It  would  be  appropriate  for  the  representatives  of  the  public                administration of municipalities in all studied MTAs to establish either an                association  of  the  municipalities  or  a  local  action  group.  Foundation  of                a larger administrative unit would increase negotiation power in obtaining                grants. Another beneficial move would be the establishment of a housing                stock  and  its  management  regarding  the  thousands  of  available                apartments in the hinterlands of all MTAs. The residential units could then                be offered to local entrepreneurs through public procurement in order to                increase the number of lodging facilities.                                       3.3.2 Business Sector                The potential for tourism is very high in the proximity to MTA Boletice, and                medium in MTA Brdy and Hradiště. Thus, it can be assumed that the local                businessmen could profit from this situation, which would lead to rise in                employment in tourism (and employment in general). As noted above, the                lodging  units  could  be  offered  for  purchase  to  local  businesses  through                public  procurement.  These  apartments  could  be  reconstructed  into                                              419","accommodation  facilities  in  cooperation  with  hospitality  services.  Very           popular today is the concept of bed\&breakfast, which is an ideal choice for           travelers spending several days on bike or hiking trails. These trails could           be extended as far as to the “spa triangle” in MTA Hradiště and, in the case           of MTA Březina, to the transnational bike path Eurovelo 9 or the Moravian           Karst.           Even though the lowest potential for tourism was found in MTA Libavá, it           would  be  convenient  to  take  steps  towards  improvement  of  the  living           standards  and  employment  of  locals.  Construction  of  an  industrial  or           business zone near the cities Lipník nad Bečvou and Hranice appears to be           one  of  the  options.  It  was  these  cities  where  the  largest  number  of           entrepreneurs  was  recorded  and  also  the  agency  Czechinvest  identified           these areas as regions where up to 100.000 CZK of funds per one new job           position could be obtained.           Finally, the potential of the region for tourism lies in the sustainable and           ecologically considerate agriculture, agrotourism and hipotourism (horse-           riding). The hinterland of MTA Boletice, Hradiště and Libavá are dominant           in  this  field,  since  the  surface  area  with  permanent  grasslands  here                        2           exceeds 100 km . Although the hinterland of the MTA Březina disposes of           a rather small area, it would be desirable to prevent sale of the land stock           to  the  developers  as  this  could  disrupt  the  serene  characteristic  of  the           landscape. Apparently, proximity to cities like Vyškov and Brno adds to the           lucrativeness  of  local  land  resources.  The  data  from  MTA  Brdy  were           collected in 2016. It is therefore likely that the number will rise after the           remediation. The recovered areas then could also serve the purposes of           agrotourism and hipotourism.                                 3.3.3 Local Residents           Residents  would  benefit  from  the  demilitarization  and  tourism           development  for  several  reasons.  Increased  employment  in  the  selected           areas  could  be  considered  the  main  contribution.  Accessibility  of  some           municipalities  would also improve, and at the  same time their residents           could have more profit from the lease of grasslands (see above). That is           why it would be convenient not to be afraid of such changes, but welcome           them as a means of improving the living standards. In MTA Brdy, where the           process  of  demilitarization  is  nearly  finished,  it  is  clear  now  that  these           significant changes in organization of administrative boundaries and in the           use of the region will surely influence the locals. The question is, to what           extent they are able to respond to these changes and adapt to them. The           demilitarization itself can provide them  with a less restricted movement           close to their homes, and give a chance to diversify their outdoor physical           activities. It is desirable that the citizens become aware of these facts and           try to accommodate the planned changes.                                             420","4 CONCLUSION                The  aim  of  this  contribution  was  to  call  attention  to  the  often-                underestimated  potential  for  tourism  in  the  hinterland  of  MTAs  in  the                Czech  Republic  and  the  former  MTA  Brdy,  and  to  contribute  to  the                discussions  regarding  the  conversion  and  further  use  of  the  studied                territories. Entry to MTAs has been banned for decades, thanks to which                the  nature  within  them  remained  pure  and  preserved.  These  areas  are                thus  suitable  for  the  development  of  what  is  known  as  rural  tourism  or                agritourism,  taking  into  consideration  the  sustainability  of  the  whole                region.  As  was  mentioned  in  the  introduction,  the  concept  of  tourist                industry following the conversion of military areas is not new to the world                (and  Europe).  The  former  Eastern  Bloc  countries  has  gone  on  that  path                already at the beginning of the millennium. Thus, it would be relevant to                take  the  earlier  successfully  completed  projects  in  other  European                countries for an example and attempt to raise interest in tourism in the                region,  which  can  become  an  impulse  for  higher  employment  and  an                overall improvement of living standards of locals.                It was determined that in three out of five MTAs under study the potential                for tourism is strong to medium, and only in the remaining two it is rather                low. However, even the areas with lower potential can work to improve                the  living  standard  of  their  residents,  whether  through  tourism                development or other devices. The key element is establishing cooperation                between  the  private  and  public  sectors  with  support  from  the  local                citizens.  If  such  alliance  takes  place,  there  is  a  good  chance  that  the                proposals above will be applicable.                The  authors  are  aware  that  the  proposals  are  somewhat  indicative,  to                a certain degree subjective, and are adjusted according to the current state                in which the economy is growing and the conditions for the expansion of                businesses  are  favorable.  The  innovations  in  use  of  the  hinterlands  of                MTAs  might  become  reality  only  in  more  than  a  couple  of  years.  But                tourism will certainly play a significant role here anyhow.                 This  contribution  was  supported  by  an  internal  grant  of  the  Faculty  of                Economics and Administration, Masaryk University, entitled “Metropolitan                Processes  Formatting  Traditional  City  Structure:  An  Example  of  Brno                Metropolitan Area” (MUNI/A/0976/2016)                Acknowledgments  also  go  to  the  project  “Military  Training  Areas  as  the                territories  of  transformation:  Scenarios  of  optimization  and  its  influence  on                society and landscape” which is supported by the Institute of Geonics of the                CAS in cooperation with The Silva Tarouca Research Institute for Landscape and                Ornamental Gardening. It was created for the 3rd public call of the Technology                Agency of the Czech Republic and the OMEGA Programme to support applied                social-science research and experimental development.                                                  421","REFERENCES           BRASS, J. L., Community Tourism Assessment Handbook. Corvallis, Oregon:           Western Rural Development Center, Oregon State University. 1996           BURR,  S.  W.  The  Rural  Action  Class’s  Perceptions  of  Tourism  and  its           Potential  for  Economic  Development:  Case  Studies  from  Four  Rural           Pennsylvania  Countries, General Technical Report, 1995,  Report No. INT-           323: pp. 82-89.           CELOTAJS, L. Military Heritage: management guidelines. Riga: Baltic Green           Belt, 2011.           CZECH  INVEST.  Novela  zákona  o  investičních  pobídkách:  Účinná  od  1.           května   2015. Czech   Invest:   Agentura   pro   podporu   podnikání           a investic [online].   1994   [cit.   2017-10-22].   Retrieved   from:           http://www.czechinvest.org/data/files/investicni-pobidky-matice-pobidek-           5205-cz.pdf           ČESKÝ STATISTICKÝ ÚŘAD [online]. Český statistický úřad, [cit. 2017-10-22].           Retrieved from: https://www.czso.cz/           ČESKÝ  ÚŘAD  ZEMĚMĚŘIČSKÝ  A  KATASTRÁLNÍ  Nahlížení  do  katastru           nemovitostí [online],   2004   [cit.   2017-10-22].   Retrieved   from:           http://nahlizenidokn.cuzk.cz/           EAGLES, P. F. J., MCCOOL, S. F. a HAYNES, CH. D. Sustainable tourism in           protected  areas:  guidelines  for  planning  and  management.  Gland,           Switzerland:  IUCN--the  World  Conservation  Union,  2002.  ISBN  2-8317-           0648-3.           GAZENBEEK, A.: LIFE, Natura 2000 and the military. Luxembourg: EUR-OP,           2005. ISBN 9289492139           GIANNAKIS,  E.  The  role  of  Rural  Tourism  on  the  development  of  rural           areas:  the  case  of  Cyprus.  Romanian  Journal  of  Regional  Science.  2014,           8(1), 38-53.           GIBSON, L. J., The potential for tourism development in non-metropolitan           areas’, In: BARKLEY, David., L., ed, Economic Adaptation: Alternatives for           Non-metropolitan Areas, San Francisco, Westview Press, 1993           HOLLAND,  J.,  BURIAN,  M.  a  DIXEY,  L.  Tourism  in  Poor  Rural  Areas:           Diversifying the product and expanding the benefits in rural Uganda and           the Czech Republic. Economic and Social Research Unit, 2003.           JAŇUROVÁ,  M. Vojenské  újezdy  v  České  republice:  optimalizace  jejich           dalšího využití. Brno, 2017. Diploma thesis. Masaryk University.           MATUŠKOVÁ, A. Strategická transformace vojenského újezdu Brdy. Plzeň:           Katedra geografie FEK Západočeské univerzity v Plzni, 2015.           MCMAHON, F. Rural and Agri-Tourism in Central and Eastern Europe, In:           RICHARDS,  G.  (ed)  Tourism  in  Central  and  Eastern  Europe:  Educating  for           Quality, Tilburg: Tilburg University Press, 1996, pp. 175-182           MINISTERSTVO   FINANCÍ.   Administrativní   registr   ekonomických           subjektů [online],   2013   [cit.   2017-10-22].   Retrieved   from:           http://wwwinfo.mfcr.cz/ares/ares.html.cz                                        422","MINISTERSTVO PRÁCE A SOCIÁLNÍCH VĚCÍ Statistické publikace a vybrané                statistické  údaje  z  oblasti  práce  a  sociálních  věcí.  [online].  Ministerstvo                práce   a   sociálních   věcí   [cit.   2017-10-22].   Retrieved   from:                http://www.mpsv.cz/cs/3878                MINISTERSTVO PRO MÍSTNÍ ROZVOJ Regionální informační servis [online],                2012 [cit. 2017-10-22]. Retrieved from: http://www.risy.cz/cs                MINISTERSTVO  ZEMĚDĚLSTVÍ.   EAgri [online],  2009  [cit.2017-10-22].                Retrieved from: http://eagri.cz/public/web/mze/zemedelstvi/                POŠTOLKA,  V.  Revitalizace  a  nové  využití  bývalého  vojenského  prostoru                Ralsko. Sborník České geografické společnosti. 1998, 103(3), 156-170.                SEIDL, T. Proces integrace marginálního území do regionálního systému –                příklad  Vojenského  újezdu  Boletice.  Univerzita  Karlova,  2008.  Diploma                thesis.                STONE, M. T. Protected Areas, Tourism and Rural Community Livelihoods in                Botswana. Arizona, 2014. Dissertation.                STROMBERG, P.: Swedish Military Bases of the Cold War: The Making of                a New Cultural Heritage, Culture Unbound, Linköping University, 2010, Vol.                2, pp. 635–663.                VYSTOUPIL,  J.  Návrh  nové  rajonizace  cestovního  ruchu  ČR.  Brno:                Masarykova univerzita, 2007. ISBN 978-80-210-4263-6.                WOODS, M. D. The Tourism/Rural Economic Development Link, Blueprints                for Economic Development, Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State                University,1992, 2(2): pp. 2.                                             Shrnutí                Cílem tohoto příspěvku bylo poukázat na mnohdy podceňovaný potenciál                cestovního ruchu v zázemí vojenských újezdů v České republice a bývalého                VÚ Brdy a přispět do diskuze týkající se rekonverze a dalšího využití těchto                oblastí.  Díky  zákazu  vstupu  do  VÚ  po  celá  desetiletí,  což  se  projevilo                zachováním  čisté  přírody,  jsou  tyto  plochy  vhodné  pro  rozvoj  tzv.                venkovského cestovního ruchu či agrárního cestovního ruchu s ohledem na                udržitelnost celé oblasti. Koncept cestovního ruchu spojeného s rekonverzí                vojenských  prostor  není  ve  světě,  potažmo  Evropě  nic  nového  a  jak  je                uvedeno v úvodu, státy bývalého východního bloku se touto cestou vydaly                již na počátku nového tisíciletí. Bylo by tedy žádoucí vzít si příklady dobré                praxe z dříve uskutečněných projektů v dalších evropských zemích snažit se                zvýšit  zájem  o  cestovní  ruch  v těchto  oblastech,  což  může  být  impulsem                pro zvýšení zaměstnanosti a celkové životní úrovně obyvatel.                Bylo  zjištěno,  že  ve  třech  z pěti  sledovaných  VÚ  je  potenciál  cestovního                ruchu  silný  až  střední  a  pouze  ve  dvou  je  spíše  nízký.  Nicméně  i  oblasti                s malým  potenciálem  mohou  zvýšit  životní  úroveň  svých  obyvatel  ať  už                pomocí  cestovního  ruchu  nebo  jiných  prostředků.  Klíčovým  prvkem  je                navázání  spolupráce  mezi  soukromým  a  veřejným  sektorem  za  podpory                místních  občanů.  Pakliže  by  k takovému  spojenectví  došlo,  je  poměrně                velká šance, že výše uvedené návrhy budou realizovatelné.                                               423","Autorky  jsou  si  vědomy,  že  návrhy  jsou  spíše  orientační  a  do  jisté  míry           subjektivní  a  jsou  přizpůsobeny  stávající  situaci,  kdy  se  ekonomika  roste           a podmínky pro rozvoj podnikání jsou tedy příznivé. Realita nového využití           území  v zázemí  VÚ  bude  v horizontu  více  let,  možná  i  desetiletí,  ale  vše           naznačuje, že cestovní ruch v něm bude hrát nezanedbatelnou roli.                                                                                             424","WEEKEND RECREATION AS A TOOL FOR DISPERSED SETTLEMENT                        PRESERVATION (CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE TERCHOVÁ)                                          Dominika Kaisová                 University of Constantin the Philosopher in Nitra, Tr. A. Hlinku 1, 949 74 Nitra                                     dominika.kaisova@ukf.sk                 Abstract:  Dispersed  settlement,  known  as  a  type  of  settlement  where                settlement units are dispersed in the area, has several functions in present                days. It is used by residents but it is often used by cottagers as well. Mainly                those  settlement  units  that  are  farther  away  from  the  village  or  town                centre.                The  village  Terchová  as  a  centre  of  tourist  traffic  in  Micro  region                Terchovská dolina offers a lot of recreational possibilities. Beside summer                and winter activities in Malá Fatra National park, there is also an option of                a weekend recreation in marginal parts of the village Terchová in the area                with  dispersed  settlement.  House  fund  of  dispersed  settlement  is  used                mainly by cottagers during weekends in remote parts of this area that are                not  suitable  for  residents.  The  main  aim  of  this  article  is  to  focus  on                weekend  recreation  as  a  tool  for  preserving  landscape  character,                characteristic traits of dispersed settlement and land use.                Key  words:  dispersed  settlement,  recreation,  land  use,  landscape                character.                                        1 INTRODUCTION                Dispersed  settlement  consists  of  dispersed  settlement  units  that  were                                                                     th                                                             th                created in villages beyond a compact settlement in 15  and 16  century,                have  their  own  name  and  are  distant  from  each  other  (Horváth,  1980).                According  Sitár  (1967)  dispersed  settlement  is  a  settlement  type  that  is                spatially  limited  and  fixed  on  agriculture.  It  consists  of  individual                settlement units or group of houses that usually consists of 2-10 or more                houses  (Verešík,  1980).  Dispersed  settlement  had  one  main  function,                housing function, in the past when dispersed settlement units were used                                                                     th                by shepherds at first and then by farmers. In last decades of 20  century                people started moving from dispersed settlement units to the central parts                of  villages  and  some  of  them  became  abandoned.  Nowadays  dispersed                settlement units have housing as well as recreational function. Cottagers                are  using  mainly  those  dispersed  settlement  units  that  are  in  marginal                parts  of  the  villages  or  cities  and  house  fund  and  nature  are  quite                preserved  there  (Ďurišová,  2004;  Petrovič,  2006;  Šuhajdová,  Hamada,                2011; Hreško et al, 2015; Petrovič, Muchová, 2013; Kaisová et al., 2017).                Dispersed settlement is important in terms of landscape character that is                defined as “distinct, recognizable and consistent pattern of elements in the                                               425","landscape that makes one landscape different from another, rather than           better or worse” (Swanwick, 2002).           Landscape  is  changing  and  its  characteristic  traits  are  disappearing           (Jančura,  Bohálová,  2010).  There  are  two  main  trends  in  changing           landscapes  -  extensification  and  intensification  (Vos,  Klinj,  2000).  While           one part of the landscape is used and changed by continuously expanding           development,  the  other  part  of  the  landscape  is  affected  by  succession           because people who used to use the country is now abandoning it (Council           of Europe, 2000). Therefore  historical forms of agriculture, rustic houses           and  characteristic  traits  of  the  landscape  are  disappearing  (Jančura,           Bohálová, 2010).           The landscape perspective in management, policy and planning is current           focus in Europe as part of European Landscape Convention adopted in the           year 2000 by European Council (Ode et al., 2008).                              2 MATERIAL AND METHODS                                 2.1 Research area           Micro  region  Terchovská  dolina  is  situated  in  the  north-western  part  of           Slovak  republic  (figure  1).  It  contains  17  villages:  Belá,  Dolná  Tižina,           Gbeľany,  Kotrčiná  Lúčka,  Krasňany,  Lutiše,  Lysica,  Mojš,  Nededza,           Nezbudská  Lúčka,  Stráňavy,  Stráža,  Strečno,  Teplička  nad  Váhom,           Terchová, Varín and Zázrivá. Six of them have dispersed settlement in their           area. Terchová is the largest village in micro region Terchovská dolina and           is  centre  of  tourist  traffic  and  recreation  in  the  area.  Although  there  is           74 dispersed  settlement  units  in  Terchová  not  all  of  them  are  used  for           recreation. Some of them are used by residents for living.                                   Fig. 1. Placement of Micro region Terchovská dolina within Slovak Republic.                                        426","Dispersed  settlement  is  concentrated  in  western  part  of  micro  region                Terchovská  dolina  (figure  2).  In  the  past,  remote  parts  of  the  land  that                were uninhabited were colonized to gain new soil that could be cultivated.                Therefore  in  villages  that  are  farther  from  historical  centres  dispersed                settlement was created.                Village Terchová was chosen as a model area because there is majority of                dispersed settlement units of all villages in micro region Terchovská dolina.                Terchová  has  a  lot  of  recreational  possibilities  and  besides  summer  and                winter  recreational  activities  in  Malá  Fatra  National  Park  it  offers  also                possibilities for weekend recreation in the area with dispersed settlement.                There are 74 dispersed settlement units that are concentrated in northern                part  of  the  village  Terchová  because  in  southern  part  of  the  village  lays                Malá Fatra National park, so the area is not suitable for living.                                          Fig. 2. Dispersed settlement in Micro region Terchovská dolina.                                          2.2 Methods                The first step in the research was to identify dispersed settlement units in                the area and determine which one are used by cottagers for recreation and                which  one  are  used  by  residents  for  living.  GPS  device  and  topographic                maps as well as touristic maps was used to identify dispersed settlement                units in the area. GPS co-ordinates were noted down and transferred into                Geographical information system (ArcGIS 10.1 and QGIS 2.14 were used).                Field research was one of the most important part of the whole research                because only during the field research it was possible to observe how and                if the house fund and surrounding area are used.                One of the most important factors that affect how dispersed settlement                units are used is their accessibility. It turned out that accessibility is one of                                              427","the  main  reasons  why  more  distant  dispersed  settlement  units  are           becoming  abandoned.  The  accessibility  was  measured  from  the  village           centre  (which  was  point  in  front  of  the  municipal  office  in  Terchová)  to           dispersed settlement units. After that, dispersed settlement units were put           into  four  categories  according  Nahálka  et  al.  (1966):  0-2  km,  2.1-5  km,           5.1-10 km and 10.1 and more km.           Data about number of inhabited houses and number of inhabitants was           obtained  from  parish  register.  These  data  helped  to  determine  which           dispersed  settlement  units  are  depopulated  and  used  mainly  for           recreational  purposes.  Inhabited  houses  were  categorized  into  five           categories: without lived in houses, 1-5 houses, 6-9 houses, 10-19 houses           and  20  and  more  houses.  Number  of  residents  was  categorized  into           5 categories  according  Nahálka  et  al.  (1966):  without  residents,           1-10 residents,  11-50  residents,  51-100  residents  and  100  and  more           residents.                                      3 RESULTS           Only  dispersed  settlement  units  with  mainly  recreational  function  were           assessed.  Mainly  recreational  function  means  that  in  these  dispersed           settlement units are no or very few inhabitants and house fund is used for           weekend  recreation  by  cottagers.  Dispersed  settlement's  function  was           determined according number of inhabitants and lived in houses and field           research was helpful as well.           Distance from village centre to dispersed settlement units are in interval           from 2.1 km to 10 km. Most of them are in distance from 5 to 6 km from           village centre. There are 39.39% of dispersed settlement units in interval           2.1-5 km and 60.61% of them are in interval 5.1-10 km (graph 1). There are           no dispersed settlement units that are closer to village centre and are used           mainly by cottagers.                80                                                 60,61                60                                    39,39                40                20                         0                                     0                 0                       0-2 km      2,1-5 km    5,1-10 km  10 and more km            Graph 1: Distance from the village centre to dispersed settlement units           Source: Internal materials of parish register            Almost half (48.48%) of dispersed settlement units are without residents           and the same number of dispersed settlement units have 1-10 residents.           Only one dispersed settlement unit is in interval 11-50 residents (graph 2).                                          428","60   48,48  48,48                    50                    40                    30                    20                    10                  3,04    0       0                    0                        without  1-10  11-50  51-100  100 and                       residents residents residents residents  more                                                     residents                 Graph 2: Number of residents in dispersed settlement  units in Terchová in                2015                Source: Internal materials of parish register                 House fund of assessed dispersed settlement units is created mostly by old                wooden houses. Some of them are declining because there is no one to                take  care  of  them  and  nature  in  this  part  of  Slovak  republic,  mainly  in                winter, could easily destroy old houses. 48.48% of house fund is without                residents and 51.52% have 1-5 lived in houses (graph 3).                     60     48,48      51,52                   50                   40                   30                   20                   10                                                  0         0          0                    0                       without lived  1-5 houses  6-9 houses  10-19 houses 20 and more                         in houses                                   houses                 Graph 3: House fund of dispersed settlement units in Terchová in 2015                Source: Internal materials of parish register                 Great distance from the  village centre is not convenient for people who                need to commute to work or to school and are less appealing for tourists                who need certain infrastructure during their stay in the area. So dispersed                settlement  units  in  marginal  parts  of  Terchová  are  more  suitable  for                weekend recreation and cottagers. There are also no civic amenities such                as  grocery  store,  bus  stop,  school  or  policlinic  in  these  dispersed                settlement units. It is another sign that these dispersed settlement units                are not used permanently.                Instead  of  building  new  houses,  cottagers  are  reconstructing  old  house                fund and preserve traditional architecture. It also helps to stop succession                and  therefore  preserve  characteristic  traits  of  the  landscape  such  as                                              429","terrace fields, orchards or meadows that are also home for some protected           animal and flower species. These dispersed settlement units seems to have           more  preserved  characteristic  traits  than  dispersed  settlement  units           nearby  the  village  centre,  where  developers  are  building  new  wooden           houses  with  foreign  architecture  that  are  not  natural  for  the  area  with           dispersed settlement.           There are 33 dispersed settlement units (figure 3) that are used mainly by           cottagers, although there still could be some residents, but most of them           are  retired  now.  Most  of  the  cottagers  bought  these  old  houses  from           residents  and  a  lot  of  cottages  belong  to  foreign  cottagers,  mainly  from           Czech  Republic.  There  are  recommendations  to  reconstruct  these  old           houses instead of new construction in local plan of the village Terchová.           Cottagers  as  well  as  resident  should  respect  these  recommendations  to           preserve landscape with dispersed settlement for other generations.           Dispersed  settlement  units  in  other  villages  of  micro  region  Terchovská           dolina are used by cottagers as well. It seems that more remote dispersed           settlement  units  are  more  attractive  for  weekend  recreation  that  those           near village centres. Terchová has a lot of dispersed settlement units that           are  close  to  the  village  centre  but  in  the  other  villages  dispersed           settlement units are not so tied to village centre and it is easier to establish           where the village centre ends and where the dispersed settlement units           started. In Terchová it not so explicit.           If we want to preserve landscape with dispersed settlement it is important           to  find  balance  between  extensification  and  intensification  of  landscape           exploitation. Because as Vos and Klijn (2000) claims, these changes  may           cause  a  significant  loss  of  the  landscape  diversity.  Mono-functional           agricultural  landscapes  evolved  into  multifunctional  landscapes  that  are           agrolandscapes  with  non-production  functions  such  as  biodiversity,           housing and recreation that are combined with agriculture (Jellema et al.,           2007).  Villages  with  dispersed  settlement  in  micro  region  Terchovská           dolina are multifunctional landscapes and we should take that into account           during landscape planning.                                                            430","Fig. 3. Dispersed settlement units in Terchová.                                         4 CONCLUSION                Depopulated  and  remote  dispersed  settlement  units  will  decline  unless                there will be someone willing to take care of them. Cottagers seems to be                perfect  solution for dispersed settlement preservation, mainly in remote                parts of villages or cities that are not attractive for residents. These areas                are very attractive for cottagers, mainly mosaic structure of the landscape                with small fields, meadows, woods and small groups of houses. Extensive                                               431","use of the landscape with dispersed settlement is necessary to preserve           characteristic traits.           Besides  cottagers,  houses  with  traditional  architecture  placed  in  the           landscape  with  characteristic  traits  could  be  attractive  to  other  visitors.           A lot  of  cycle  routs  and  tourist  trails  lead  through  or  near  dispersed           settlement units. Some of the bigger dispersed settlement units could be           used even for agro tourism.            Acknowledgment: This research was accomplished thanks to project KEGA           025UKF-4/2015 and project VEGA no. 1/0496/16.                                     REFERENCES           Council  of  Europe  (2000)  Official  text  of  the  European  Landscape           Convention.  Available  online  at:  [http://www.coe.int/t/e/Cultural_Co-           operation/Environment/Landscape/].           ĎURIŠOVÁ,  A.  2004.  Kopaničiarske  osídlenie  -  sídelný  fenomén.  In  Sídlo-           park-krajina 3: Krajinno-architektonická tvorba, vegetačné prvky v sídlach a           krajine.  1.  vyd.  Elektronický  konferenčný  zborník,  Nitra:  Slovenská           poľnohospodárska univerzita, p. 135-138.   ISBN 80-8069-457-5.           HORVÁTH, P. 1980. Historický prehľad vzniku a rozvoja chotárnych sídel v           slovenskej časti Karpát. Slovenský národopis, 28, 1, SAV, Bratislava, p. 8-17.           HREŠKO,  J.,  PETROVIČ,  F.,  MIŠOVIČOVÁ,  R.  2015.  Mountain  landscape           archetypes  of  the  Western  Carpathians  (Slovakia).  In  Biodiversity  and           Conservation, vol. 24, no. 13, p. 3269-3283.           JANČURA,  P.  BOHÁLOVÁ,  I.  2010.  Metodika  identifikácie  a  hodnotenia           charakteristického  vzhľadu  krajiny.  In  Enviromagazín  (SAŽP,  Banská           Bystrica) 6/15. ISSN 1335-1877.P. 18-19.           JELLEMA,  A.  STOBBELAAR,  D-J.,  GROOT,  J.C.J.,  ROSSING,  W.A.H.  2009.           Landscape  character  assessment  using  region  growing  techniques  in           geographical  information  systems.  In  Journal  of  Environmental           Management. 90, 2009, p. 161-174, DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.11.031.           KAISOVÁ,  D.,  JANČOVIČ,  M,  NOZDROVICKÁ  J.  2017.  Use  of  dispersed           settlement  for  agricultural  tourism  in  three  towns  in  Čadca  District.  In           Public  recreation  and  landscape  protection  -  with  nature  hand  in  hand?:           proceeding from 8th konference. Brno: Mendel university, p. 449-454. ISBN           978-80-7509-487-2.           NAHÁLKA,  P.  ET  AL.  1966.  Výskum  rozptýleného  osídlenia  na  Slovensku.           VÚPS SF SVŠT, Bratislava, 144 pp. + příloha.           ODE, Å., TVEIT, M.S., FRY, G. 2008. Capturing Landscape Visual Character           Using  Indicators:  Touching  Base  with  Landscape  Aesthetic  Theory.  In           Landscape Research, 33:1, p. 89-117, DOI: 10.1080/01426390701773854.           PETROVIČ, F. 2006. Changes of the landscape with dispersed settlement. In           Ekologia (Bratislava), vol. 25. ISSN 1337-947X. P. 201-2011.                                        432","PETROVIČ,  F.,  MUCHOVA,  Z.  2013.  The  potential  of  the  landscape  with                dispersed settlement. In. Public recreation and landscape protection–with                man hand in hand: Brno: MU, 2013, p. 199–204. ISBN 978-80-7375-746-5.                SITÁR,  E.  1967.  Kopaničiarske  osídlenie  na  Slovensku.  In  Vlastivedný                časopis. 16:1, p. 125 - 135.                SWANWICK,  C.  2002.  Landscape  Character  Assessment:  Guidance  for                England  and  Scotland  (London:  The  Countryside  Agency  and  Scottish                Natural Heritage).                ŠUHAJHOVÁ  L.,  HAMADA,  M.  2011.  Possibilities  for  utilization  of  the                dispersed  settlement  potential  of  Nová  Baňa  “štál”  area.  In  MendelNet                2011.  Proceedings  of  International  Ph.D.  Students  Conference.  Brno:                Mendel University, p. 531-538. ISBN 978-80-7375-563-538.                VEREŠÍK,  J.  1974.  Vidiecke  sídla.  In  Slovesko  -  Ľud  –  I.  časť.  Obzor,                Bratislava. 736 p.                VOS,  W.,  KLIJN,  J.,  2000.  Trends  in  European  landscape  development:                prospects  for  a  sustainable  future.  In:  Klijn,  J.,  Vos,  W.  (Eds.),  From                Landscape   Ecology   to   Landscape   Science.   Kluwer   Academic                Publishers,Wageningen, pp. 13–30.                                            SHRNUTÍ                Rozptýlené osídlenie je sídelný fenomén, ktorého prežitie závisí na ľuďoch,                ktorí  sa  starajú  o  pôvodnú  architektúru  drevených  domov  a tradičné                obhospodarovanie  okolitej  krajiny,  aby  bol  zachovaný  krajinný ráz  danej                lokality.  Rozptýlené  osídlenie  vo  vzdialených  častiach  obcí  a miest  často                krát trpí práve tým, že tieto oblasti sú bez trvalého obyvateľstva alebo tam                žijú  iba  ľudia  v  dôchodkovom  veku,  ktorí  nie  sú schopní  starať  sa                o drevenice  a  ich  okolie.  Obec  Terchová,  ktorá  leží  vo východnej  časti                mikroregiónu  Terchovská  dolina,  je  známa  vysokým  počtom osád  a  je                centrom  cestovného  ruchu  v regióne.  Väčšina  aktivít,  týkajúca sa                cestovného   ruchu,   je   orientovaná   na   pohorie   Malá   Fatra,                pričom ubytovacie  zariadenia  sú  lokalizované  v  oblasti  s rozptýleným                osídlením, ktoré sa nachádza v blízkosti centra obce. Vzdialenejšie osady sú                však často  krát  bez  trvalých  obyvateľov  a  vtedy  prichádzajú  na                radu chalupári,  ktorí  sa  starajú  o  tieto  osady,  ktoré  sú  pre  nich                príťažlivé hlavne  kvôli  atraktívnemu  prostrediu,  ktoré  je  typické                striedaním políčok,  lúk,  lesov  a  ovocných  sadov.  Výskum  v  tejto  oblasti                ukázal,  že osady  nachádzajúce  sa  vo  väčšej  vzdialenosti  od  jadra  obce                majú zachovanejšiu tradičnú architektúru než osady bližšie k centru obce.                Je to  spôsobené  tým,  že  chalupári  sa  snažia  o  zachovanie  tradičného                vzhľadu osád,  pričom  v  blízkosti  jadra  obce  pôsobia  developerské  tlaky                na výstavbu   rekreačných   zariadení   pre   turistov.   Krajina                s rozptýleným osídlením  nie  je  stavaná  pre  masový  turizmus.  Ten  môže                tejto krajine viac uškodiť ako pomôcť.                                                  433","THE DESIGN OF A CYCLING ROUTE IN THE MODEL TERRITORY OF                           LEVICE AND ITS SURROUNDINGS                              Tomáš Kováč, Martin Boltižiar                Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural            Sciences, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Trieda A. Hlinku 1,                                    949 74 Nitra                                 tomas.kovac@ukf.sk              Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural            Sciences, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Trieda A. Hlinku 1,                                    949 74 Nitra                                  mboltiziar@ukf.sk             ABSTRACT:  The  importance  of  bicycle  touring  is  currently  getting  more           attention, mainly in other countries of the European Union, but recently           also  here  in  Slovakia.  In  the  article,  we  focus  on  the  impact  of  bicycle           touring  on  tourism  in  Slovakia  with  its  legislative  provisions  and  on  the           design  of  new  cycling  routes.  We  pay  special  attention  to  the  particular           importance of bicycle touring in the town of Levice and the surrounding           area. After analyzing and evaluating of the existing routes, we decide to           propose  two  new  ones,  which  could  have  a  positive  impact  on  the           development of the territory. We designed the first route outside of the           town  of  Levice  (Levice-Dolná  Seč-Vyšné  nad  Hronom-Žemliare-Jur  nad           Hronom-Starý  Hrádok-Mýtne  Ludany  časť  Dobogov  -  Levice)  29  km  in           length. We situated the second route in the built-up area of the town of           Levice; its length is 6.9 km. Both proposed routes have “rekrea” difficulty,           i.e., they are designed for families  with  children or cyclists  with a lower           fitness level.           Key  words:  bicycle  touring,  proposed  route,  Levice,  development  of  the           territory, municipality                                   INTRODUCTION           Nowadays, there is an increased interest in bicycle touring not just abroad           but  in  Slovakia  as  well.  One  of  the  main  documents,  which  covers  the           development  of  bicycle  touring  in  Slovakia  is  National  Strategy  of           Development of Cycling Transport and Cycle Touring in the Slovak Republic           The  main  vision  of  this  strategy  is  the  effort  to  draw  the  rest  of  the           European countries in the field of bicycle touring. This document also tries           to ensure that cycling is recognized as respected means of transport and                                        434","that it is  equal to other types of transport. It also seeks  to improve the                perception of cyclists as fully-fledged participants in road traffic. The goal is                also to boost cycling as an important segment of the tourism industry, with                the  potential,  in  particular  for  rural  areas  and  their  development,                increasing employment and competitiveness in the context of sustainable                development. Our proposed route should promote the main vision of the                strategy  and  its  goals,  and  the  resulting  positive  effect  not  only  on  the                development  of  bicycle  touring  routes,  but  also  on  the  overall                development of the region (www.telecom.gov.sk).                The territory is located in the southern regions of the Slovak Republic in                the Nitra self-governing region. In the context of the region, it belongs to                the territory of Levice district. In the territory of the city, it includes the                town  of  Levice  and  the  municipalities  of  Dolná  Seč,  Vyšné  nad  Hronom,                Žemliare, Jur nad Hronom, Starý Hrádok, and Mýtne Ludňany časť Dobogov                (fig. 1).                From the point of view of natural circumstances of the territory, it lies in                the  eastern  part  of  the  Danubian  Lowland  in  the  valley  of  the  lower                reaches  of  the  Hron  river.  From  the  north  and  the  northeast  of  the                territory,  it  is  surrounded  by  the  volcanic  mountain  range  of  Štiavnické                vrchy. The eastern border of the area is enclosed by Krupinská planina. The                most significant water flow in the territory includes the river Hron. From                the  southern  side  of  the  volcanic  mountain  range  it  borders  the  Burda                mountain (www.levice.sk, Hrnčiarová, T. red., 2002).                                     Fig. 1. The definition of the territory.                Source: ArcGIS 9.3, compiled by Tomáš Kováč (2017)                                              435","CURRENT CONDITIONS FOR BICYCLE TOURING IN THE TERRITORY             Natural and cultural policies in the territories with a focus on the                            development of bicycle touring           As was already mentioned above, in terms of natural circumstances of the           territory, it is located on the extensive geomorphological area of. Danubian           hills. That is why, in the territory, we only detect a minimal vertical altitude           difference, namely 23 m. Because of this, the territory has a large potential           for  cycling  and  in  terms  of  the  intensity  of  all  the  possible  routes  it  is           possible to put them into the REKREA category (less challenging routes for           beginners  and  occasional  cyclists).  The  routes  are  suitable  for  beginners           and  families  with  children.  Also  in  terms  of  climate  conditions,  the  area           clearly  has  positive  conditions  for  bicycle  touring  development.  In           accordance with Lapin and co. (2002), we include the territory in the warm           climate zone, resulting in up to 50 and more summer days in this area, and           the average annual temperature being around 20 °C. Also in the territory,           we observe completely clear days ranging between 50-60 annually. In the           territory, the lowland precipitation type is prevalent, characterized by little           rainfall. The annual precipitation is 600-650 mm. In summer, the west wind           flow is prevailing. The territory for the development of bicycle touring is           also  supported  by  the  landmarks  from  the  point  of  view  of  nature           conservation or cultural monuments. There are for example. the protected           area Levické rybníky ponds, the protected area Levický park, the protected           tree  princesstree  (Paulownia  tomentosa)  and  others.  Cultural  attractions           are represented by monuments of regional importance such as Tekovské           múzeum museum, Klasicistický kostol sv. Michala archanjela church, and           many others. The most important monument of supraregional significance           is  the  Levický  hrad  castle,  which  is  also  the  outpost  of  the  international           route  of  rivers  Váh-Dunaj-Ipeľ  (Žiaran,  J.  a  kol.,  2010,  Cyklomapa           euroregiónu Váh – Dunaj – Ipeľ).                         Institutions that support bicycle touring           Several associations deal with the issue of bicycle touring. One of them is           an  Association  of  rural  tourism  Hron  (ART-.HRON),  founded  by  the           municipalities of Starý Tekov, Kalná nad Hronom, Horná Seč and Jur nad           Hronom in 1999. In 2006, the Association added the municipality of Dolná           Seč, Vyšné nad Hronom, Tekovský Hrádok, Turá, Nový Tekov, Starý Hrádok           and Žemliare. In the year 2010, municipalities of Mýtne Ludany and Veľké           Kozmálovce  joined  the  Association  In  2011,  another  13  municipalities           joined the Association and together they created the Civic Association (CA)           in  the  palm  of  the  Hron  (Občianske  združenie  (OZ  v Dlani  Hrona)  which           works on the Leader principle. Subsequently, in the year 2012, the CA in           the  palm  of  the  Hron  merged  with  CA  Under  the  Slovak  gate  (OZ  Pod           Slovenskou  bránou)  and  together  they  created  CA  Tekov  -  Hont.  The           cooperation arose from their historical, natural, and economic conditions.           The aim of the Association is to create new job opportunities in the field of           rural tourism, improve the quality of life of the population, as well as to           promote   the   development   of   tourism   and   bicycle   touring                                         436","(www.dolnasec.sk, www.jur.sk, www.mytneludany.sk,                www.staryhradok.sk, vysnenadhronom.webnode.sk, www.zemliare.sk).                In  a  given  territory,  the  Regional  Tourism  Organization  of  Tekov  also                participates on the development of tourism and bicycle touring. Founding                members  of  the  Regional  Tourism  Organization  of  Tekov  include:  the                towns of Nitra, Levice, and Želiezovce; municipalities of Kalná nad Hronom,                Pukanec  Bátovce,  Santovka,  Jur  nad  Hronom,  Čajkov,  Rybník,  and  the                company Amalion, s.r.o. (Guest house Rekrea, restaurant Koliba), MORE-                PJC, s.r.o. (guide services, RegionVINO). PaedDr. Ján Füri – JUROB (Camping                Vodník  Jur  nad  Hronom),  Tekovské  museum,  Viale  s.r.o.  (Hotel  Lev),  OZ                Terroir Tekov.                The  municipalities  themselves  support  the  development  of  tourism  and                bicycle touring by various cultural events. The support of tourism and the                bicycle touring itself in the area is encouraged by the Levice information                agency which provides the tourists with interesting information about the                region.                The main document, which in addition to the development of tourism also                covers the development of cycling in the town of Levice is the Strategy for                the development of tourism of the city of Levice for the years 2016-2020. It                follows the Strategy for the development of tourism of the city of Levice                for  the  years  2009-2015  and  was  made  in  accordance  with  strategic                documents: Strategy for the development of tourism of the city of Levice                by  the  year  2020,  Strategic  and  marketing  plan  for  the  development  of                tourism in Nitra self-governing region in the years 2014-2020, Strategy for                the  development  of  bicycle  routes  in  Nitra  self-governing  region  in  the                years 2016-2020.                The above mentioned associations also contribute to the organization of                different  events.  ART  -  HRON  creates  many  events  to  support  local                development  in  the  municipalities.  It  also  supports  the  development  of                bicycle touring in the territory through the organization of various cycling                events,  such  as:  “Bicycle  touring  season  start”  in  Jur  nad  Hronom,                “Goodbye holiday event” and many others. In addition to the ART – HRON,                the Regional Tourism Organization of Tekov or CA Tekov - Hont and the                municipalities themselves are involved in the development of the territory                by  organizing  various  social  and  cultural  events  to  promote  tourism                (Hlatký, J. a kol., 2014,  Frtúsová, Z., 2009, www.telecom.gov.sk, Plesník,                P. a kol, 2014, Obická, Z., 2016).                              Assessment of the existing cycling routes                In  the  territory  there  is  a  major  regional  route  Starý  Tekov  -  Jur  nad                Hronom (Pohronská cycling route), built by the ART – HRON. It leads along                the river Hron from Starý Tekov to Jur nad Hronom in a length of 27 km.                Another important cycling route in the territory is the international route                of  the  euroregion  Váh  –  Dunaj  -  Ipeľ  which  passes  through  the  town  of                Levice. The town of Levice, as the member of this euroregion was included                in the project “Euroregion Váh – Dunaj - Ipeľ on wheels”. Its goal was to                create an attractive product in the field of tourism in the form of a cycling                route. The project builds on the already existing project “Tourist route of                                              437","the medieval castles of Euroregion Váh – Dunaj-Ipeľ” as a tourism product.           The  international  route  Euro  Velo  (Dunajská  cycling  route)  and           Čiernovodská   cycling   route   also   pass   through   the   region           (www.eurovelo.com www.nr.cykloportal.sk).           Regarding the quality of the marking of cycle routes, there is international           marking present on the route of Starý Tekov-Jur nad Hronom (Pohronská           cycling route). In the municipality of Vyšné nad Hronom, it is represented           by  markings  with  red  colour.  The  marking  of  all  of  the  existing  cycling           routes  in  the  territory  is  at  the  appropriate  level  (Dubcová,  A.  –           Kramáreková, H. red., 2011, Kramáreková a kol, 2014).           Aforementioned cycling routes have a positive impact on the development           of tourism. International cycling route Váh - Dunaj - Ipeľ passes through           the town of Levice and has a stop near the Levický hrad castle. In Levice,           however, there is a missing cycling route which would inform cyclists about           the attractions in the town and surrounding municipalities. Therefore, we           would  like  to  present  the  tourist  other  attractions  of  Levice  and  its           surroundings  so  they  would  remain  in  the  area  for  a  longer  time.  The           territory is also missing a link with the surrounding municipalities and the           town of Levice which would lead directly from the town to the individual           municipalities. Its creation would result in a number of positive impacts on           the territory. One of them would be reduction of the number of vehicles in           the town of Levice, and also a better connection to the citizens of the town           and nearby municipalities. In this regard, we decided to propose a cycling           route which is located in the town of Levice and would subsequently pass           through the surrounding municipalities.                            THE PROPOSED CYCLING ROUTE           In  the  northwestern  part  of  the  Levice  district,  we  decided  to  design           a cycling route (Levice - Jur nad Hronom - Levice) which would consist of           two circuits. The route leads through the town of Levice to Jur nad Hronom           and  back  to  Levice.  We  designed  the  first  route  outside  of  the  town  of           Levice  (Levice-Dolná  Seč-Vyšné  nad  Hronom-Žemliare-Jur  nad  Hronom-           Starý  Hrádok  -  Mýtne  Ludany  časť  Dobogov  -  Levice)  with  the  elevation           level  of  23m  and  lenght  of  29km.  The  route  is  located  in  the  range  of           altitudes of 165 m (Levický hrad castle) – 142 m (Jur nad Hronom). First we           designed a circuit directly passing through the town of Levice (circuit no. 1           – Levice cycling route). The second circuit connects the town of Levice with           the  neighboring  municipalities  (Circuit  No  2  –  Levické  rybníky  ponds-Jur           nad Hronom – Levické rybníky ponds. The entire route is set in the REKREA           difficulty.  The  condition  of  the  road  surface  is  suitable  because  the           proposed route passes through the town of Levice and then runs through           the municipalities, whose accessibility is ensured by the roads of III class.           The route is easily passable even for beginners therefore it is also suitable           for parents with children (fig. 2, 3).           We  used  the  following  methodological  procedure  when  designing  the           route. n the first phase we visited institutions such municipality office in           Levice,  the  individual  mayors  of  the  municipalities,  as  well  as  Hron  -           Association of rural tourism and Regional Tourism Organisation of Tekov.                                        438","After gathering the information, we created a rough draft of the route, and                we carried out field research in order to examine the state of the routes,                together with photographic documentation of the proposed construction.                In  the  design  of  the  route,  we  took  account  of  the  following  attributes:                elevation  of  the  route,  availability,  and  its  connection  to  other  cycling                routes.  Subsequently,  we  created  the  graphic  design  using  Adobe                Photoshop CS6 and ArcGIS 9.3. software.                From the tourist point of view, the proposed route guarantees very good                connectivity to the regional route Starý Tekov - Jur nad Hronom created by                ART-HRON  (Pohronská  cycling  route),  which  may  be  accessed  in  the                municipalities  of  Dolná  Seč,  Vyšné  nad  Hronom,  Žemliare  and  Jur  nad                Hronom.  Cyclists  can  also  access  the  international  cycling  route  of  the                Euroregion Váh - Dunaj - Ipeľ neat the Levický hrad castle (Ručne maľovaná                mapa  regiónu  TEKOV, Ručne  maľovaná  mapa  Tekov:Pre  cyklistov, Mapa                okresov  Slovenskej  republiky  okres  Levice.  1:  50 000,  Nitriansky  kraj                cyklomapa. 1: 100 000, Maľovaná mapa regiónu Dolné pohronie a Poiplie).                             Fig. 2. Elevation profile: Levice – Jur nad Hronom – Levice.                Source: www.cykloserver.cz                                                                       439","the proposed route            Fig. 3. Cycling route Levice – Jur nad Hronom – Levice.           Source: www.cykloserver.cz                                                               440","Proposed route description: Circuit # 1- Cycling route Levice                                                              the proposed route          route direction                Fig. 4. Cycling route Levice.                Source: ArcGIS 9.3, compiled by Tomáš Kováč (2017)                 The proposed cycling route of Levice is located directly in the town and is                designed to create and integrated circuit withing the town itself. Its total                length is 6.940 km and elevation does not exceed 12 m. The route starts at                Levický  hrad  castle  on  Ulica  Kálmána  Kittenbergera  street  where  the                cyclists have the possibility to connect to the international cycling route                Váh - Dunaj - Ipeľ which passes through the city. The route then continues                along the streets of Ulica Svätého Michala, Záhradná, and Mlynská towards                the town’s park. The town cultural center is located nearby on the street of                Ulica  Andreja  Sládkoviča.  The  route  then  continues  towards  Levické                rybníky  ponds  providing  a  choice  of  further  direction  as  it  is  possible  to                connect to the second circuit (Circuit no. 2 - Levické rybníky ponds - Jur nad                Hronom  -  Levické  rybníky  ponds)  which  leads  towards  municipalities  of                                              441","Dolná Seč - Vyšné nad Hronom - Žemliare - Jur nad Hronom - Starý Hrádok           - Mýtne Ludany časť Dobogov and back to Levické rybníky ponds. It is also           possible to continue the route within the town. The route continues from           the Levické rybníky to the centre of the town to Námestie Hrdinov square.           The  square  provides  opportunities  for  relaxation  and  sightseeing.  The           route then continues North along Ulica Pavla Országha Hviezdoslava street           to  the  Levický  hrad  castle,  i.e.  to  the  beginning  of  the  route.  When           designing cycling route we take into account attributes, such as the safety           of the cyclists and the number of places of interest along the route (natural           and cultural). On the Levice route, the cyclist can see for example a Jewish           synagogue, Kostol sv. Michala archanjela church, Kostol sv. Jozefa church,           Levické  rybníky  ponds  and  many  others.  There  are  also  food  and  drink           opportunities on the route (fig. 4).             Proposed route description: Circuit no 2 – Levické rybníky ponds-Jur                         nad Hronom – Levické rybníky ponds           The route starts at Levické rybníky ponds, where it follows the route that           we proposed within the town of Levice (Circuit no.1 - Levice cycling route).           The route then continues from the Levické rybníky ponds along the third           class  road  to  the  West  to  the  municipality  of  Dolná  Seč.  In  the           municipalities of Dolná Seč, Vyšné nad Hronom and Jur nad Hronom, there           is a possibility of accessing the regional cycling route Starý Tekov - Jur nad           Hronom which goes along the river Hron. The route from the municipality           of Dolná Seč continues to southernmost municipality on the route of Jur           nad  Hronom,  and  continues  back  to  the  Levické  rybníky  ponds.  Its  total           length is 22.060 km and has elevation of 12 m. The surface along the entire           length of the route is reinforced. Lot of natural and cultural attractions are           present  on  the  route.  Jur  nad  Hronom  features  the  most  natural  and           cultural  attractions  among  all  the  municipalities  lying  on  the  route:           Rímskokatolícky kostol sv. Juraja church, Kalvínska zvonica belfry, Ľudový           dom (house of folk art) and other attractions. In addition, there is also a           campsite  Vodník  provides  accommodation  services.  In  addition  to  these           services, the camp also offers rafting on the river Hron (Kalná nad Hronom           - Jur nad Hronom) (Holbová, K. a i., 2012, www.hron.sk ).              DESIGNS OF INFORMATION PRODUCTS TO PROMOTE THE ROUTE                  AND BICYCLE TOURING (LEVICE AND SURROUNDINGS)           The  the  promotion  of  our  proposed  route  is  important  as  well.  For  this           reason, we decided to design an information board that will provide basic           information of the route. Although we divided it into two circuits, we have           only one common promotional product since the areas form one integral           route. We designed an informative board of cycling route Levice - Jur nad           Hronom-Levice (fig. 5), which runs through the town of Levice ( there is           also  a  separate  circuit  within  the  town,  described  above)  to  the           municipalities of Dolná Seč, Vyšné nad Hronom, Žemliare, Jur nad Hronom,           Starý Hrádok and Mýtne Ludany časť Dobogov, and back to the town of           Levice.  The  board  could  thus  contribute  to  greater  promotion  of  the           designed route.In order to receive sufficient information about attractions                                        442","and in order to raise awareness about the board, we propose to install it                on  the  seven  places  of  the  region.  The  two  places  being  in  the  town  of                Levice itself (Levický hrad castle and Levické rybníky ponds).                                                                     Fig. 5. The final visualization of the proposed information board.                                                443","CONCLUSION           Tourism  is  currently  becoming  one  of  the  many  alternative  impulses  of           economic  development  in  Slovakia.  It  has  its  own  unique  status  within           individual districts of Slovakia. Each district makes use of the potential of           tourism differently. Bicycle touring does not need a large initial investment           compared to the rest of the activities. It is based on the existing location           and implementation assumptions that exist in each territory. This means           that it is best developed where it has created good conditions for natural           or  cultural-historical  assumptions.  It  often  depends  on  the  how  local           population  is  developing  tourism,  therefore  its  quality  and  quantity  is           obviously different in each region.           The territory of the town of Levice and surroundings in which we propose           a cycling  route,  has  a  large  number  of  natural  and  cultural-historical           monuments, which means it has a great potential for the development of           tourism and bicycle touring. The river Hron, which provides the possibility           of water sports activities has a great impact on the development of bicycle           touring and hiking in the territory. In the northern part of the territory lies           the town of Levice, which has the most of historical, cultural and natural           monuments from all over the region. Among the most famous monuments           in the city includes the Levický hrad castle and its surroundings. Visitors of           the region have the opportunity to explore, with the assistance of various           events and tours of local customs and traditions, which the inhabitants of           the territory has carried out by many centuries.           For the development of this area and the proposed cycling routes we have           created promotional materials in the form of information sheets, and have           chosen places for their optimal stocking. According to Kramárekovej et al.           (2014),  Nitra  self-governing  region  (also  our  researched  area)  has  at  its           disposal  a  lot  of  natural,  cultural-historical,  and  implementing           preconditions for the development of cycling tourism whilst containing the           smallest amount of built cycling routes. From this point of view, we think           that based on the potential of the territory, it is appropriate to build as           many cycling routes in a given territory as possible. We believe that thanks           to this kind of material we can promote and raise the profile not only of           the  proposed  cycling  route,  but  also  the  whole  region  and  attract  new           visitors and cyclists in the area. New cyclists in the region would contribute           to the improvement of the financial situation of the region and promote its           development. Building cycling routes and their use not only by tourists, but           also by the local residents would contribute to the reduction of transport           and thus to improvement of the environment and air quality in the Levice           district.  These  presumptions  arise  with  individual  preliminary  surveys  of           the  institutions  operating  in  the  field  of  tourism  and  cycling  tourism.           (Dubcová, A. – Kramáreková, H., 2011, Kramáreková a kol., 2014).           We hope that we can raise the profile of the studied territory submitted to           the contribution, and attract cyclists and tourists from destinations. Raise           the  profile  of  cycling  and  its  implementation  could  also  help  local           associations  such  as  the  Regional  Tourism  Organization  of  Tekov  The           tourists can also enjoy the cultural and natural attractions offered by this           admittedly  interesting  territory.  As  a  result  of  the  arrival  of  cyclists  and           tourists from a wide surrounding area, we improve the living standards of                                        444","the territory, and we also assume the arrival of new investors which would                have an impact on improving infrastructure at the site. In this analysis,we                use  the  results  of  cycling  routes  in  Mikroregión  Radošinka  microregion                (Dubcová, A. – Kramáreková, H. 2011).                 Acknowledgements:  The  paper  was  elaborated  within  the  grant  project                VEGA 1/0934/17 “Land-use changes of Slovak cultural landscape over the                past 250 years and prediction of its further development”.                                          REFERENCES                Camp      Vodník    Jur    nad     Hronom.     Available   at:                http://www.hron.sk/pages/sk/uvod.php [31. 10. 2017].                Creative  Business  Studio.  Ručne  maľovaná mapa  regiónu  TEKOV.  Banská                Bystrica. CBS spol, s.r.o.. 2012. 65x94. 1. ed.                Creative  Business  Studio.  Ručne  maľovaná  mapa  Tekov:  Pre  cyklistov.                Banská Bystrica. CBS spol, s.r.o.. 2014. 60x84. 1. ed.                Cykloregión  Nitra.  Available  at:  http://www.nr.cykloportal.sk/  [31.  10.                2017].                Cykloserver. Available at: http://www.nr.cykloportal.sk/ [31. 10. 2017].                Dolná Seč. Available at: http://www.nr.cykloportal.sk/ [31. 10.2017].                Dubcová,  A.  –  Kramáreková,  H.  red.  Štúdia  rozmiestnenia  cyklotrás                v Nitrianskom  samosprávnom  kraji  :I.  Etapa.  1.  ed..Nitra:  UKF,  Katedra                geografie a regionálneho rozvoja. 2011. 168 s.                Eurovelo   the   European   cycle   route   network.   Available   at:                http://www.eurovelo.com/en [31. 10. 2017].                Frtúsová,  Z.  Stratégia  rozvoja  cestovného  ruchu  v meste  Levice  na  roky                2009-2015.     Mestský     úrad     Levice.    Available   at:                https://www.levice.sk/download_file_f.php?  id  =  78813  [sentiment.  31.                10. 2017].                Hlatký,  J.  a kol.  Stratégia  rozvoja  cyklotrás  a cyklodopravy  v NSK  na  roky                2016-2020.  Available  at:  https://www.unsk.sk/zobraz/obsah/8773  [the                sentiment. 31. 10. 2017].                Holbová,  K.  a i..  Dotyky  Tekova  a Hontu.  1.ed.  Horná  Seč:  Združenie                vidieckeho turizmu Hron. 2012. 105 s.                Hrnčiarová,  T.  red.    Atlas  krajiny  Slovenskej  republiky.  1.  ed.  Banská                Bystrica: MŽP SR, Slovenská agentúra životného prostredia, 2002. 341 s.                Jur  nad  Hronom.  Available  at:  http://www.nr.cykloportal.sk/  [31.  10.                2017].                Kramáreková a kol. Cykloturistika v regionálnom rozvoji cestovného ruchu                Nitrianskeho  samosprávneho  kraja.  In:  Klímová,  V.,  Žítek,  V.  (eds.)  XVII.                International  Colloquium  on  Regional  Sciences.  Conference  Proceedings.                Brno: Masarykova Univerzita, 2014. Pp. 11-5. ISBN 978-80-210-6840-7.                                               445","Lapin,  M.  a  i.,  2002.  Klimatické  oblasti.  Mierka  1:  1  000  000.  In:  Atlas           krajiny Slovenskej republiky. Hrnčiarová, T. red. 1. ed. Bratislava: MŽP SR;           Banská Bystrica: Slovenská agentúra životného prostredia, 2002. 95 s. ISBN           80-88833-27-2           Levice oficiálne stránky mesta. Available at: https://www.levice.sk/ [31. 10.           2017].           Ministerstvo  dopravy,  výstavby  a regionálneho  rozvoja  Slovenskej           republiky.  Národná  stratégia  rozvoja  cyklistickej  dopravy  a cykloturistiky           v Slovenskej         republike.         Available          at:           http://www.telecom.gov.sk/index/index.php? = [140565 ids. 31. 10. 2017].           Ministerstvo  dopravy,  výstavby  a regionálneho  rozvoja  Slovenskej           republiky. Stratégia rozvoja cestovného ruchu do roku 2020. Available at:           http://www.telecom.gov.sk/index/index.php? = [140565 ids. 31. 10. 2017].           Obická, Z. Stratégia rozvoja cestovného ruchu mesta Levice na roky 2016-           2020.   Levice:   Mestský    úrad    Levice.   Available   at:           https://www.levice.sk/strategia-rozvoja-cestovneho-ruchu-           .phtml?id3=49057 [the sentiment. 31. 10. 2017].           Oficiálne   stránky   obce   Mýtne   Ludany.   Available   at:           http://www.mytneludany.sk/ [31. 10. 2017].           Plesník, P. a kol. Strategický a marketingový plán rozvoja cestovného ruchu           v NSK      na      roky      2014-2020.      Available     at:           https://www.unsk.sk/zobraz/obsah/8418 [the sentiment. 31. 10. 2017].           Región Dolné Pohronie a Poiplie. Maľovaná mapa regiónu Dolné pohronie           a Poiplie. Veľký Krtíš. Cassovia Books. 2004. 95x65.           Regionálne  združenie  Váh  –  Dunaj  –  Ipeľ.  Cyklomapa  euroregiónu  Váh  –           Dunaj – Ipeľ. 1:170 000.  Nitra. MAPA Slovakia plus, s.r.o. 2010. 59x83.           Starý Hrádok. Available at: http://www.staryhradok.sk/ [31. 10. 2017].           Úrad geodézie, kartografie a katastra Slovenska. Mapa okresov Slovenskej           republiky  okres  Levice.  1:  50 000.  Vojenský  kartografický  ústav,  š.p.,           Harmanec. 1999. 120x112. 7. ed.           Úrad  Nitrianskeho  samosprávneho  kraja,  odbor  cestovného  ruchu.           Nitriansky  kraj  cyklomapa.  1:  100 000.  Nitra.  SHOCart,  spol.  s.r.o.  2017.           93x85.           Vyšné  nad  Hronom.  Available  at:  http://vysnenadhronom.webnode.sk/           [31. 10. 2017].           Welcome         to        Žemliare.        Available       at:           http://www.zemliare.sk/Pages/Info.aspx [31. 10. 2017].           Žiaran,   J.   a kol.   Územný   plán   mesta   Levice.   Available   at:           http://www.levice.sk/uzemny-plan-mesta.phtml?  =  id3  27933  [31.  10.           2017].                                            446","TRADE AND ECONOMIC RELATIONS OF AGRICULTURAL COMPANIES                                   IN THE SUBURBAN REGION                                     Ondřej Krejčí, Antonín Věžník                 Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2,                                    61137 Brno, Czech Republic                              o.krejci@mail.muni.cz, veznik@mail.muni.cz                 Abstract:  Imports  of  food  from  abroad,  especially  quality  and  degree  of                self-sufficiency, is one of the crucial topics of the present public discussion.                Food production is subsidized to provide affordable food for all residents                and  prevent  any  possible  problems  with  food  availability.  The  main                objective  of  the  submitted  paper  is  to  analyze  food  production  in  the                suburban region in the agricultural and industrial sectors. For researched                region had been chosen Brno-venkov district. In our paper emphasis is put                on  supply  chains  of  the  individual  investigated  subjects  directly  in  the                region and its surroundings. One of the objective is an ascertainment of                influences  agriculture  companies  on  the  region,  possibly  on  its  nearest                neighbourhood.                Key words: agriculture, supply chains, Brno-venkov, trade relations                                         INTRODUCTION                Agriculture  is  one  of  the  basic  essential  sector  in  in  the  Czech  Republic.                Significant  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  past.  These  changes  of                ambience make relatively specific farms. Agriculture companies in the last                30  years  had  to  get  through  series  of  transformations,  most  known  as                collectivisation, transformation and transition to free market principles in                the  90th  (I.  Bičík,  V.  Jančák,  2005).  Some  changes  were  occured  at  the                beginning  of  the  new  millennium  when  Czech  Republic  entered  to  the                European Union. From this point of view, it´s very important to say that                the  agricultural  companies  have  undergone  these  changes  to  varying                degrees.  We  can  find  quite  a  wide  range  of  companies  in  the  Czech                Republic that run their own business with very different styles.                Thus farmers have been challenged by increased competition created by                the Common Agricultural Policy and the EU Single Market. As part of these                changes and adaptations to the free market, there were also changes in                the key role of agriculture. The era of productive agriculture, which were                aimed primarily at increasing production yields, is suppressed today and                replaced  by  the  concept  of  postproductivist  agriculture.  This  concept                understands agriculture as a link between production and nonproduction                outputs  (Huylenbroeck  and  Durand,  2003).  The  whole  concept  of                postproductivist agriculture is also seen as a new rural paradigm consisting                of multifunctional agriculture (OECD, 2006), as part of the political outlook.                                               447","A  major  theme  of  post-productive  agriculture  in  the  context  of  global           change  is  the  commodity  chain  created  by  the  trade  relations  (Dicken,           2011).  Agricultural  companies  are  changing  their  chains  as  respond  to           globalization  which  includes  changes  in  transport  charges  and           transformation in communication. According to empirical analyzes which           were  created  not  only  on  the  territory  of  the  Czech  Republic  (Cocks,  J.,           Gow,  H.  R.,  2003,  Dicken,  2011),  there  are  often  extensive  distances           between producer and processor.           Commodity  chains  are  focused  on  nonlinear  flows  of  materials,  semi-           products, services and goods. Typical for these chains is that production is           not  fix  in  space  and  time.  Their  main  principle  for  this  is  assumption  of           different  subjects  with  different  interests  from  different  places,  whose           behaviour  can  have  significant  impacts.    For  example  on  economic  or           technological  development  in  the  locality  in  which  subject  operate.           Concept focuses on networks of companies, in particular their impact on           global  and  local  organizations,  distribution  of  power  through  chains  of           goods,  creating  added  value  and  their  impact  on  corporate  strategies           (Henderson et al., 2002).           Engaging  of  companies  in  large  global  food  chains  for  the  international           market  is  demanding  a  great  deal  of  investment  and  giving  tremendous           strength to multinational corporations and large retailers. Farms were not           always  participated  in  this  chain.  Participations  of  farms  in  these  chains           provides  considerable  opportunities  for  delivering  a  large  amount  of           products.  On  the  other  hand  involvement  in  these  chains  make           considerable problems. Companies which are involved in these chains are           often pushed to trade with minimal margins, excessive using of chemical           fertilizers, using genetically modified foods and most of all, as a result of           large-scale  production,  there  is  often  a  loss  of  quality  of  production           (Dicken,  2011).  This  action  raises  considerable  disagreement  of  end           customers  and  leads  to  promotion  of  local  food  production  even  at  the           expense of higher costs (Mardsen et al, 2003).           Supply  chains  in  the  agro-food  industry  are  extremely  diverse.  In  grain           production, there are simple models based on only a few subjects in the           chain. Even so, these relationships are more complex in comparison to the           past. For high added value foods, these chains are more complex (typically           poultry products). There can be engage more than ten companies. It shows           that agro-food industry has many integrated producers (Dicken, 2011).           In connection with growing distances in food production, it is interesting to           observe the opposite phenomenon – concentration of production in some           sectors.  Some  sectors  of  food  production  are  largely  concentrated  and           dominated  by  only  a  small  number  of  corporations.  For  example,  two           thirds of the world's seed market are driven by the top 10 companies. Ten           of the largest pesticide companies manage nearly 90 percent of the world's           market  of  this  commodity.  And  concentration  is  also  in  food  packaging           industry where 26 percent of the world food packaging market is managed           by  the  top  10  companies.  This  fact  confirms  the  high  degree  of           globalization  in  these  sectors,  where  there  is  a  significant  expansion  of           production  but  also  the  concentration  of  some  parts  of  the  production           process.                                        448","The interconnection between agricultural and processing sector together                with suppliers and purchasers creates complex which is in literature named                as agro-business. In the Czechia, was topic of agro-business studied by for                example Bečvářová (2005, 2008). In Slovakia, on the example of the Nitra                District, by Németh (2009).                When  analysing  commodity  chain,  consumption  create  a  very  important                role. There is a link to retail geography which deals also with consumption.                In developed countries, the food consumption situation has changed and                people spend only one tenth of their income on food products, compared                to a third in 50-60 years ago. On the one hand, producers are striving to                get  the  most  customers  and  the  biggest  part  of  market  with  the  best                unified product. On the other hand, consumers have diverse requirements                which are quite specific in some countries or regions. It means that one                product can be successful in one region but same product can be refused                by customers in other region. It follows that changing patterns in demand                have larger role in production then total consumption (Dicken, 2011).                Within this framework of the multifunctional agriculture concept studied                above. In the Czech Republic is also strengthening the processing capacity                of agricultural holdings, which are growing year by year (Strategy of the                MoA resort with a view to 2030).                  Trade relations in agricultural companies, as in Brno-venkov district                Agricultural companies are a significant part of food chain which is dealt                with in this paper.  As such  they have their specific inputs (seeds  stock,                industrial fertilizers, feed etc.) and specific outputs (commodities) that are                resold. This paper above all, analyses selected companies of the inquired                area from the point of their linking up into the chain of agricultural firms                and  tries  to  identify  key  suppliers  and  customers  of  agricultural  raw                materials. These business subjects are both directly and indirectly active in                participation on overall food production in the studied region. One of the                key determinants is the distance between cooperating entities or the form                of their cooperation. The distance has increased recently, which resulted                mainly in the final price of commodities.                                           METHODS                The trade relations within 24 agricultural companies have been analysed                within  the  frame  of  this  paper.  Agricultural  land  is  not  limited  by                administrative units, therefore, in this paper are also studied agricultural                companies which cultivate land in the district, but their headquarters are                outside  the  studied  territory.  Trade  relations  were  analyzed  in                24 companies out of a total of 56 companies which cultivate land in the                region Information about cultivated land is available on public Land Parcel                Identification  System  (LPIS).  Informations  about  trade  relationship  have                been obtained mainly from own investigation. The sample was selected by                the authors of the work and contains relationships in large and small-sized                companies as well. Sample contains also representative companies dealing                only with crop and with both types (crop and livestock) of production.                                              449","The results of the inquiry can be seen in Table 1 of the annex. Both the           biggest  producers  in  the  district  and  small  companies  of  regional           significance can be found among the companies. The aim of research was           also  to  cover  companies  operating  in  different  types  of  agricultural           production.           The range of supplier’s activities of agricultural holdings in the Brno-venkov           was partly dealt by Britan (2012). From his results it is only apparent that           the studied subjects delivered their products mostly within the frame of           national  market  (43%  of  the  products)  and  28%  within  the  region           Jihomoravský. A little less of total production is delivered abroad (22%) and           only 7% of the products are sold within local community where agriculture           subject operated.                                      RESULTS           From the results stated in Tab. 1 it is apparent that supply chain structure           of  the  subjects  is  strongly  influenced  by  property  relations  of  individual           entities. Some companies can specialize in a certain type of product that is           sold to their owner. It occurs for example between GenAgro Říčany and           ZEVO  Střelice.  ZEVO  besides  from  their  own  crop  production,  aims  at           growing  of  feeding  commodities  for  livestock  farming  in  Říčany.  This           specialization may be advantageous in terms of increasing total revenues           or improving customer possibilities. On the other hand, specialization only           in  a  certain  type  of  crop  is  not  correct  according  to  the  principles  of           sustainability. The soil can be demoted by specialized production.           One  common  owner  means  in  great  majority  of  cases  both  common           supplier and purchaser as well. Companies try to achieve larger volume of           raw  materials  and  arrange  for  better  bargaining  opportunities  with           customers.  For  example,  Homolka  (1995)  considers  capital  relations           between  producer  and  processor  positively.  The  cooperation  gives  the           opportunity  to  involve  agricultural  companies  into  distribution  network           and leads to relation of corresponding shares on margins. Homolka finds           the solution of the situation in the forming of sale cooperatives as another           option.           If  the  company  manages  independently  and  have  no  big  owner,  it  is  in           most cases closely linked up with the business company, alternatively with           other companies. Differences can be seen in the range of used services of           those companies. Business companies are the firms that ensure all inputs           for  their  production  (seeds,  fertilizers,  fuels,  and  possibly  agricultural           machinery). On the other side they ensure purchasing of commodities and           their subsequent sale. Then after harvest, these subjects buy commodities           from company and trade with this as intermediary between producer and           processor. Differences can be seen in the extent to which these services           are used.           Ensuring  of  the  entire  services  can  be  seen  as  a  positive  part  of  this           cooperation. Agricultural subjects can only concentrate on production to           ensure a higher quality of their products. The cooperation can also bring a           lower price of some inputs. Business companies tend to have contracted           prices,  that  can  be  lower  as  result  of  the  quantity  of  items.  Marketing                                        450","companies  can  have  better  overview  about  new  technology  or  most                preferable seeds.  The lower purchase price of commodities counts among                drawbacks  of  the  cooperations.  Businesses  require  certain  provisions                thanks to which farmers can sell some commodities at a lower price than it                would  be  if  the  direct  sales  to  processor  was  in  question.  These                relationships  create  certain  degree  of  dependence.  And  if  business                company failures it may lead to a distortion of sales and thus a disruption                to the economic situation of agriculture companies.                                  Agriculture business companies                Among the main business companies operating in the Brno-venkov district                ranks:                ELITA semenářská - The company is based in Brno Řečkovice and besides                seeds it also provides pesticides and fertilizers.                OSEVA, AGRO Brno - The company came into being by privatization of the                state  owned  company  Oseva.  Its  specializes  is  selling  seed  stock,  but  it                partly purchases and trade with agriculture commodities too.                NAVOS  -  An  enterprise  belonging  to  the  Agrofert  Group  is  based  in                Kroměříž. It aims more on commodity market than the previous ones. It                offers also services, including seeds and fuel sale. Navos owns 18 farms in                Czech Republic out of which ZEMOS operates in the Brno-venkov. In high-                capacity silos it stores goods for the State Agricultural Intervention Fund                and the State Material Reserves Administration.                Agroservis  trading  -  It  owns  eight  agricultural  companies,  four  of  which                operate  within  the  district  area.  It  specializes  in  purchasing  of  wheat,                barley, pea, rye, maize and soya. It offers drying and storing of agricultural                commodities. It also ensures service of agricultural machinery.                Soufflet Agro - A company situated in Prostějov is a subsidiary of a French                Groupe Soufflet. Specializes in purchase of barley for malting purposes.                ADW - It is based in Krahulov. It is a purely Czech subject. It operates above                all in Třebíč district. In area of business activities, it operates in markets                throughout Europe. In region it owns Klas Neslovice and out of region six                other companies.                AGRO  2000  -  The  company  from  Třebíč  provides  facilities  mainly  for                companies  of  Vysočina  region.  In  studied  region  it  is  cooperating  only                Agromonet Moutnice.                The fact that crop production is traded exclusively by these organizations                has,  among  others,  the  reason  purely  practical.  Majority  of  the  crop                products  must  be  cleaned  and  dried  before  processing.  Most  of                agricultural companies do not have at their disposal such technologies to                prepare  commodities  in  the  required  quality.  The  business  companies                therefore aim at this part of processing. The direct sale of cereals to the                mill is provided only by the biggest company Bonagro Blažovice                Due  to  the  relatively  wide  range  of  commodities  and  their  different                processing  the  business  companies  specialize  in  purchasing  of  some                commodities only.  Each of the above stated companies trade with basic                                              451","types of cereals or oilseeds. Soufflet Agro dominates in trade with barley.           The similar situation is with poppy seeds dominated by ADW.                                  Sales cooperatives           The sale of agricultural companies was ensured through their cooperatives           in the past. Those cooperatives connected individual subjects on local level           and  ensured  a  certain  cooperations  of  farmers.    Above  all  the  biggest           agricultural companies ran functioning of sales cooperatives. The trade of           their  own  had  for  example  Bonagro  (sales  cooperatives  BONAMEAT),           GenAgro  Říčany  (GenAgro  -  animal  production  GenAgro  -  sales),  AGRO           Ořechov, Agrodružstvo Brťov-Lipůvka (AGD Jatol, AGD Klas). Nowadays the           sales  cooperatives  failed  or  are  in  liquidation.  Throughout  the  Czech           Republic there are only a few tens of sales cooperatives, mainly in sales of           milk and livestock.  A cooperative CZ -FRUIT has got the most members of           the companies working in the studied district. It focuses mainly on fruits           sales. It currently has 34 members. There are trade chains, wholesalers and           fruit  processors  among  the  consumers.  Agrodružstvo  Brťov-Lipůvka  and           Zeas Lysice supply CZ FRUIT within the studied district.           Sales cooperatives mostly operate on national level. There is Agropork as           the  one  of  them.  It  is  the  biggest  cooperative  dealing  with  purchase  of           pork. It´s members are for example Agroservis Višňové and Bonagro in the           past, that however finished pork production. The commodity of milk has its           marketing cooperatives too. Typical example is Moravia where Zeas Lysice           is  a  member.  According  to  farmers  themselves,  the  strong  sales           cooperatives operating with cereals and oil plants completely disappeared.                                      Direct sale           There  are  crop  or  livestock  production  that  farmers  sell  directly  to           a consumer  as  a  fruits  and  vegetables  alternatively  sugar  beet.  The           difference in comparison with cereals is given thanks to easier processing           of raw materials. While most of plant production is needed to be prepared           before processing by means of drying or cleaning the preparation of sugar           beet for processing is so specific that it is carried out directly in the sugar           refinery.           The direct sale to processing is taking place in livestock too. None of the           inquired  companies  sold  the  products  of  livestock  to  middleman  trade           company. This form of taking in is given above all physical qualities of the           product. Cattle are necessary to be delivered to the slaughterhouse and           best in the shortest time. As a sufficient processing capacity can be found           in the district, the processing itself is carried out within the studied district.           Only Agromonet Moutnice has its own facilities where the meat is divided           into parts and consequently sold for other processing.           During  the  harvest  producers  of  fruits  and  vegetables  often  choose  an           option so called “sale from the yard”. It means the sale of small amount of           their  own  product  form  primary  production  directly  to  a  consumer  for           consumption in their household. The advantage of this option is essentially           minimalized expenses and a certain flexibility of a selling place. Relatively                                        452","strict  legislative  measures  and  small  economic  efficiency  are  the                disadvantages of the method. This situation was reported by all producers                of fruits and vegetables.                                         Company stores                Company stores could be an independent chapter. This agriculture stores                are  run  by  agriculture  companies  themselves.  They  will  be  dealt  shortly                because it is rather treated as a rarity in agricultural companies. A shop of                their  own  can  be  an  interesting  concept  for  farmers  which  can  be  with                increasing  popularity  of  regional  food  financially  interesting.  Four  of  the                studied  subjects  run  their  own  shop.  They  are  Agromonet  Moutnice,                Agrodružstvo  Brťov-Lipůvka,  Agra Horní Dunajovice and Agro Měřín. The                shop  in  Moutnice  specializes  in  the  sale  of  livestock  production  (milk,                meat),  the  shop  in  Lipůvka  offers  mostly  fruits  grown  in  local  orchards,                alternatively fodder mixtures. Apples are sold in the biggest quantity. The                sales  are  round  100  tonnes  a  year.  A  further  advantage  of  the  shop  in                Lipůvka is the cooperation with local small-scale producers who supply the                shop  with  vegetables  and  must.  The  shop  of  Agra  Horní  Dunajovice  is                mainly  grocery  store  of  mixed  goods,  not  a  shop  of  the  company's                products. Agro Měřín has got the largest network of shops. The company                operates totally twelve stores named Rynek located mostly in the Vysočina                Region. They sell exclusively domestic food.                                             Livestock                   Crop production                               Fruit growing                                           production                           Supplier :          Supplier: own                        Business               feeding                  -                       companies                           Buyer :                                  Buyer:  Direct                        Business            Buyer: Direct           sale, Sales                       companies                sail               cooperatives                 Fig. 1. Typical supplier-customer pattern at most frequent commodities.                Source: Own inquiry                                                       453","Fig. 2. Main suppliers of seed stock in the selected agricultural companies in           2015.           Source: Own inquiry            While comparing main map outputs showing supply chain relationships, it           is  apparent  that  there  is  much  less  competitive  environment  in  case  of           suppliers. None of the seed suppliers located in the studied district and at           the  same  time  the  suppliers  are  based  in  surrounding  area  and  form           a relatively closed region. Oseva and Elita are the biggest suppliers. Other           agricultural  companies  withdraw  for  seed  from  their  owner.  Companies           produce  feed  for  livestock  in  greater  part  self-sufficiency.  Nowadays  the           fact  that  feed  does  not  play  a  great  role  in  overall  costs  of  a  company           confirms also the paper Měřínská (2013). In which the author sets out that           expenses  on  feed  has  fallen  sharply  after  2007,  when  world  markets           reported  increase  in  prices  especially  for  wheat.  Even  since  farms  have           aimed at their production of feed in greater amount.           The  purchaser´s  structures  are  already  much  more  dispersed  and  create           much  wider  region  with  farther  interregional  links  originates.  Under  the           given situation there are not sufficient processing capacities which would           be able to process such a large amount of crop production.                                               454","Fig.  3.  Main  purchasers  of  crop  commodities  in  the  selected  agricultural                companies in 2015.                Source: Own inquiry                  Purchasers  in  livestock  create  narrower  area  then  purchases  in  crop                production. Livestock production is processed in small distance from point                of produce. In figure 3 can be reported some regions where the processor                withdraws the cattle. A processor Steinhauser Tišnov is dominantly in the                northern  part  of  the  district.  And  the  southern  part  of  the  district  is                controlled  by  slaughterhouses  in  Ivančice  and  Pohořelice.  Milk  is                withdrawn by big dairies in surrounding districts incidentally regions.                                                              455","Fig.  4.  Main  purchasers  of  livestock  production  in  the  selected  agricultural           companies in 2015.           Source: Own inquiry                                    CONCLUSION           Agricultural companies in the region follow the agricultural production of           the pre-transformation period. Most of the companies came into existance           by the transformation of the agricultural cooperative or the privatization of           the state companies in the 90th. The companies operating in Brno-venkov           are  in  possession  of  executively  domestic  capital.  The  only  exception  is           Granero Vlasatice, that is owned by Danish company Tjekkiet Invest.           Crop production namely wheat and malt barley are the main commodities.           Cattle, pigs and poultry are main bred in livestock production. Breeding of           poultry farming is so specific that it is carried out as dominant one, out of           classical agricultural companies. The total crop and livestock production is           adjusted  to  the  market.  There  is  apparent  decline  of  sugar  beet,  fodder           stock and vegetables. Decrease in production of sugar beet was a result of           limitation  on  customer  possibilities  of  sugar  refineries,  thanks  to  their           complicated  transformation  and  unfavourable  price  development  in  the           market.  The  fodder  recorded  a  decline  above  all  due  to  the  decline  in           livestock  production  throughout  the  Czech  Republic.  At  the  same  time           fodder crops play a very important part as a pre-product and it is proven           that  it  helps  increase  the  proportion  of  humus  in  the  soil  and  thereby           increase yields. Decrease of vegetables is connection with the increasing of                                        456","the import of this commodity into the Czech Republic and increasing non-                profitability of production, especially after our accession to the EU.                The natural conditions show less and less impact on overall composition of                sowing. That fact we noticed for example in not completely corresponding                agricultural  production  areas.  Even  in  maize  production  area  prevails                cereal cultivation. All the same the natural conditions cannot be omitted as                one  of  the  main  factors  of  agricultural  production.  The  impact  on                diversification  of  production  are  also  reflected  in  reforms  of  the  EU                Common Agricultural Policy where agricultural subsidies are not bound on                production  but  on  cultivated  land.  A  greater  emphasis  is  put  on  the                sustainability of the landscape than on production itself.                From the point of view of supply chain pattern regarding crop production                are  the  strongest  ties  with  the  business  companies  that  help  with  post-                harvest  processing  in  crop  production.  On  the  opposite  in  livestock                production,  direct  sale  to  slaughterhouses  or  dairy  prevails.  The  main                purchasers are derived according to the owner of the agricultural company                and selling commodity.                The economic situation is changeable. Subsidies and greater focus on crop                production helped companies to reach greater economic stability. Further                possible  improvement  of  the  situation  can  occur  with  building  of  biogas                powerplants.  Farmers  will  receive  financial  means  for  their  disposing  of                bio-waste  and  can  draw  means  for  this  disposal.  There  is  certainly                a question whether a greater aiming at energetical lucrative crops is not                only wasting of the soil fecundity which could be used for food utilizable                commodities.                                          REFERENCES                BIČÍK,  I.  Transformační  procesy  v  českém  zemědělství  po  roce  1990.                JANČÁK,  V.  Praha:  Katedra  sociální  geografie  a  regionálního  rozvoje                Přírodovědecké   fakulty   Univerzity   Karlovy,   2005,   103   s.                ISBN 80-865-6119-4.                BRITAN,  M.  Regionálně  geografická  analýza  zemědělství  v zázemí  města                Brna. Masaryk university Brno, Department of geography. Diploma thesis,                2012. Supervisor doc. RNDr. Antonín Věžník CSc.                COCKS,  J.  Supplier  Relationship  Development  in  the  Food  Industry  of                Transition  Economies:  The  Case  of  Interbrew.  GOW  H.R.  Journal  of  Food                Distribution Research, 2003. 34, č. 1, s. 63-68.                DICKEN,  P. Global  shift:  mapping  the  changing  contours  of  the  world                economy. New York: Guilford Press, 2011. 6th ed.  ISBN 16-091-8006-2.                HENDERSON, J. Global production networks and the analysis of economic                development. Review of International Political Economy, 2002. 9, č. 3,  s.                436–464. https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290210150842                HOMOLKA,  J.  Problematika  potravinářského  průmyslu  a  jeho  vztah                k zemědělské výrobě. Praha: 1995. ČZU Praha.                                                457","MARSDEN,  T.  K.  Understanding  alternative  food  networks:  exploring  the           role of short food supply chains in rural development. BANKS J. RENTING H.           Environment and Planning, 2003. s. 393-411.           MARSDEN, T. K. Food supply chain approaches: exploring their role in rural           development BANKSJ. BRISTOW G.  Sociologia  Ruralis,  2000. č. 40 s. 424-           438.           MĚŘÍNSKÁ,  P.  Obchodní  vztahy  jako  součást  podnikatelského  prostředí           zemědělského  podniku.  Mendel  university  Brno.  Diploma  thesis,  2013.           Supervisor prof. Ing. Věra Bečvářová, CSc.           NÉMETHOVÁ,  J.  Agropotravinárské  štruktury  okresu  Nitra.  Faculty  of           Natural  Sciences  Constantine  the  Philosopher  University  in  Nitra:  Nitra,           2009. 192 s., ISBN 978-80-8094-533-6.           Ministry  of  Agriculture.  Strategie  resortu  MZe  s  výhledem  do  roku  2030.           Praha: Ministry of Agriculture, 2016           Organisaton  for  economic  co-operation  and  development.  OECD  rural           policy reviews. Paris: OECD, 2006. ISBN 92-640-2391-7.           VAN HUYLENBROECK, G. Multifunctional Agriculture: A New Paradigm for           European  Agriculture  and  Rural  Development,  DURAND  G.  Aldershot;           Burlington, 2003.                                       Annex           Tab. 1: Selected agricultural companies and their supplier-customer relations           in 2015                 Company          Supplier              Purchaser                             Seed stock: Elita Brno,   Crops: Cereals: Mlýn Herold Slavkov                              Oseva Brno, Soufflet   u Brna, Mlýn Delta Kyjov,                            Prostějov Hnojiva: ACHP   Barley: Soufflet Prostějov, Pivovar                                  Slavkov                Bernard           1   BONAGRO, a.s.                              Feed: Mikrop Čebín   Sugar beet: Cukrovar Hruš. n.                                                        Jevišovkou,                                               Grapes: Templářské sklepy Čejkovice,                                                 Livestock: Milk: Olma Olomouc                  Statek      Agroservis Trading   Crops: Agroservis Trading Višňové                Pohořelice   Višňové, Agra Olbramovice           2     Owner:                Agroservis                Trading a.s.                 Višňové               AGRO Ořechov,     Elita Brno           Crops: Elita Brno                   a.s.           3                Vlastník Elita                  Brno                             Seed stock: Elita Brno,   Crops: Agro 2000 Třebíč                                 Oseva Brno      Livestock: Own slaughterhouse,           4    Agromonet    Feed: Sano Domažlice   direct sale to retail shops - Řeznictví                 Moutnice                       Lukš Pohořelice, sale from the yard                                                Milk: Olma Olomouc, sale from the                                                          yard                                         458","Seed stock: Elita Brno,                    GenAgro Říčany,   Navos, Soufflet     Crops: Navos Kroměříž,                 5      a.s.       Feed: Zevo Střelice, ZD   Livestock: Steinhauser Tišnov                                   Čebín, Mikrop Čebín                                                      Crops: Navos Kroměříž, Oseva Brno                                                        Sugar beet: Cukrovar Hruš. n.                     AGRIA Drásov,   Seed stock: Oseva Brno,   Jevišovkou                 6                      spol. s r.o.   Elita Brno, Navos Kroměříž   Barley: Soufflet agro                                                         Maize: ZZN ve Svitavách                                                           Poppy: ADW Agro                     AGROSERVIS 1.                    zemědělská a.s.   Seed stock: Agroservis   Crops: Agroservis trading Višňové                       Višňové       trading Višňové   Export: Germany Netherlands,                 7     Owner:      Import of seed stock:    Slovakia, Poland                      Agroservis    Germany, Austria,   Livestock: Agroservis trading                      trading a.s.    Netherlands             (Agropork)                       Višňové                     ZEVO Střelice,                        a.s.       Seed stock: Elita Brno,                 8     Owner:     Navos Kroměříž, Soufflet   Crops: Genagro Říčany - sold through                    GenAgro Říčany,    Prostějov            their structures                        a.s.                                   Seed stock: Soufflet   Crops: Eurocorp Valašské Klobouky,                                   Prostějov, Oseva Brno,    Provit Praha                                 Elita Brno, Agrokop Třebíč   Livestock: Mléko-Mlékárna Velké                     AGRODRUŽSTV                 9                Fertilizers: Bor Choceň,     Meziříčí                    O Brťov-Lipůvka                                     Hokr Pardubice    Poultry: Rabitt Trhový Štěpánov                                   Mineral Feed: Mikrop   Fruits: Sales Cooperative CZ-Fruit,                                        Čebín                 Own shop                                                         Crops: Rhea holding Dešná                      Zemědělské                        Sugar beet: Cukrovar Hruš. n.                    družstvo Jiřice u   Rhea Holding Dešná    Jevišovkou                10                      Miroslavi                      Livestock: Mléko-Jihlavské mlékárny                                                               Jihlava                                   Seed stock: Elita Brno,                                  Agrokop Třebíč, KWS V.                      ZD Čebín,                       Crops: Navos Kroměříž, Elita Brno                11                     Meziříčí                       družstvo                             Agrokop Třebíč                                   Fertilizers: Elita Brno,                                     Navos Kroměříž,                     Klas Neslovice,                        a.s.                            Crops: ADW AGRO - Rolnická                12                 ADW AGRO Krahulov                     Owner: ADW                          společnost Lesonice a.s.                        a.s.                        AGRA                             Crops: Statek Pohořelice,                     Olbramovice,    Zea Hostěradice,       Zea Hostěradice                13     Owner:    Agroservis Trading Višňové   Agroservis Trading Višňové                      Agroservis                        Livestock: Agroservis Trading                      Trading a.s.                             Višňové                                                        Crops: Elita Brno, Oseva Brno                      AGRA Horní   Elita Brno, Oseva Brno,   Export: Slovakia, Austria                15                     Dunajovice a.s.   Navos Kroměříž   Livestock: Sale cooperatives animal                                                             cooperative                      ZEMOS a.s.                                                          Crops: Navos Kroměříž                16   Owner: Navos    Navos Kroměříž      Livestock: Olma Olomouc                       Kroměříž                    AGROSTYL, spol.                17                     Elita Brno     Crops: Elita Brno, Soufflet Prostějov                        s.r.o.                                               459","ZS Vlasatice                  s.r.o.           18   Owner: Rhea   Rhea Holding Dešná   Crops: Rhea Holding Dešná                 Holding                           Seedling: Reprosam Říčany   Vegetables: Efko CZ Veselí nad           19   ZOŠI AGRO,      ZOD Kámen             Lužnicí, Kaufland,                  s.r.o.     Fertilizers: Pronachem    Hamé Babice                                 Jiříkovice            Rapa Bzenec                Zemědělské   Seed stock: Elita Brno                 družstvo     Hnojiva: Elita Brno     Crops: Elita Brno           20                 Moravské    Mineral Feed: Mikrop   Livestock: Steinhauser Tišnov                 Knínice          Čebín                                                      Crops: Elita Brno,                             Seed stock: Elita Brno,   Sugar beet: Cukrovar Hruš. n.                             Oseva Brno, část vlastní   Jevišovkou           21   ZEAS Lysice, a.s.   produkce osiv   Livestock: Steinhauser Tišnov,                             Fertilizers: Lukrom Zlín,   Masokombinát Polička                             vlastní míchání krmiv   Milk: Mlékárna Olešnice,                                                    Fruits: CZ Fruit, own sale                                                      Crops: Oseva Brno                             Import of seed stock:           22   AGROGEN s r.o.                    Export: Germany, Switzerland,                                 Germany                                                     Austria and Slovakia                             Seed stock: Elita Brno           23   ZD Jinačovice   hnojiva: Agrokop Třebíč,   Crops: Elita Brno, Seed Service                                                       Vysoké Mýto                              Czekopol Letovice                 Ústav pro                strukturální                          Crops: Agro Měřín           24    politiku    Seed stock: Agro Měřín   Livestock: Polabské mlékárny,                                                    LACRUM Velké Meziříčí-               v zemědělství                            Agro Měřín                   a.s.           Source: Own Inquiry                                       Shrnutí           Článek se týká výzkumu zemědělských společností se zaměřením na jejich           obchodní  vztahy.  V okrese  Brno  venkov  byly  analyzovány  dodavatelsko-           odběratelské vztahy na příkladu 24 zemědělských společností. Zemědělské           společnosti v okrese navazují na zemědělskou výrobu předtransformačního           období.  Většina  společností  v okrese  vznikla  transformací  zemědělského           družstva  či  privatizací  státního  podniku  v  90.  letech.  Společnosti           hospodařící  v  okrese  Brno-venkov  jsou  vlastněny  výhradně  tuzemským           kapitálem.  Jedinou  výjimku  tvoří  společnost  Granero  Vlasatice,  která  je           vlastněna  dánskou  společností  Tjekkiet  Invest  a.s.  Ekonomická  situace           zemědělců  je  proměnlivá.  Dotace  a  větší  zaměření  na  rostlinnou  výrobu           pomohly společnostem k zisku větší ekonomické stability.           Mezi  hlavní  plodiny  rostlinné  výroby  patří  především  obilniny,  a  to           potravinářská pšenice a sladovnický ječmen. Z živočišné výroby je nejvíce           chován  skot,  prasata  a  drůbež.  Celková  produkce  rostlinné  i  živočišné           výroby  je  více  přizpůsobena  trhu.  U  rostlinné  výroby  je  v okrese  patrný           pokles produkce cukrovky, pícnin a zeleniny. Snížení stavů cukrovky došlo v           důsledku  omezení  odběratelských  možností  cukrovarů,  díky  jejich           komplikované  transformaci  a  nepříznivým  vývojem  ceny  cukru  na  trhu.           Pícniny zaznamenaly pokles především z důvodu poklesu živočišné výroby           v celé ČR. Přitom pícniny hrají velmi důležitou roli i jako předplodina a je           prokázáno, že pomáhá k navyšování podílu humusu v půdě a tím i zvýšení           výnosů. Vývoj pěstování zeleniny je spojen se zvyšujícím se dovozem této                                        460","komodity do ČR a vzrůstající nerentabilitou pěstování, zejména po našem                vstupu do EU.                Čím dál méně se v celkové skladbě osevu projevují přírodní podmínky. Což                souvisí s větší mechanizací zemědělství a zapojením moderních technologií,                které  umožňují  pěstování  plodin  i  v méně  příznivých  podmínkách.  Tento                fakt můžeme pozorovat například na ne zcela odpovídajících zemědělských                výrobních  oblastech,  kdy  i  v  podnicích  umístěných  v  kukuřičné  výrobní                oblasti  převládá  pěstování  obilnin.  Stále  však  přírodní  podmínky  nelze                opominout  jako  jeden  z  hlavních  faktorů  zemědělské  výroby.  Vliv  na                diverzifikaci produkce mají také reformy Společné zemědělské politiky EU,                kdy  zemědělské  dotace  nejsou  vázány  na  produkci,  ale  na                obhospodařovanou  půdu.  Vyšší  důraz  je  kladen  stále  více  na  trvalou                udržitelnost krajiny.                Z  hlediska  dodavatelsko-odběratelské  struktury  rostlinné  výroby  jsou                nejsilnější   vazby   s   obchodními   společnostmi,   které   pomáhají                s posklizňovým  zpracováním  rostlinné  výroby.  Tento  typ  kooperac  je  pro                velký počet zemědělských společností ekonomicky výhodný. Společnosti se                mohou  soustředit  ouze  na  pěstování  komodit  a  odpadají  jim  starosti                s dodávkou  surovin  pro  výrobu  i  starosti  snásledným odkupem.  Tento                vzdah  ale  přináší  určité  stupně  závislosti.  V konečné  fázi  také  přispívá                k produkci  převážně  konomicky  rentabilních  plodin,  což  vede                k monokulturalizaci.  V  živočišné  výrobě  na  druhé  straně  převažuje  přímý                prodej  na  jatka  či  do  mlékárny.  Zpracování  produktů  živočišné  výroby                nadále zůstává zachyceno v regionu. Více se zde projevují silnější regionální                vazby  mezi  producenty  a  zpracovateli.  Hlavní  odběratelé  zemědělských                společností  především  v rostlinné  výrobě  se  odvíjí  podle  vlastníka                zemědělské společnosti a podle prodávané komodity.                                                                         461","GEOTOURISM WITHIN URBAN AREAS: NEW WAYS OF PROMOTION OF           NATURAL AND CULTURAL HERITAGE (CASE STUDY FROM BRNO CITY)                                                       1                                          1, 2                             Lucie Kubalíková , Aleš Bajer                1                Department of geology and pedology, Mendel University in Brno,                         Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic                                kubalikova@geonika.cz             2             Institute of geonics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Drobného 28, 602 00 Brno,                                   Czech Republic                                  bajer@mendelu.cz            Abstract: Geotourism is based especially on geodiversity, but it also uses           the cultural-historical aspects of an area, it is linked to the education and           counts  with  active  engagement  of  local  people.  Currently,  geotourism  is           developed mainly within rural areas, but there are activities that point on           the geodiversity and its importance within urban areas.           Rational  and  sustainable  use  of  geodiversity  within  urban  areas  can           represent  an  alternative  to  the  traditional  tourist  destinations  and           contributes  to  the  understanding  of  the  importance  and  necessity  of           protection  of  geodiversity  itself.  Geodiversity,  respectively  geoheritage           within  urban  areas  does  not  include  only  issues  of  primary  (natural)           geodiversity  (substrate,  landforms,  soils),  but  also  anthropogenic           landforms  and  processes  (secondary  geodiversity),  hydrological  features           (wells,  millraces)  and  geodiversity  ex-situ  (museum  collections,  building           material). The paper presents this new form of tourism and gives examples           of selected geodiversity/geoheritage features within the Brno city.           Key words: geodiversity, geoheritage, urban geotourism, Brno                                  1 INTRODUCTION           Geotourism  is  defined  as  a  form  of  nature  tourism  that  focuses  on           landscape and geology, but also on the biotic and cultural features that are           linked to the abiotic nature (Dowling 2013). Generally, geotourism should           fulfill  these  criteria:  it  should  be  geologically  based,  environmentally           educative,  sustainable  and  locally  beneficial  and  it  should  ensure  tourist           satisfaction  (Dowling,  Newsome  eds.,  2010).  In  the  last  few  years,           geotourism has shown a considerable growth all over the world and it is           appreciated  and  accepted  as  a  useful  tool  for  promoting  natural  and           cultural  heritage  and  for  fostering  local  and  regional  economic           development especially within rural areas, however, Dowling (2011) says           that geotourism may occur also in urban areas and gives the example of           the Hong Kong Global Geopark. The role of urban geology was discussed           even before (Hawley 1996, Hose 1996) and later for example by De Wever                                        462","et  al.  (2016)  especially  in  connection  to  the  educational  potential  and                tourism development.                Later,  a  new  form  of  geotourism  appeared,  so  called  urban  geotourism.                Numerous  case  studies  were  introduced,  e.g.  Rodrigues  et  al.  (2011),                Reynard et al. (2015), Palacio Prieto (2015), Del Lama et al. (2015), Pica et                al. (2016), Erikstad et al. (2017). An international workshop and conference                on urban geotourism was held in Rome in October 2016, where another                case  studies  from  various  towns  and  cities  of  Europe  were  presented                (Kubalíková et al. 2017, Tičar et al. 2017, Zwoliński et al. 2017) and some                methodological  aspects  were  discussed  (Reynard  et  al.  2017,  Pica  et  al.                2017). Actually, urban geotourism is already accepted as one of the ways                how  to  promote  geoheritage  within  urban  areas  and  how  to  use  its                educational and touristic potential.                As well as traditional geotourism, urban geotourism uses similar tools to                promote  geoheritage,  e.g.  geo-walks  and  geo-trails,  however,  the                geotourist  activities  should  not  be  done  like  isolated  projects;  if                geotourism is considered to be environmentally educative, sustainable and                locally  beneficial  and  to  cover  tourist  needs  (according  to  the  definition                above), it should be framed by a conception, strategy or action plan how to                treat geodiversity and geoheritage within urban areas in general. The role                and importance of geodiversity action plans is presented and discussed for                example in the Geodiversity charter for England (Natural England 2014), by                Burek and Potter (2006) or Prosser et al. (2006).                Generally,  the  local  and  regional  Geodiversity  Action  Plans  fill  these                functions:  they  describe  geodiversity  and  geoheritage  of  an  area,  they                analyse their function and potential, they include particular activities that                enhance the role of geodiversity and geoheritage and they also deal with                local/regional/state  policies  and  landscape  planning.  These  Geodiversity                Action Plans are generally made for larger areas, but also for towns and                cities.  Recently,  London  Geodiversity  Action  Plan  for  2014  –  2018  was                approved (London Geodiversity Partnership 2014) and it covers the above                mentioned  facts  (it  stresses  the  importance  of  geodiversity  and                geoheritage  within  the  city,  analyses  its  potential  and  functions  and                proposes particular activities to conserve the geoheritage and to promote                it). It has to be said that in the UK, geoconservation has a long tradition                and already in the 1980s there were activities to promote geoheritage in                urban  areas  via  geo-trails  and  geo-walks  (Robinson  1982,  1984,  1985).                Similar  activities  were  later  presented  in  other  cities,  e.g.  in  France  –                Balladés géologiques (Geologic walks, e.g. Baudin 2015, Billet et al. 2008)                or in the Czech Republic (Chlupáč 1999, Bajer 2012).                The paper deals especially with the concept and general questions of the                urban  geodiversity  and  geotourism  and  it  presents  the  guidelines  and                methods for identifying and assessment of the particular features of urban                geodiversity with specific examples from Brno city.                                                   463","2 WHY TO DEVELOP URBAN GEOTOURISM? AND WHAT SHOULD BE                                    INCLUDED?           Gray (2013), London Geodiversity Partnership (2014), Reynard et al. (2017)           and Pica et al. (2017) give reasons why the geodiversity in urban areas is so           important, why the geoheritage should be promoted and why the urban           geotourism should be developed. The main reasons are:            -  provision of invaluable natural resources (materials) and contribution               to the industry, mining, agricultural and other activities,            -  basic  role  of  landforms  for  the  situation  of  the  towns  and  cities               themselves,  for  the  localisation  of  main  buildings  and  main               communications,            -  urban  sprawl  often  interacts  (and  it  is  also  limited)  with  geological               and geomorphological features and processes (e.g. landslides),            -  geological  and  geomorphological  context  of  cities  often  represents               their  own  image  (landforms  often  represent  urban  landscape               dominants, geodiversity contributes to the natural heritage of cities               and it influences art, architecture or traditional building stone),            -  potential for recreation, tourism, education (urban geotourism as an               alternative to the “traditional” tourism or destinations: castles, sacral               objects,  important  buildings;  promoting  geodiversity  features  can               enrich  the  information  about  tourist  objects,  e.g.  use  of  traditional               dimension stone as an example of local building material),            -  influence  on  biodiversity  and  localisation  of  parks  and  greenery,               ecosystem functions,            -  understanding  the  geodiversity  and  geoheritage  can  help  the               acceptation of its conservation and rational use,            -  availability and accessibility to a large number of people.           It is obvious that geodiversity and geoheritage within urban areas have an           important role. London Geodiversity Partnership (2014) and Reynard et al.           (2017) present the main activities that should be developed to manage the           geodiversity and geoheritage rationally and sustainably:           1)  Understanding  the  geodiversity  and  geoheritage  (analysis  of  existing           sources  –  maps,  monographies;  mapping,  identifying  the  objects           geoheritage, comparison with archaeological or historical sources, review           of historical iconography and consultation of historical press, photographs           and landscape paintings, news about releases of major urban works)           2) Identify the geodiversity resources for specific activities (assessment of           the geoheritage sites, analysis of their potential for geotourism, recreation           and geoeducation)           3)  Conserve  and  manage  individual  sites  and  wider  places  (proposals  of           management  measures,  particular  activities  for  particular  geoheritage           features,  include  the  promotion  of  geoheritage  into  the  current  tourist           offer, other activities to support the geodiversity within urban areas and to           support the conservation and rational use of the geoheritage sites)                                        464","4)  Promotion  of  geodiversity  and  geoheritage  –  to  support  the  wider                involvement of people in geodiversity through accessible life-long learning,                geotourism and conservation activities – it can help the better acceptation                and better understanding of the need of geoconservation activities                5) Networking (cooperation between scientists, tourist offices, municipality                and  other  stakeholders)  and  influencing  regional  planning,  policy                development and practice.                                           3 METHODS                The first step how to develop the geotourism and geoeducation activities                within urban areas is to analyse historical and actual maps, literature and                other  sources  about  an  area.  These  activities  help  to  further  identifying                and  inventorying  the  geoheritage  features  (not  only  sites,  but  also                viewpoints or other geoheritage issues as dimension stone). Following list                gives the guidelines what should be taken into account when identifying                the geoheritage features of an urban area:                  -  geology  (rocks)  –  description  of  lithological  diversity,  tectonic                    situation, geological evolution, palaeontology of specific rocks etc.                  -  landforms  –  natural  and  anthropogenic,  processes,  genesis  of  the                    relief,  landforms  as  a  factor  for  localisation  of  important  buildings,                    communications  and  so  on,  geomorphological  risks,  how  the                    landforms influenced the urban spreading, how the urban space and                    urban  needs  influence  geomorphological  features  and  geologic/soil                    features too,                  -  soils and how they influenced the urban spreading,                  -  hydrogeology  (underground/hidden  water  resource  –  to  stress  an                    importance  of  water  as  an  invaluable  resource)  and  hydrologic                    features (rivers, streams, wells, mileraces…),                  -  geoheritage  features  in  relation  to  architecture  (building  material,                    dimension stone, material used for monuments, statues, pavement,                    walls, ramparts…),                  -  museum      collections   (mineralogical,   palaeontological,                    petrographical…),                  -  viewpoints (where a visitor can have an overview about large portion                    of urban landscape),                  -  geological  gardens  (open  air)  and  other  geoscience  educational                    facilities  (e.g.  profiles  or  rock  outcrops  with  an  information  panel                    about it) available to the wide public,                  -  geoheritage  features  in  relation  to  the  town/city  appearance  –  the                    dominant hill, valley, typical building stone or other material (bricks,                    tiles),                  -  geoheritage  features  in  relation  to  the  toponyms  (names  of  the                    streets, local names),                                               465","-  geoheritage  features  in  relation  to  other  cultural/social/economic               aspects  (archaeology,  geomythology),  geoheritage  features  with               geohistorical significance, geodiversity/geoheritage features reflected               in the arts or in the design, local products related to or inspired by               geodiversity, links between geodiversity and cultural/social events.            After identifying the above mentioned, a potential for the geotourism and           geoeducation  purposes  can  be  specified.  Assessment  methodologies  for           geo(morpho)sites were already developed and used by various authors in           various  countries  for  various  purposes  (e.  g.  Panizza  2001;  Coratza  and           Giusti 2005; Pralong 2005; Reynard et al. 2007; Reynard 2009; Pereira and           Pereira  2010;  Kubalíková  2013;  Kubalíková  and  Kirchner  2016).  For  the           assessment of geotourist potential of the sites within urban areas, Pica et           al.  (2014,  2017)  propose  these  criteria:  1)  representativeness           (geoscientific, landscape evolution, city image), 2) visibility, 3) geohistorical           reconstruction  significance,  4)  aesthetic  peculiarity  of  the  urbanized           context, 5) touristic attractiveness. Total score (so called Value of a site for           Geotourism  (VSG  index))  is  represented  by  the  sum  of  the  above           mentioned.           Another method for assessing the geotourist and geoeducation potential           was presented by Pralong (2005) who takes into account following criteria:           1) scenic values (e.g. number of viewpoints, colour contrasts), 2) scientific           values (e.g. representativeness, rarity, palaeogeographical importance), 3)           cultural  values  (e.g.  iconographic  presentations,  historical  and  religious           relevance, cultural events), 4) economic  values (e.g. accessibility, natural           risks)           Kubalíková  (2013),  Bajer  et  al.  (2015)  and  Kubalíková,  Kirchner  (2016)           propose  similar  criteria:  1)  scientific  and  intrinsic  values  (Earth-science           importance, scientific knowledge, diversity of a site), 2) educational values           (exemplarity and representativeness, presence of  education facilities), 3)           economical values (tourist services, accessibility, current tourist use of the           site),  4)  conservation  values  (legal  protection,  risks  and  threats,  current           status  of  the  site),  5)  added  values  (cultural,  ecological  and  aesthetic           value).           These  methods  can  serve  as  a  starting  point  to  develop  the  assessment           methodology suitable for evaluation of the geotourism and geoeducational           potential of the particular geoheritage features within urban areas.                 4 EXAMPLES OF URBAN GEOHERITAGE WITHIN BRNO CITY                               (PRELIMINAR RESULTS)           The Brno city is the second largest city in the Czech Republic (population           approximately  380  000)  and  it  is  situated  in  the  region  of  the  South           Moravia (south-eastern part of the Czech Rep.). It lies on the contact of the           Bohemian  Massif  and  Carpathian  Foredeep,  so  the  geology  and           geomorphology arrangement of the area is quite complicated and varied           (Novák et al. 1991, Müller, Novák 2000, Demek, Mackovčin eds. 2014).           Currently, the analysis of the maps, literature and other sources is being           processed. Geology and hydrogeological features are consulted in on-line                                        466","maps (Czech Geological Survey – 1:25 000 and 1:50 000). Some geological                features can be observed on numerous outcrops both in the city centre                and city districts (e.g. Petrov – small outcrops of metabasalts), other sites                where the typical lithological, tectonic or palaeontological features can be                explored,  are  former  quarries  or  pits  (e.g.  Černovice  sand  pit,  Hády,                Červený kopec). These objects of secondary geodiversity (Fig. 1) also have                a considerable potential for tourism and education (Kubalíková et al. 2016,                Kubalíková et al. 2017).                           Fig. 1. The example of secondary geodiversity feature: Hády quarry.                A – Růženin lom with the tectonic thrust of the older rocks of Brno Massif on the younger                Upper-Devonian  and  Lower-Carbon  limestones  of  the  Líšeň  formation.  The  bottom  is                flooded with the lake which is important from the ecological point of view (occurrence of                halophyts). B – Viewpoint: a large portion of urban landscape can be observed from the top                of the bench. C – Upper bench of Hády quarry: the transgression of the Jura limestones on                the folded Devonian limestones is well visible here.                 Generally, the geomorphological features are analysed by using the maps                and  especially  field  work.  Also,  the  database  of  the  geolocalities  (Czech                Geologic Survey) represents an important source of information. Currently,                some  objects  of  secondary  geodiversity,  respectively  anthropogenic                landforms  are  mapped  (Kubalíková  et  al.  2017)  and  some  natural                landforms  are  described  within  the  terrain  works  and  using  the  sources                Bajer  2012,  Vávra  and  Štelcl  2006,  Database  of  geolocalities  of  Czech                Geologic Survey.                Concerning  hydrological  features,  the  main  source  are  the  maps  (both                actual  and  historical),  literature  and  old  photographies.  The  most                important part of the hydrological heritage of the city is represented by                rivers Svratka, Svitava and Ponávka which significantly influenced the relief                of the study area. Also, the old millraces (e.g. Svitavský or Svratecký, which                was filled up in the 1960s) had an important role in the city development.                The position of the hydrological features in the past is also documented in                toponyms, e.g. Rybářská (Fisher) street, Vodní (Water) street (Kuča 2000).                Identification of the other urban geoheritage features (specific landforms,                geo-architectonical  heritage,  museum  collections,  viewpoints,  geological                gardens and other facilities for geoeducation, dominants, toponyms, see                examples  in  Fig.  2)  is  a  subject  of  further  analysis  (detailed  literature                review, analysis of the maps, fieldwork).                Also,  the  assessment  of  urban  geoheritage  features  for  geotourism  and                geoeducation purposes has to be updated and improved as the methods                mentioned  in  the  part  3  are  suitable  mainly  for  landforms  and  it  is                problematic  to  apply  it  for  other  geoheritage  features  (e.g.  dimension                                              467","stone, building material) and for the overall assessment of the geoheritage           of certain city/town. For these purposes, SWOT analysis can be used.                         Fig. 2. The examples of other geodiversity features.           A – communication cutting in Jedovnická Street where the granodiorites of the Brno massif           are displayed. Spectacular ones are up to 2cm long, bronz-brown, columnar biotites that           can be collected here which has a significant educational potential. B – Červený kopec – an           overview of Kamenná kolonie (old workers’ quarter) and Old Red conglomerate quarries;           the material was used for the construction of walls and ramparts in various parts of the city           centre (see C). C – Old Red conglomerate used as building stone, Biskupská Street.                                   5 CONCLUSIONS           Geotourism  is  developed  mainly  within  rural  areas,  however,  in  the  last           years, it appears also in the towns and cities. Geodiversity and geoheritage           play an important role in the urban space and they have a high potential           for  urban  geotourism  and  geoducation  –  the  development  of  these           activities can help the acceptation of geoconservation, it can be seen as an           interesting  opportunity  how to  promote  natural  and  cultural  heritage  of           the  urban  areas  and  it  represents  an  alternative  to  the  “traditional”           destinations within urban areas. Urban geoheritage is also strongly linked           to the cultural, historical, socio-economic and archaeological aspects of the           towns and cities.           For  sustainable  management  of  these  features,  the  geodiversity  action           plans  are  proposed;  they  include  particular  activities  that  should  be           developed.  The  elaboration,  approval  and  especially  implementation  of           such  plan  requires  the  cooperation  between  various  subjects  (geo-           scientists  from  universities  and  other  institutions,  municipality  officers,           politicians, architects, historians, archaeologists, tourist offices).           Geodiversity  and  geoheritage  within  Brno  represents  an  important           resource  for  geotourism  and  geoeducation.  The  geological  and           geomorphological  settings  has  influenced  the  development  of  the  city,           numerous geodiversity and geoheritage features are linked to architecture,           archaeological,  historical  and  cultural  aspects.  Also,  the  objects  and           phenomenons of secondary geodiversity possess a considerable potential           for  tourism,  recreation  and  education  activities.  Nevertheless,  this           resource is not fully recognized and appreciated. To use rationally and to           manage  this  important  resource  it  is  necessary  to  know  it  well,  to           understand it, to describe it, to analyse it, to identify and to assess it. Then,           the  particular  activities  (geo-walks,  geo-trails,  enriching  the  actual                                        468","information  about  the  traditional  tourist  destinations  etc.)  can  be                proposed.                Last but not least, it is desirable to analyse the perception of geodiversity                by  “normal”  people  (is  geodiversity  recognizable?  is  it  considered                important  and  interesting?).  This  could  help  to  identify  the  specific                geodiversity  and  geoheritage  issues  and  to  spread  and  increase  the                awareness of it.                                          REFERENCES                BAJER,  A.  Geologické  vycházky  okolím  Brna.  1.  vydání.  Brno:  Rezekvítek,                2012. 50 p. ISBN 978-80-86626-31-4.                BAJER, A., KIRCHN, K., KUBALÍKOVÁ, L. Geodiversity values as a basis for                geosite and geomorphosite assessment: a case study from Žďárské Vrchy                Highland.  In:  Lněnička  L.  (ed.)  Proceedings  of  23rd  Central  European                Conference Central  Europe  Area  in  View  of Current  Geography.  Brno:                Masarykova univerzita, 2015, pp 56-69.                BAUDIN,  F.  Geologic  walk  around  La  Défense.  Paris:  Biotope  Edition,                Mèze—MNHN, 2015. 38 p. ISBN: 978-2366621686.                BILLET, G., Bonnefoy B., De Wever P., Houssaye A., Merle D. Promenade                géologique à Etampes. Paris: Biotope Editions, Mèze—MNHN, 2009. 28 p.                ISBN: 978-2914817301.                BUREK, C., POTTER, J. Local Geodiversity Action Plans - Setting the context                                                                     th                for geological conservation. [Online]. Natural England, 2006 [26  October                2017],  English  Nature  Research  Reports,  No  560.  Available  at                publications.naturalengland.org.uk/file/127017                CHLUPÁČ,  I.  Vycházky  za  geologickou  minulostí  Prahy  a  okolí.  Praha:                Academia, 1999. 258 p. ISBN: 80-2000-0680-X.                CORATZA, P., GIUSTI, C. Methodological proposal for the assessment of the                scientific  quality  of  geomorphosites.  Il  Quaternario,  Italian  Journal  of                Quaternary  Sciences.  Rome:  AIQUA  -  Italian  Association  for  Quaternary                Research, 2005, 18 (1), pp 305-313. ISSN: 0394-3356.                Czech  Geological  Survey.  Geological  maps.  [Online].  Czech  Geological                               th                Survey      [26       October      2017].     Available     at                http://www.geology.cz/extranet/mapy                Czech  Geological  Survey.  Significant  geological  localities  of  the  Czech                                                       th                Republic. [Online]. Czech Geological Survey [26  October 2017]. Available                at http://lokality.geology.cz.                DE WEVER, P., BAUDIN, F., PEREIRA, D. et al. The Importance of Geosites                and  Heritage  Stones  in  Cities  -  a  Review.  [Online].  Geoheritage.    Berlin                                                 th                Heidelberg: Springer, 2016, pp 1-15 [26  October 2017]. ISSN: 1867-2485.                https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-016-0210-3.                DEL  LAMA,  E.  A.,  DE  LA  CORTE  BACCI,  D.,  MARTINS,  L.  et  al.  Urban                Geotourism  and  the  Old  Centre  of  São  Paulo  City,  Brazil.  Geoheritage.                Berlin Heidelberg: Springer, 2015, 7 (2), pp 147-164. ISSN: 1867-2477.                                              469","DOWLING,  R.  K.  Geotourism’s  global  growth.  Geoheritage.  Berlin           Heidelberg: Springer, 2011, 3 (1), pp 1-13. ISSN: 1867-2477.           DOWLING,  R.  K.  Global  Geotourism  –  An  emerging  Form  of  sustainable           tourism. Czech Journal of Tourism. Brno: Masaryk University, 2013, 2 (2),           pp 59-79. ISSN: 1805-3580.           DOWLING, R. K., NEWSOME, D. (eds). Geotourism. The tourism of Geology           and  Landscape.  Goodfellow  Publishers  Ltd.,  2010.  246  p.  ISBN:  978-           1906884093.           ERIKSTAD, L., NAKREM, H. A., MARKUSSEN, J. A. Protected Geosites in an           Urban  Area  of  Norway,  Inventories,  Values,  and  Management.  [Online].                                                               th           Geoheritage.    Berlin  Heidelberg:  Springer,  2017,  pp  1-11  [26   October           2017]. ISSN: 1867-2485. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-017-0223-6.           GRAY, M. Geodiversity: Valuing and Conserving Abiotic Nature. 2nd Revised           edition  edition.  Chichester:  Wiley  Blackwell,  2013.  495  p.  ISBN:  978-           0470742150.           HAWLEY, D. Urban geology and the national curriculum. In: Bennett M.R.,           Doyle P., Larwood J.G., Prosser C.D. (eds) Geology on your doorstep. Bath:           The Geological Society, 1996, pp 155-162.           HOSE,  T.A.  Geotourism  or  can  tourists  become  casual  rock  hounds.  In:           Bennett M.R., Doyle P., Larwood J.G., Prosser C.D. (eds) Geology on your           doorstep. Bath: The Geological Society, 1996, pp 207-228           KUBALÍKOVÁ,  L.  Geomorphosite  assessment  for  geotourism  purposes.           Czech Journal of Tourism. Brno: Masaryk University, 2013, 2 (2), pp 80-104.           ISSN: 1805-3580.           KUBALÍKOVÁ, L., KIRCHNER, K. Geosite and Geomorphosite Assesment as a           Tool  for  Geoconservation  and  Geotourism  Purposes:  a  Case  study  from           Vizovická  vrchovina  Highland  (Eastern  Part  of  the  Czech  Republic).           Geoheritage. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer, 2016, 8 (2), pp 5-14. ISSN: 1867-           2477.           KUBALÍKOVÁ,  L.,  BAJER,  A.,  KIRCHNER,  K.  Secondary  geodiversity  and  its           potential for geoeducation and geotourism: a case study from Brno city. In:           Fialová J., Pernicová D. (eds) Public recreation and landscape protection –           with nature hand in hand… Brno: Mendel University, 2016, pp 224-231.           KUBALÍKOVÁ,  L.,  KIRCHNER,  K.,  BAJER,  A.  Secondary  geodiversity  and  its           potential  for  urban  geotourism:  a  case  study  from  Brno  city,  Czech           Republic.  Quaestiones  Geographicae.  Poznań:  Bogucki  Wydawnictwo           Naukowe,   2017,   36   (3),   pp   63-73.   ISSN:   2081-6383.           https://doi.org/10.1515/quageo-2017-0024           KUČA, K. Brno - vývoj města, předměstí a připojených vesnic. Brno: Baset,           2000. 648 p. ISBN: 80-86223-11-6.           Natural  England.  Geodiversity  Charter  for  England.  [Online].  Natural                                 th           England,   2014    [26     October    2017].   Available   at           (http://www.englishgeodiversityforum.org/Downloads/Geodiversity%20Ch           arter%20for%20England.pdf.                                         470","MÜLLER,  P.,  NOVÁK,  Z.  Geologie  Brna  a  okolí.  Praha:  Český  geologický                ústav, 2000. 90 p. ISBN: 80-7075-416-8.                NOVÁK, Z. et al. Geologická mapa, list 24-32 Brno. 1:50 000. Praha: Český                geologický ústav, 1991.                PALACIO-PRIETO, J. L. Geoheritage Within Cities: Urban Geosites in Mexico                City.  Geoheritage.  Berlin  Heidelberg:  Springer,  2015,  7  (4),  pp  365-373.                ISSN: 1867-2477.                PANIZZA,  M.  Geomorphosites:  concepts,  methods  and  example  of                geomorphological  survey.  Chinese  Science  Bulletin.  Chinese  Academy  of                Sciences, 2001, 46 (1), pp 4-6. ISSN: 2095-9273.                PEREIRA,  P.,  PEREIRA,  D.  Methodological  guidelines  for  geomorphosite                assessment.  Géomorphologie:  relief,  processus,  environnement.  Lille:                Groupe français de Géomorphologie, 2010, 5 (2), pp 215-222. ISSN: 1266-                5304.                PICA,  A.,  FREDI,  P.,  DEL  MONTE,  M.  The  Ernici  Mountains  Geoheritage                (Central  Apennines,  Italy):  Assessment  of  the  Geosites  for  Geotourism                Development. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites. Oradea: University of                Oradea, 2014, 7 (2), pp 193-206. ISSN: 2065-1198.                PICA, A., VERGARI, F., FREDI, P., DEL MONTE, M. (2016) The Aeterna Urbs                geomorphological  heritage  (Rome,  Italy).  Geoheritage.  Berlin  Heidelberg:                Springer, 2016, 8 (1), pp 31-42. ISSN: 1867-2477.                PICA,  A.,  LUBERTI,  G.  M.,  VERGARI,  F.,  FREDI,  P.,  DEL  MONTE,  M.,  2017.                Contribution  for  an  urban  geomorphoheritage  assessment  method:                proposal  from  three  geomorphosites  in  Rome  (Italy).  Quaestiones                Geographicae. Poznań: Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 2017, 36 (3), pp                21-36. ISSN: 2081-6383. https://doi.org/10.1515/quageo-2017-0030                PRALONG,  J.  –  P.  A  method  for  assessing  tourist  potential  and  use  of                geomorphological sites. Géomorphologie: relief, processus, environnement.                Lille: Groupe français de Géomorphologie, 2005, 1 (3), pp 189-196. ISSN:                1266-5304.                PROSSER, C., MURPHY, M., LARWOOD, J. Geological conservation: a guide                                                               th                to  good  practice.  [Online].  Natural  England,  2006  [26   October  2017],                drawn  in  part  from  work  undertaken  for  English  Nature  by  Capita                Symonds. Available at http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/publicatio                n/83048                REYNARD,  E.  et  al.  A  method  for  assessing  the  scientific  and  additional                values of geomorphosites. Geographica Helvetica. Göttingen: Copernicus,                2007, 62 (3), pp 148-158.                REYNARD, E. The assessment of geomorphosites. In: Reynard E., Coratza P.,                Regolini-Bissig, G. (eds) Geomorphosites. Munich: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil,                2009, pp 63-71. ISBN: 978-3899370942.                REYNARD,  E.,  KAISER,  C.,  MARTIN,  S.,  REGOLINI,  G.  An  application  for                geosciences communication by smartphones and tablets. In: Lollino G. et al                (eds)  Engineering  geology  for  society  and  territory.  Heidelberg:  Springer,                2015, vol. 8, pp 265-268.                REYNARD,  E.,  PICA,  A.,  CORATZA,  P.,  2017.  Urban  geomorphological                heritage.  An  overview.  Quaestiones  Geographicae.  Poznań:  Bogucki                                              471","Wydawnictwo  Naukowe,  2017,  36  (3),  pp  7-20.  ISSN:  2081-6383.           https://doi.org/10.1515/quageo-2017-0022           ROBINSON,  E.  A  geological  walk  around  the  City  of  London—royal           exchange to Aldgate. Proc Geol Assoc, 1982, 93, pp 225-246.           ROBINSON,  E.  Illustrated  geological  walks,  vol  1.  London:  Scottish           Academic Press, 1984. 98 p. ISBN: 978-0707303505.           ROBINSON,  E.  Illustrated  geological  walks,  vol  2.  London:  Scottish           Academic Press, 1985. 142 p. ISBN: 978-0707304168.           RODRIGUES M. L., MACHADO, C. R., FREIRE, E. Geotourism routes in urban           areas:  a  preliminary  approach  to  the  Lisbon  geoheritage  survey.           GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites. Oradea: University of Oradea, 2011, 8           (2), pp 281-294. ISSN: 2065-1198.           London Geodiversity Partnership. London Geodiversity Action Plan 2014-           2018.  [Online].  Capita  Symonds  with  assistance  from  the  London                                                         th           Geodiversity Partnership and Natural England, 2014. [26  October 2017].           Available at http://www.londongeopartnership.org.uk/downloads/LGAP%2           02014-2018.pdf           TIČAR, J., KOMAC, B., ZORN, M., FERK, M., HRVATIN, M., CIGLIČ, R., 2017.           From urban geodiversity to geoheritage: the case of Ljubljana (Slovenia).           Quaestiones  Geographicae.  Poznań:  Bogucki  Wydawnictwo  Naukowe,           2017, 36 (3), pp 37-50. ISSN: 2081-6383. https://doi.org/10.1515/quageo-           2017-0023           VÁVRA, V., ŠTECL, J., Významné geologické lokality Moravy a Slezska. Brno:           Masarykova  Univerzita,  2014.  290  p.  ISBN:  978-80-210-6715-8.           https://doi.org/10.5817/CZ.MUNI.M210-6715-2014           ZWOLIŃSKI, Z., HILDEBRANDT-RADKE, I., MAZUREK, M., MAKOHONIENKO,           M. Existing and proposed urban geosites values resulting from geodiversity           of Poznań City. Quaestiones Geographicae. Poznań: Bogucki Wydawnictwo           Naukowe, 2017, 36 (3), pp 125-149. ISSN: 2081-6383.           https://doi.org/10.1515/quageo-2017-0031                                       Shrnutí           Geoturismus těží zejména z geodiverzity, avšak zároveň využívá i kulturně-           historické prvky a živou přírodu dané oblasti, je propojen se vzděláváním           a počítá s aktivním zapojením místních. V současnosti je rozvíjen hlavně ve           venkovských oblastech, avšak objevují se i iniciativy, které upozorňují na           geodiverzitu a její význam v rámci měst.           Racionální  a  udržitelné  využití  geodiverzity  ve  městech  může  tvořit           alternativu  pro  tradiční  turistické  cíle  a  přispět  k  pochopení  významu           a nutnosti  ochrany  geodiverzity  samotné.  Geodiverzita,  respektive           geodědictví  ve  městech  nezahrnuje  pouze  objekty  a  jevy  primární           (přirozené)  geodiverzity  (skalní  podloží,  tvary  reliéfu,  půdy),  ale           I antropogenní  tvary  a  procesy  (sekundární  geodiverzita),  hydrologické           prvky (studny, náhony) a v neposlední řadě I geodiverzitu ex-situ (muzejní           sbírky, stavební  materiál). Příspěvek přibližuje tuto novou formu turismu           a uvádí příklady geodiverzity/geodědictví v rámci města Brna.                                        472","EXPERIENCE TO APPLY THE METHOD OF ASSESSING THE                  RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL OF SUBURBAN FORESTS IN URBANIZED                                            AREAS                                         Natálie Levandovská                             Masarykova univerzita, Brno, Česká republika                                       nata99967@inbox.ru                 Abstract:  The  purpose  of  the  study  was  to  determine  the  recreational                potential a part of the suburban forests Sochi, Russia. The area of research                contained  33  hectares  and  located  inside  the  city  quarters.  In  the  study                were used the taxation materials of the Sochi National Park. The research                method included assessment of the forest in three groups of categories -                attraction, comfort and stability. The method examines recreational forest                from  its  attraction  and  comfort  for  visitors  and  tolerance  (stability)  to                anthropogenic  influence.  The  outcome  of  the  evaluation  is  the  Class  of                Recreational  Value  (CRV).  The  lowest  results  were  registered  among                indices of attraction and comfort categories. This is mainly due to the large                amount  of  debris  –  index  “Sanitary  conditions”,  the  absence  of  the                recreational reservoir – Index “Distance to recreational reservoir”, and the                proximity  of  large  motor  roads.  At  the  same  time,  the  indices  of  the                Stability  category  are  high.  The  method  used  previous  researches  of                scientific  works  in  area  of  urban  recreational  forests.  However,  some                indices require verification, such as a moisture index. Perhaps it relevance                is not significant. Present societies have a big demand of green areas and                nature (Gadow 2002, Grahn\&Stigsdotter 2003). The ongoing urbanization                process in many countries and upspeeded by the modern lifestyle with the                stress and stress-related illnesses (Ode \& Fly 2002). In that case, outdoor                recreation is concerned with the densely populated areas (Rydberg 1998 in                Ode \& Fly 2002) due to it “free nature” (Sandell 1993), opportunities for                ameliorate injurious factors, restorative environments free from stress are                provided (Bolshakov 2000, Grahn\&Stigsdotter 2003). However, as a result                of active use of forests for recreational purposes, their quality and ability                to perform recreational functions are reduced. That is why important to                estimate the ability of the forest, to resist influence of urban environment.                Keywords: recreation, recreational potential, visitors, attraction, comfort,                stability, urban forest                                          STUDY AREA                The urban recreational forests under study are located on the territory of                the  Sochi  National  Park,  with  total  area  of  208,599.85  hectares.                A significant part of this area is allocated as recreational forests. The park                occupies  the  Greater  Sochi  area,  from  the  border  with  the  Tuapsinsky                District, between the mouths of Shepsi River and Magri River in the north-                west, to the border with Abkhazia along the Psou River in the south-east,                                              473","and  between  the  Black  Sea  to  the  water  divide  crest  of  the  Greater           Caucasus.  This  territory  of  the  park  does  not  include  the  areas  of           settlement,  such  as  the  city  of  Sochi  and  various  urban  and  rural           settlements, but some districts are situated inside the territory of the Park.           Immediately to the north is the Caucasus Nature Reserve.           Forests adjoining to the city line and are used by city residents and visiting           tourists as places for short-term daytime rest, while remote and hard-to-           reach forests are not visited by tourists.           Types of short-term rest include:           •   picnic  rest,  usually  on  the  banks  of  streams,  rivers,  natural  and               artificial lakes with well-equipped areas and the necessary equipment               for a picnic,           •   gathering: picking berries, mushroom and nuts,           •   visiting  unique  natural  objects  (waterfalls,  caves,  dolmens,  rocky               complexes and unique botanical objects),           •   hiking. To a large extent, the possibility of recreational using forests in               the  region  depends  on  the  availability  of  a  road-tropic  network               (availability factor), roads, as well as the terrain and its slope.           Areas  with  steep  and  very  steep  slopes  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the           coast occupy over 60% of the territory NP, and in the northwest – a little           over 30%. Recreational loads on the forests are distributed very unevenly,           which adversely affects the state of forest ecosystems in the zone of active           visits.           Modern methods in the analysis of cartographic data make it possible to           exclude field work virtually. I would like to note the materials of the forest           inventory  of  Sochi  NP,  containing  data  in  electronic  form,  and  allowing           analysis with GIS.           The  total  numbers  of  units  studied,  according  to  the  taxation  materials,           were 56. It were units located only inside the city.                                                             474","Fig. 1. National park of Sochi - location of the research.                Source: Open Street Map                          MEANING OF “RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL” TERM                The investigation of “recreational value” of forest area by itself could be                adequate in description of several components of forest landscape, which                can be appreciated by visitors, but at the same time it will not show if the                environment  could  be  “pleasant  to  invite  visitors”  to.  Different  types  of                forest have a different sensitiveness to recreational utilization and could                be  negatively  affected,  changed  and  finally  damaged  by  anthropogenic                pressure (Repshas 1994, Drobyshev 2000, Rysin\&Rysin 2003, Rysin 2006).                According  to  aforementioned,  we  could  say  that  sustainable  recreation                utilization will take place when conditions of recreational forest area will                be estimated from people preferences aspects and from biological aspect                of forests.                The “recreational potential” is a term used in this study, which is resulting                from aggregate of social and biological evaluated aspects.                Recreational potential of landscape is a “degree of possibility to perform                its  recreational  functions  conditioned  by  its  nature  features  as  well  as                results of human activities” (Rysin 2003).                                                       475","STRUCTURE OF THE METHOD           The  evaluation  of  recreational  potential  comprises  of  three  main           categories (three groups of evaluation indices):              ·   Decorative effect (“Attraction”),              ·   Comfort for visitors (“Comfort”),              ·   Stability  (tolerance)  of  the  forest  to  recreational  influence                  (“Stability”).           These categories include different amount of specific indices (Figure 1)            Tab. 1: Categories and indices for evaluation Recreational potential of urban           forests               ATTRACTION            COMFORT              STABILITY               Age of forest           Relief         Degree of digression            Species composition   Distance from roads   Brushwood presence              Height of stand     Pathway network     Viable undergrowth                                     conditions            presence            Objects of attraction   Distance to recreational   Grading of soil                                      reservoir            Patchiness (horizontal   Soil moisture    The status of territory            structure) Decorative                       according to the              effect (contrast)                       functional zoning NP             Story composition             (vertical structure)            “man-caused” objects             Sanitary conditions            Each index should be evaluated by expert from “0” up to “2” score. The           maximal sum of scores for the “attraction” category is 16, since 8 different           indices are evaluated by this category. Then the calculated sum of scores           has to be compared to the maximal possible sum for every category.           For the next step, to make the data clear and understandable for further           analyzing  certain  coefficients  have  to  be  used  according  to  the  method.           Due  to  an  aggregative  processing  of  scores  noted  in  checking  form  and           method's  formula we get coefficients CA, CC and CS correspondingly for           every observed unit in “attraction”, “comfort” and “stability” categories:                                    CN = SSn/SMn            where CN – corresponding coefficient (CA (attraction), CC (comfort) are CS           (stability)); SSn – sum of scores according to N category; SMn – maximal           possible sum of scores.           To  generalize  the  evaluation  of  recreational  potential,  plantations  are           divided into three Class of Recreational Value (CRV).                                         476","·   If at least one of the coefficients is lower than 0.34, the observed                       area (stand) corresponds to CRV III.                Then the recreational utilization can’t be managed without any significant                management for recreational potential enhancement.                    ·   If at least one of the coefficients are between 0.34 up to 0.66 and                       the others are higher than 0.34.                Then  the  observed  area  (stand)  corresponds  to  CRV  II.  Then  the                recreational utilization could be managed only with some limitations.                    ·   If  at  least  one  of  the  coefficients  is  ≥  0.67,  the  observed  area                       (stand) corresponds to CRV I.                Then  the  recreational  utilization  could  be  managed  without  any                significance changes.                                            RESULTS                There are not only final integral results of recreation condition, but also                specific  indices  and  conditions  quite  significant  and  could  be  compared,                analyzed and emphasized                The estimation of the “attraction” category has general average estimate                0.44. (Figure 2)                The lowest score as a result of the research was obtained by the indexes of                “objects  of  attraction”,  “species  composition”,  “sanitary  conditions”  and                “man-caused objects”.                In this example, the absence of water bodies and the presence of a high-                speed motorway are having a great impact. After construction speedway                quite large areas are without any vegetation.                                    Foto 1: River Matsesta.“Objects of attraction”                                                477","Foto 2: Composition of species. Grab and Fágus sylvática                                Foto 3: Speedway Adler – Krasnaya Polyana “man-caused objects”            The  estimation  of  the  “comfort”  category  has  general  average  estimate           0.28. (Figure 3)           This category shows how convenient it to use forests for visitors.           In this group, the lowest score of the research was obtained by the indexes           of “pathway network conditions”. In the lower level of the forest there are           usually dense thickets of blackberry and lianas, so the presence of paths           and the possibility of movement are of great importance to visitors.           The  index  “relief”  is  also  very  important  because  of  the  steep  gradients           terrain.  Slope more than 20 degrees does not allow moving. The presence           of  highways  is  highly  appreciated,  although  in  this  case  this  factor  is           questionable, as large highways reduce the attraction factor.                                         478","The  estimation  of  the  “stability”  category  has  general  average  estimate                0.47. (Figure 4)                In  this  group,  medium  evaluations  obtained  the  indices  “degree  of                digression”  and  “status  of  the  territory  according  to  the  functional  zone                NP”.  “Grading  of  soil”  also  has  a  medium  value,  because  the  soils  are                represented mainly by loams. Despite the fact that the index “degree of                digression” is middle appreciated, there is no viable undergrowth presence                in the plantations. This is a sign of instability the ecosystems. This suggests                that the possible degradation process has just begun.                To  calculate  the  Class  of  Recreational  Value  (CRV),  I  used  the  method,                described  above.  The  obtained  results  showed  that  the  forest  stands,                located within the city have II and III CRV. Despite the high values of such                indices   as “age of forest”, “degree of digression”, Class Recreational Value                is low because of the uncomfortable visitors there.                                          Fig.  2.  Estimation  of  the  locality  Fig.  3.  Estimation  of  the  locality                attraction.                     comfort.                                                           479","Fig.  4.  Estimation  of  the  locality  Fig.  5.  Estimation  of  the  locality           stability.                     recreational potential.            Due to the analyzing of the results obtained and literature study we could           say  that  the  tested  method  could  be  considered  as  quite  objective  and           reliable. Mainly because of literature statements of Russian and European           scientists  quite  well  reflected  and  confirmed  by  the  method.  The           hypothesis  about  the  crucial  importance  of  the  Attraction  and  Comfort           evaluation  of  forest  ecosystem  for  the  recreational  potential  evaluation           was confirmed as well.           The lowest values of the “comfort” in most cases determine as a limitative           factor the recreational potential of those forests. Moreover, the analysis of           the results shows that each natural (unartificial) forest ecosystem is quite           sensitive  towards  recreation  activities  and  always  under  the  risk  of           damage.    Nevertheless,  there  are  some  places  in  each  category  of  the           method which have to be analyzed more carefully. The needs for further           modifications, changing the meaning of indices or exclusion some of them           exist, as described above.                                                  480","REFERENCES                BOLSHAKOV, N. M. 2000. Rekreacionnaya rol lesov (the recreational role of                forests).  Lesnoe  hozyajstvo  I  lesnye  resursy  respubliki  Komi.  M.:  Izd-vo                “Dizajn.Informaciya.Kartografiya”. s.203-244.                DROBYSHEV, Y. I. 2000. Metodika izucheniya rekreacionnyh lesov. Posobie                dlya nachinayushih issledovatele jprirody (methods of recreational forest                investigation.  Manual  for  beginners  in  nature  researches).  Moskva.  In                Russian                GADOW,  K.  2002.  Adapting  silvicultural  management  systems  to  urban                forests. Urban forestry \&Urban greening. № 1. ISSN 1618-8667                GRAHN,  P.  \&  STIGSDOTTER,  U.A.  2003.  Landscape  planning  and  stress.                Urban forestry \&Urban greening. № 2. ISSN 1618-8667                IVONIN V. M., SAMSONOV S.D. Kriterii I indicatory otsenki rekreatsionnogo                potentsiala gornyh lesov severnogo Kavkaza // V.M. Ivonin, S.D. Samsonov                / Melioratsija I vodnoe hozjajstvo, 2011. № 4.s.32-35.                ODE,  Å.K.  \&  FLY,  G.  L.A.  2002.  Visual  aspects  in  urban  woodland                management. Urban forestry \&Urban greening. № 1. ISSN: 1618-8667                REPSHAS,  E.  1994.  Organizaciya  rekreacionnogo  lesopolzovaniya,  na                primere  Litvy  (Organization  of  forest  recreational  utilization  by  the                example of Lithuania). Moskva. Nauka.240 s. in Russian.                RYSIN,  S.L.  2003.  Rekreacionnyj  potencial  lesoparkovyh  landshaftov                I metodika  ego  izucheniya  (Recreational  potential  of  urban  forest                landscapes and its study method). Lesohozyajstvennaya informaciya. №1.                s.17-27. in Russian.                RYSIN S. L., LEPESHKIN E. A. Opyt otsenki rekreatsionnogo potentsiala lesov                na urbanizirovannyh territorijah // Lesnye ekosistemy I urbanizatsija. M.:                Tovarischestvo nauchnyh izdanij, 2008. s. 183-208.                                                                     481","CITY SPATIAL STRUCTURE IN CASE STUDY OF THE RUSSIAN CITIES                                PERM AND SAMARA                                     Libor Lněnička            Department of Geography, Faculty of Education, Masaryk University in Brno                           Poříčí 7, 603 00 Brno, Czech Republic                                lnenicka@ped.muni.cz            Abstract: The Russian Federation, after decline of the Soviet Union in 1991,           has changed in many political, economic, socio-cultural and environmental           aspects. These changes are visible in morpho-genetic structure of Russian           cities. This paper presents a comparison study of two cities located in the           European part of the Russian Federation – Perm and Samara. Both cities           have  many  common  aspects  of  historical  development.  The  comparison           study describes a sectoral model on demonstration of the development of           residential, industrial and leisure time functions. The main objective is to           prove joint development of both cities, the biggest flourishing which was           the era of the Soviet Union.           Key words: City structure, case study, city quarter, Russia, Perm, Samara                            INTRODUCTION AND METHODS           Development  of  the  current  postmodern  society  is  moving  forward  very           quickly.  From  the  sociology  point  of  view,  we  can  speak  about  a  strong           resocialization of society, which is based on state-of-the-art developmental           trends, e.g. in the field of information technology. Development of society           is also linked to increased demands for space, either urban or rural. Most           changes  can  be  found  in  urban  environments  where  there  is  a  greater           concentration of population in small spaces. As a result, such changes are           more  visible  and  more  descriptive.  The  growth  and  development           associated with the spatial growth of the area of the city can be witnessed           not only in the expansion of the industrial revolution, but also after the           Second  World  War.  The  processes  of  urbanization,  suburbanization,           citadelization, commercialization, residential housing, significant for many           cities  in  the  western  part  of  Europe  (e.g.  London,  Paris,  Brussels),  have           gradually  spread  to  the  eastern  European  part,  to  Belarus,  Ukraine  and           Russia. The current post-Soviet space has gone through significant changes           in the urban and spatial structure of large cities since collapse of the Soviet           Union  in  1991.  Urbanization  processes  typical  for  “western”  cities  are           becoming common in many Russian cities. For local inhabitants these cities           mean a new era of residential and commercial suburbanization linked to           the creation of new residential or commercial zones on the outskirts of the           city.           The aim of the paper is to describe historical and urban development of           selected  Russian  cities  and  to  identify  causes  and  consequences  of  new                                        482","development  trends.  Apart  from  descriptive  methods,  comparative                methods of common functional elements are deployed as well. The actual                comparison is made according to the sectoral model on the demonstration                of  development  of  residential,  industrial  and  leisure  time  functions.  The                main objective is to prove the common development of both cities, using                selected geographic and urban concepts typical for the 20´s and 30´s of the                last century.                                  THEORETICAL BASIS AND THESIS                The main authors dealing with the Russian Federation on national level, or                their federated republics or selected regions are Baar (2002; 2005; 2010),                Skokan  (2005).  Up  to  the  present,  I  have  not  met  any  Czech  authors                narrowly  focusing  on  the  geography  of  Russian  cities,  their  internal                structure and functional links. Therefore, this case study is one of the first                experiments. Czech geographers dealing with urban issues, including their                functions  and  internal  structure,  focus  on  the  home  environment                (Ouředníček  and  Sýkora,  2002,  Sýkora,  2007,  2008,  2009,  Kubeš,  2009,                Kubeš 2009, Ouředníček and Temelová, 2012; Sýkora and Mulíček, 2014;                Sýkora, 2014; Mulíček, Osman and Seidenglanz, 2016). There are articles                on the comparison of post-socialist space in Central and Eastern Europe –                Stalinov,  Sýkora,  2012;  Stalinov,  Sýkora,  2014;  Bouzarovski,  Sýkora  and                Matoušek, 2016. In articles by foreign, authors, Russian cities are noticed                much  more.  E.g.  in  2005  a  study  on  the  development  of  the  urban                population  in  Russia  and  the  Soviet  Union  between  1900-2000  was                published  by  authors  of  Afontsev,  Kessler,  Markevich,  Tyazhel'nik  and                Valetov. The authors describe not only the population development, but                also analyze the inner city structure.                The only papers published about the urban space and its population are for                example  Lehmann  and  Ruble  (1997)  –  Case  study  of  city  Jaroslavli,                Andrienko (1997) – Case study of city Kazan, Yakovlev (1998) – Case study                of city Tver or Volchkov (1998) – case study of city Samara. Other authors                Lappo,  Polyan  (1999),  Hill,  Gaddy  (2003),  Polyan,  Selivanov  (2007),                Molodikova, Makhrova (2007) or Kolomak (2012). The papers mentioned                above generally deal with the development of Russian cities. It would not                be  very  pragmatic  to  list  all  contributions  and  articles  published  about                Russian cities, but the previous review shows the considerable interest of                foreign authors in the issue.                               DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA (CITIES)                For  the  comparative  study  two  Russian  cities  –  Samara  and  Perm  have                been  selected.  Both  cities  have  many  common  aspects  of  development                (historical, political, administrative, geographic, urban or environmental).                For  the  following  text  of  the  paper  the  only  important  aspects  such  as                “consistency” or “similarity” of both cities are to be discussed. Certainly,                other  aspects  of  similar  development  of  the  two  cities  described  (e.  g.                environmental, social, etc.) could be discussed as well, but it is not useful                to  explore  them  further.  The  reason  for  selecting  these  cities  was                a personal visit of the author during the study stays at universities in 2014                                              483","and 2016. The position of the two cities in the European part of Russia is           illustrated in Figure 1. Another reason is the relatively small involvement of           Czech geographers in the territory of the Russian Federation.                                           Fig. 1. Localization of Cities Samara and Perm in European part of Europe.           Source: http://d-maps.com/carte.php?num_car=30394\&lang=en, edited by the author.            The main common aspects of urban development:           Geographical – both described cities are located in the European part of           the Russian Federation. The absolute geographical location is different, but           from a relative position point of view, many common geographic features           can be found. Samara lies in southern European part of  Russia, Perm in           eastern part. Geographic coordinates are: Samara – 53°11' N, 50° 7' E and           Perm – 58°0'50\" N, 56°14'56\" E. An important common element for both           of the cities is the rivers – in Samaria the Volga River and in the case of           Perm  the  Kama  River.  Both  rivers  belong  to  important  watercourses  of           Russia either from the watery point of view or the use for river transport.           Samara is situated on the left bank of the Volga River, which flows through           the Zhiguli Mountains in its middle part and creates a specific landscape           called Samarskaya Luka. The largest left-hand infix of the Volga is the Kama           River. Moreover, on its left bank the present city of Perm is to be found.           Both  rivers  also  serve  as  a  reservoir  for  drinking  water  for  both  of  the           cities. Large reservoirs (Kujbyšev reservoir, Saratov reservoir on Volga, and           Kamska reservoir on Kama) are located in the vicinity of both cities. Only a           partial similarity can be found in comparison of the relief. Near the two                                        484","cities there is a mountain range (Zhiguli Mountains and Central Ural), but                there is a considerable variation from the vertical fragmentation point of                view.                Demographic  –  Samara  and  Perm  are  important  cities  of  the  Russian                Federation.  Their  population  rate  is  relatively  similar  and  yet  they  are                regional capital cities with a population of about 1 million. To compare the                population growth, years, which meant a significant increase or decrease                of  population  (eg  1923,  1979,  1989  or  2002),  have  been  selected.                Comparison of the population development is shown in Figure 2.                           Population                                                      Year                                     Samara (Kujbyšev)     Perm                 Fig. 2. Population development of Russian cities Samara and Perm in selected                years (from year 1897).                Source:                http://www.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_main/rosstat/ru/statistics/population/dem                ography/#                 Transports – a major development period brought about the development                of the railways. The construction of the Transsiberian railway meant the                industrial development of the city of Perm. The city became an important                stop on the railway, the last in the European part of Russia. Samara gained                its  connection  with  Moscow  thanks  to  the  construction  of  Kujbyšev                Railway. Those significant railway constructions took place in the second                half of the 19th century. Both cities also have direct road connections to                Moscow  –  from  Samara  Federal  Road  M5  and  from  Perm  International                Road E22. Air traffic is provided by an international airport near both cities                (Perm-Bol'shoye  Savino  and  Samara-Kurumoch).  However,  there  is  no                direct  air  connection  between  the  two  cities.  River  shipping  is  also                important. Both cities have their river ports located in the centre.                Political – the essential period for both cities was Soviet Union era. Both                cities were renamed as a result of a central political decision. Perm bore                the  name  Molotov  in  1940–1958  after  a  Soviet  politician  Vjačeslav                Molotov.  Samara  bore  the  name  Kujbyšev  again  in  1935–1990  after                a Soviet politician Valerian Kujbyšev. During the World War II Samara was                meant to be the surrogate capital of Russia, in the case of the prolonged                expansion of German troops to Russian territory. During the era of Soviet                                              485","Union  the  role  of  heavy  arms  industry  was  strengthened.  Permanent           aircraft  and  missile  engines  were  located  in  Perm,  and  intercontinental           ballistic missiles had also been produced until 2015. The design office and           production facility CSKB-Progress, which manufactured the first generation           R-7  and  R-7A  Soviet  intercontinental  ballistic  missiles  in  the  1950s  and           1960s,  were  located  in  Samara.  For  this  reason,  Samara  was  completely           inaccessible  to  foreigners.  The  plant  still  works  to  date  and  it  is           a manufacturer of Soyuz and Molnija carrier rockets.           Administrative  –  administrative  importance  is  related  to  the  historical           division of the Russian Empire (so-called gubernia). Perm  was a regional           seat of the Permanent Governance from 1797, Samara from 1851. In the           1920s,  a  new  administrative  division  of  the  state  into  regions,  counties,           autonomous regions, national and Soviet republics were established in the           later  Soviet  Soviet  Federal  Socialist  Federal  Republic.  After  various           administrative changes, both cities are regional centres. Perm has been the           regional centre of the Perm region, since it was established on 1 December           2005, by merging the Perm  region with the Komi-Permjack Autonomous           Circle. Samara is the regional center of the Samara region. Both cities are           internally divided into urban areas called rajones. Samara is divided into 9           dictricts, Perm into 7. Some dictricts have common names, eg Kirovsky or           Leninsky.           The  next  part  of  the  paper  seeks  to  find  common  aspects  of  the           geographic,  urban  and  political-administrative  development  of  the           morphological  structure of both selected cities,  which  show  signs of the           Hoyt (1939) sectoral model.                CITY STRUCTURE AS A CASE STUDY OF PERM AND SAMARA           In comparison with the historical development of Samara and Perm, both           cities considering either their population or development of the strategic           industry in Soviet Union, have many common elements. From urban point           of view, these are basic sectors (central, service, residential, industrial and           recreational). The individual sectors are determined by the gradual growth           of the city around the historic centre along the main communication axes,           which are called prospectuses or boulevards in Russia. Samara and Perm           are  historic  cities  founded  in  the  16th  (Samara)  or  17th  century  (Perm),           urban  rights  were  acquired  in  1688  by  Samara  and  1723  by  Perm.  The           subsequent  development  of  the  towns  is  connected  with  the  imperator           Peter I the Great, the establishment of the governor's seat (Perm in 1797,           Samara in 1851). The oldest places of the two cities are historical centers,           which from the urban point of view are in the form of preserved cultural           monuments  -  defensive  fortresses,  wooden  slums,  workers'  houses  or           open public spaces (squares, parks, etc.). The Samara Centre, in the form           of  a  separate  sector  (the  Leninsky  and  the  Samarsky  district),  forms           a comprehensive  set  of  residential,  administrative  and  service  functions           today. The main city centre (central city) is limited by the flow of Volga and           Samara  rivers.  The  mouth  of  Samara  River  in  the  Volga  in  today's           Kujishevsky  district  creates  a  peninsula  in  the  shape  of  a  gradually           emerging  triangle.  It  was  in  the  mouth  of  both  rivers  that  a  defensive                                        486","fortress was established in 1586 against the raids of the Tatars. Today the                oldest  place  in  Samara  is  commemorated  by  memorial  plaque  and                reconstructed wooden defensive tower of fortress. Further development                of  city  was  so  limited  by  watercourses  and  proceeded  further  from  the                center in only one direction (northeast) along major communication axes                in the form of magnificent boulevards. The boulevards were almost parallel                to the Volga River and originated historically from the banks of the Volga                River  on  the  terraces,  which  fulfil,  among  other  things,  a  protective                function  against  the  flood.  Today,  these  boulevards  are  visible  in  the                structure of the city (such as Moscow, Novosad, or Karl Marx), stretching                across the city from the banks of the Samara River to the border of Samara                (about  20  km).  The  boulevards  thus  form  the  basic  communication                infrastructure of the  city, presenting major transport arteries today, and                alongside them the residential and service sector are located around the                historical  centre.  The  connections  between  boulevards  are  provided  by                vertical  streets,  prospectuses.  Towards  the  banks  of  Volga  River,  these                leaflets extend in the perpendicular direction to the southern (southeast)                part of the city, today's Železnogorodsky, Soviet and Kirovsky district. The                southern and southeastern part of the city, limited by the Samara River,                forms a large industrial sector.                                      Fig. 3. Historical map of city Samara from 1903.                Source: http://old-maps.livejournal.com/26989.html                 The  industry  in  Samara  has  a  great  tradition,  the  largest  boom  in  this                sector reaches back to 1880. The city established multinational companies                operating in heavy industry (eg Kenitser Macaroni Factory). New elements                of buildings – high-rise skyscraper buildings – became a part of the city's                urban  structure.  Private  residential  estates,  office  buildings  (Trading                Houses  of  the  Subbotins,  Kurlins,  Shikhobalovs,  and  Smirnovs-founders),                business areas and the purely industrial sector began to change along the                Aurora Street and the Kirova backcloth into the commercial sector. Such                growth  was  typical  for  North  American  cities,  so  Samara  was  named                                              487","“Russian  New  Orleans”  and  “Russian  Chicago”.  Traffic  servicing  localized           businesses was been provided and in fact is still provided by the railways. It           is the southern branch of the trans-Siberian railway running to the Ural.           Further development of the southern city industry (the urban area of the           administrative part of the Soviet and Kirovskyy rayons) in the first half of           the 20th century meant a sharp increase in the city's population. It was           necessary to deal  with housing construction quickly.  The  space between           the southern part of the town and the Volha river was gradually built up           along the Aurora, Soviet Army and Kirova with construction of apartment           houses  (1950s)  in  the  socialist  style  of  worker  colonies  and  eventually           completed in the 60s and 70s with the traditional Soviet housing estates           Bezbymijnka or Severnij).           Administrative structures of the city, districts of industrialny and Kirovsky           were newly formed, and for almost 30 years they formed the periphery of           the city. The area of Kirovsky rajon is now the 2nd largest city district. Part           of  the  district  is  also  a  large-scale  forest  park,  which  separates  the           continuous  build-up  of  intravilan  from  the  suburban  sector.  Joining  the           semipermeable  sector  with  suburban  sector  is  provided  by  Moscow,           Novosad and Karl Marx boulevards. The outskirts of the city began to be           built up after 1991, first in the south-eastern part of the city, in connection           with  the  industrial  sector  of  North  and  South  cities.  In  1991–1995  the           residential  complex  Zubčaninovka  (family  and  apartment  buildings)  was           built under the railway line. In the north-eastern part of the city along the           Moscow Boulevard, the town of Mechhozavod was connected to the town.           A  large  shopping  zone  (Megakomplex  Moscow)  was  established  in  2007           between  the  old  city  and  Mehochozavod.  Extending  the  Moscow           boulevard on the outskirts of the city, the Krasnoglinsky district (nowadays                                     2           the largest urban raion – 147 km ) was administratively established. It was           named  after  nearby  village  Krasna  Glinka.  In  the  area  of  the  suburban           district  Kozelki  residential  complex  (apartment  houses  completed  with           elements of civic amenities – schools, playgrounds, Orthodox church and           Mega shopping zone) was built in 2000–2006. The shopping area was built           in 2007 including hypermarkets (IKEA, Ashan, etc.), cinemas and relaxation           zones.           In the territory between Kirovsky district boundary and the Kozelki district           the  city's  major  recreation  zone  –  Gardening  Colony  is  located.  In  the           suburban  zone  it  is  possible  to  find  typical  elements  of  residential           suburbanization. The concentration of richer populations is typical for the           Ozerki  district,  which  meets  elements  of  typical  gated  community  zone.           After that, the area passes into free  countryside, and the administrative           borders  of  the  city  of  Samara  end  here.  There  are  also  independent           municipalities Novosemenko, Petra Dubrava, etc. The development of the           town does not only occur in the northeastern part of the town, but early in           the 1950s the area of marginal parts south of the historical center on the           left  bank  of  Samara  River  expanded.  In  Kujbyšev  a  new  part  Sočgorod           district was created, which is currently a rapidly growing suburban part of           the city. It is possible to see here a mix of old family houses and housing           estates built in 1990s. Since it is the main connection road south to Uralsk           and Novokujbyševsk, there are also lucrative building sites. In the intravilan           of city many public spaces are located (in the historical center Revolution                                        488","or Kujbyšev square); large parks (botanical parks, Maxim Gorky Park, Jurij                Gagarin  Park,  etc.)  in  the  residential  areas  of  Kirovsky,  Oktobrjsky  and                Sovetsky district. And, of course, sports grounds – stadiums, sports halls,                etc., all that must be a necessary part of a modern city.                Unlike Samara, Perm has a great advantage in the gradual expansion of the                city outside the central historic center. Comparing the  size, the area of                                     2                                                                         2                Perm is bigger (799.68 km ). Samara occupies an area of only 466 km . The                limiting element in Perm is only the natural flow of Kama River in the west                part  of  the  city.  The  eastern  part  extends  to  a  smaller  terrace,  which                gradually passes in foothills of Middle Urals. Along the left bank of Kama                there was a city that could easily be divided into two parts – Perm I and                Perm II. This division is also evident from the location of railway stations.                Perm is an important transport hub on the Trans-Siberian railway and the                Ural  regional  railways.  The  base  of  the  city  of  Perm  forms  the                communication axis (Ekaterinburg Boulevard) in the north-south direction                along  Kama  River,  which  passes  to  the  Solikamsky  boulevard  in  the                northern  part  of  the  city.  Parallel  with  this  street  there  are  also                “supplementary”  streets  (such  as  Lenin,  Pushkin,  Petropavlovska  streets                etc.)  along  which  the  service  sector  is  concentrated  (shops,  offices  etc.                Vertically  on  these  streets  from  Kama  River  prospectuses  (Popova,                Komsomolská etc.) are situated. The ground base of the central city thus                creates a chessboard network of boulevards and prospectuses. The central                administrative city belongs to the Leninsky district.                                             Fig. 4. Historical map of city Perm and Yagoshikha settlement from 1898.                Source: https://kids.kiddle.co/Perm                                               489","The administrative division consists of 7 districts. Compared with Samara,           Perm  is  located  on  the  second  (right)  bank  of  Kama  River.  On  the  right           bank  of  Kama  River  there  is  the  whole  territory  of  Kirovsky,  Leninski           district,  part  of  Kamska  dolina,  Studgorodok,  part  of  Verkniy  Kurij  in           Motovilikhinsky  district,  Zaozerje  Ordzhonikidze  and  Ganva.  Parts  of  the           city  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  in  “suburban”  sector  have  a  rural           character. A part of Kamska Valley is considered to be a residential area.           The advantage is location on the Kama bank with views of the central part           of the city. On the other side of this city part, there is an extensive forest           park, which later passes into the forest. The main recreational area in the           city  is  the  Central  Park  of  Culture  and  Rest  on  the  Dzerzhinsky  and           Industrialny district. The central district is connected with the other bank           of the river by two bridges (Kommunalny bridge and the railway bridge).           Another  possibility  to  cross  the  river  is  in  Kirovsky  (in  the  south)  and           Ordzhonikidevsky (in the north) district. The largest area according to the                                               2           area is Ordzhonikidevsky district (178,5 km ) in the northern part of the           city. It is a marginal district in a suburban city comprised of several smaller           geographically  separated  parts  (Golovanovo,  Levšino,  etc.).  The  area  of           individual  (family  houses)  prevails  here.  Most  residential  buildings  are           located in the close proximity of the central city (Lenisky, Motovilikhinsky           or Sverdlovsky district).           The  industrial  sector  of  Perm  consists  3  separate  sectors,  located  in  the           Motovilikhinsky, Dzerzhinsky and Sverdlovsky district. The largest areas are           stretched along the banks of the Kama River, including the Krasnij Oktojbri,           Zaimka and Vyška parts. North from the central part of the city air, ship           and  chemical  plants  and  factories  are  to  be  found.  A  major  industrial           enterprise  of  Perm  is  Motovilikha  faktory,  a  metallurgical  and  military           industrial plant producing aircraft and rocket engines since 1736. From the           central  city  it  is  3  km  away.  The  space  between  the  central  city  and           industrial sector is made up of workers' wooden houses from the end of           19th  century  (Slavijnova  Street),  which  are  gradually  absorbed  by  more           modern  housing  and  administrative  buildings.  In  the  60's  of  the             th           20  century a new Vyshka I and Vyshka II settlements in the area along the           “northern”  industrial  zone  were  built.  The  population  (almost           180 thousand) is among the largest in the city. However, by the number of           inhabitants,  the  Sverdlovsky  district  (219  115  inhabitants  to  1st  January           2017) is the largest city. Housing estates such as Krochaleva, Jubilejski or           Vladimirski) are located there.           The central city of Perm has a concentric character. Due to a rather large           area and possibilities of expansion in the suburban zone, new development           projects in city parts are being introduced. These are administrative parts           of the city, but have a purely rural character. From the city center they are           geographically  separated  (even  in  the  order  of  tens  of  kilometres)  and           form  separate  city  quarters.  These  are  units  on  the  right  bank  of  Kama           River (eg Khimiki, Nalimicha, Kirova, Zaozerje, etc.), where availability and           connection with the center is limited to only 3 bridges. In the northern part           of  the  city,  where  the  administrative  border  can  be  found,  Kamska           reservoir is located, stretching over a total length of 272 km, to the cities of           Bezerinki and Solikamsk.                                        490","The southern part of the city gradually turns into a rural area and the area                begins to grow together with surrounding villages.                                   SUMMARY AND CONSLUSION                Comparison of the urban development of both cities (Perm and Samara)                was carried out based on a field survey of the territory, an analysis of map                data  and  available  literature.  Looking  at  satellite  images  of  both  cities,                common  elements  can  be  found  in  the  form  of  rivers,  similar  relative                altitude  and  the  character  of  buildings.  From  a  personal  perspective,                Samara  is  a  nicer  city  than  Perm  based  on  historical  foundations.  While                Perm  is  a  modern  cosmopolitan  city  whose  “historical”  foundations  are                industrial  traditions.  Common  transport,  political  and  administrative                aspects of the city development demonstrate the importance of both cities                within structure of the Russian Federation. Urban development during the                era of Soviet Union has created new elements in the structure of the city –                housing  construction  of  housing  estates,  construction  of  new                administrative  buildings  (administrative,  regional/ministerial  sites,  etc.).                The ground plan of both cities is a chessboard street network composed of                main  communication  axes  (backcloth/  boulevards).  The  main  feature  of                both cities is a visible breakdown into functional sectors according to the                Hoyt model typical for American cities. According to Hoyt (1939), sectors                are  concentrated  from  the  historic  centre  of  the  city  along  major                communication  axes.  Along  these,  important  industrial,  industrial  and                partly residential areas of the city are concentrated.                                           REFERENCES                AFONTSEV,  S.,  KESSLER,  G.,  MARKEVICH,  A.,  TYAZHEL’NIKOVA,  V.  and                VALETOV, T. Urban Households in Russia and the Soviet Union, 1900-2000.                Size,  Structure  and  Composition.  IISH-RESEARCH  PAPER  44.  Amsterdam,                2005.                ANDRIENKO, Y. 1997. “Case Study of Kazan”. The New Economics School,                Moscow. Mimeo, 1997.                BAAR, V. Národy na prahu 21. století – Emancipace nebo nacionalismus? 2.                vyd.  Ostravská  univerzita  (Ostrava):  Tilia,  Šenov,  2002.  415  s.  ISBN  80-                86101-66-5.                BAAR,  V.  Decentralizační  a  dezintegrační  procesy  v  Ruské  federaci  v 90.                letech minulého století. 1.vyd. Ostrava: Ostravská univerzita, 2005. 231 s.                ISBN 80-7368-141-2.                BAAR,  V.  Postsovětský  prostor  po  dvaceti  letech. Geografické  rozhledy.                2010, roč. 19, s. 9-10. ISSN 1210-3004.                BOUZAROVSKI, S., SÝKORA, L. and Matoušek, R. Locked-in post-socialism:                rolling  path  dependencies  in  Liberec’s  district  heating  system,  Eurasian                Geogr. and Economics. 2016, 57, 4-5, 624-642.                HILL, F. and GADDY, C.  The Siberian  Curse:  How  Communist  Planners  Left                Russia out in the Cold, Washington: The Brookings Institution, 2003.                                              491","HOYT, H. 1939: The structure and growth of residential neighborhoods in           American  cities.  Washington,  DC:  Federal  Housing  Administration.           Published In Adams John S. Progress in human Geography 29. 2005, 3, pp.           321–325.           KOLOMAK, E. Assessment of the urbanization impact on economic growth           in Russia. Regional research RUSSIA, 2012, VOL. 2, NO. 4, PP. 292–299.           KRÁLOVÁ, I. Urbanistická a funkční struktura města Plzně. In Matušková,           Alena – Novotná, Marie (edd.), Geografie města  Plzně, Plzeň 2007. ISBN           978-80-7043-558-8. Plzeň: Západočeská univerzita v Plzni, 2007.           KUBEŠ,  J. a  kol.  Urbánní  geografie  Českých  Budějovic  a  Českobudějovické           aglomerace  I.  Vydal:  Ústav  vedy  a  výskumu  Univerzity  Mateja  Bela           v Banskej Bystrici, 2009. 166 s. + přílohy. ISBN: 978-80-8083-733-4.           KUBEŠ,  J. a  kol.  Urbánní  geografie  Českých  Budějovic  a  Českobudějovické           aglomerace  II.  Vydal:  Ústav  vedy  a  výskumu  Univerzity  Mateja  Bela           v Banskej Bystrici, 2009. 189 s. ISBN: 978-80-8083-734-1.           LAPPO, G. M. and POLYAN, P. M. Urbanization in Russia by the End of XX           Century, Mir Rossii, 1999, no. 4, pp. 35–47.           Lehmann,  S.  G.  and  Ruble,  B.  A.  From  'Soviet'  to  'European'  Yaroslavl:           Changing  neighbourhood  structure  in  post-soviet  Russian  cities.  Urban           Studies, 1997, Vol. 34, No. 7, pp. 1085-1107.           https://doi.org/10.1080/0042098975745           MOLODIKOVA, I. and MAKHROVA, A. Urbanization patterns in Russia in the           post-Soviet era. In Stalinov, Kiril. The Post-Socialist City, Springer 2007, pp           53-70.           MULÍČEK,  O., OSMAN,  R.  a SEIDENGLANZ,  D.  Time-space  Rhythms  of  the           City – The Industrial and Post-industrial Brno. Environment and Planning A,           SAGE,   2016,    roč. 48,   č. 1,   s. 115-131.   ISSN 0308-518X.           https://doi.org/10.1177/0308518X15594809.           OUŘEDNÍČEK, M. a TEMELOVÁ, J. eds. Sociální proměny pražských čtvrtí.           Academia, Praha, 2012. ISBN: 978-80-200-2064-2.           OUŘEDNÍČEK, M. a SÝKORA, L. Současné změny v rozmístění obyvatelstva a           v sociálně prostorové struktuře Prahy. Demografie. 2002, 44, č. 4, str. 270-           272. ISSN 0011-8265.           POLYAN, P. M. and SELIVANOVA, T. I. Metropolitan areas of Russia and the           new  trends  of  their  network  (1989-2002).  RAS  Bulletin  (Izvestia  RAN),           Geography series. 2007. № 5. pp. 18-26.           SKOKAN, L. Rusko. Geografický přehled. 1.vyd. Ústí nad Labem: Univerzita           J. E. Purkyně, 2005. 215 s. ISBN 80-7044-647-1.           STANILOV, K. and SÝKORA, L. Planning, markets and patterns of residential           growth in post-socialist metropolitan Prague. Journal of Architectural and           Planning Research. 2012, 29 (4), 278-291.           SÝKORA, L. a MULÍČEK, O. Prague: Urban Growth and Regional Sprawl. In:           Stanilov, K. and Sýkora, L., eds, 2014, Confronting Suburbanization: Urban           Decentralization in Postsocialist Central and Eastern Europe, pp. 133-162.           Studies in Urban and Social Change, Wiley-Blackwell.                                         492","SÝKORA,  L.  and  STANILOV,  K.  The  Challenge  of  Post-socialist                Suburbanization.  In:  Stanilov,  K.  and  Sýkora,  L.,  eds,  2014,  Confronting                Suburbanization:  Urban  Decentralization  in  Postsocialist  Central  and                Eastern  Europe,  pp.  1-32.  Studies  in  Urban  and  Social  Change,  Wiley-                Blackwell.                SÝKORA, L. Post-Socialist Cities. In: Kitchin, R., Thrift, N, eds, International                Encyclopedia of Human Geography. 2009, Volume 8, pp. 387-395. Oxford,                Elsevier.                SÝKORA, L. Revolutionary change, evolutionary adaptation and new path                dependencies:  socialism,  capitalism  and  transformations  in  urban  spatial                organizations. In: Strubelt, W., Gorzelak, G., eds, City and Region. Papers in                Honour  of  Jiří  Musil,  2008,  p.  283-295.  Budrich  UniPress,  Leverkusen                Opladen.                SÝKORA, L. Výzvy postsocialistického města. Era. 2007, 21, č. 2, s. 54-57.                VOLCHKOVA,  N.  “Case  Study  of  Samara”.  The  New  Economics  School,                Moscow. Mimeo, 1997.                YAKOVLEVA,  N.  1998.  “Case  Study  of  Tver”.  The  New  Economics  School,                Moscow. Mimeo, 1998.                                             Shrnutí                Ruská federace po rozpadu Sovětského svazu v roce 1991 prošla mnohými                politickými, ekonomickými, socio-kulturními i environmentálními změnami.                Tyto  změny  se  mj.  odrážejí  i  ve  vzhledu  ruských  měst.  Příspěvek  přináší                srovnání  dvou  měst  nacházejících  se  v  evropské  části  Ruské  federace  –                Permu a Samary. Obě města mají mnoho společných aspektů historického                vývoje.  Vlastní  srovnání  je  provedeno  podle  sektorového  modelu  podle                Hoyta  (1939)  na  ukázce  vývoje  obytných,  průmyslových  a  volnočasových                funkcí.  Hlavním  cílem  je  dokázat  na  společný  vývoj  obou  měst,  jejichž                největší rozkvět byl za éry Sovětského svazu.                Společné  dopravní,  politické  a  administrativní  aspekty  vývoje  města                dokládají  důležitost  obou  měst  v rámci  sídlení  struktury  Ruské  federace.                Urbanistický  vývoj  během  éry  Sovětského  svazu  zapříčinil  ve  struktuře                města  výskyt  nových  prvků  –  bytové  výstavby  sídlištního  typu,  výstavba                nových  administrativních  budov  (sídla  administrativy,  kraje/oblasti,                ministerské  budovy  apod.).  Půdorysný  základ  obou  měst  tvoří                šachovnicová   uliční   síť   složená   z hlavních   komunikačních   os                (prospektů/bulvárů).  Hlavním  rysem  obou  měst  je  viditelné  členění  na                funkční  sektory  podle  Hoytova  modelu  typického  pro  americká  města.                Podle  Hoyta  (1939)  jsou  sektory  (výseče)  koncentrovány  od  historického                středu  města  podél  hlavních  komunikačních  os.  Podél  nich  jsou                koncentrovány významné obslužné, průmyslové a částečně obytné sektory                města.                                                   493","NITRA WINE REGION – THE MOST DIVERSE WINE REGION IN                                     SLOVAKIA                               Jana Némethová, Marek Civáň              Department of Geography and Regional Development, Faculty of Natural            Sciences, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Trieda A. Hlinku 1,                                 949 74 Nitra, Slovakia                                 jnemethova@ukf.sk            Abstract: Viniculture and wine-making belong to the traditional production           sectors  in  Slovakia.  Their  development  has  been  closely  associated  with           the economic and cultural progress in the particular regions along with the           ecological figuration of landscape. In the first part, the paper deals with the           whole Slovak wine area that does not represent the most important one           from the worldwide point of view. Its internal structure is presented along           with the particular wine regions and their districts. There are pointed out           natural conditions determining the variety of grape in Slovakia. The core           part of the paper pays attention to the Nitra wine region, although it is not           the most significant one within the Slovak wine area, but it belongs to the           most  perspective  areas  due  to  its  development  potential  in  wine           production  and  wine  tourism.  Viniculture  has  a  strong  tradition  there;           hence it represents a contribution to the development of rural economy.           Key  words:  Slovak  wine  area,  viniculture  region,  varietal  structure,  wine           routes, wine tourism                                  1 INTRODUCTION           Slovak natural conditions predestine our terroir especially to cultivation of           white varieties of grape vine, but the remarkable notes are registered also           within  the  red  varieties.  Slovak  viniculture  and  its  wines  have  been           increasingly promoting at international events and markets. Right because           of this tendency, there comes up a demand for monitoring of wine regions           and their districts in order to reach the production of grape of the highest           quality (Karlík, Charvát, 2014). Slovakia got 11 gold and 37 silver medals at                rd           the 23  Vinalies Internationales Competition 2017 that was held in Paris,           France.  Even  214  Slovak  wines  took  part  in  the  aforementioned  event           (Denník Pravda, 2017), thus  Slovakia confirmed an originality of national           wines within the strong global competition.           Before  2009,  viniculture  in  Slovakia  was  mainly  affected  by  German           viniculture  school  that  put  emphasis  on  the  variety  of  grape  vine.  That           situation  changed  in  2009  through  the  reform  of  law  and  therefore  the           Slovak viniculture switched to French system, also called “terroir school”,           which  pays  attention  to  the  origin  of  grape  vine  that  is  reflected  in  the           label on bottle and it points out a relation of wine to its region. Since 1989,                                        494","Slovakia has undergone many structural changes within the scope of large-                area  production  of  grape  vine.  Viniculture  and  wine-making  has  rarely                remained  as  a  stabile  component  of  large  agricultural  enterprises.  The                period of transformation was typical by separation of wine-making apart                from the large-scale production, while new smaller entities with legal form                were usually introduced. The conditions for cultivation of grape vine along                with the wine-making sector in Slovakia – after its accessing to the EU – are                specified in the Act No 182/2005 on viniculture and wine-making, which                took  into  a  consideration  quality  and  quantity  of  viticulture  and  wine-                making production that has  been required by current worldwide trends.                These  changes  were  stipulated  within  its  novelization  in  the  Act  No.                238/2007 as well as in the EU Council Regulation No 479/2008 Coll. on the                common  organisation  of  the  market  in  wine,  which  is  included  in  the                Common Agricultural Policy of the EU. Based on that, the Ordinance of the                Government of the Slovak Republic No. 341/2008 Coll. on the conditions                for granting aid for the permanent cessation of planting of vineyards was                released.  It  was  supported  by  the  Ordinance  of  the  Government  of  the                Slovak Republic No. 340/2008 Coll. on the conditions for granting aid for                the common organisation of wine market (Habán et al., 2010). Economy of                production  in  viniculture  and  wine-making  sector  has  undergone  many                development stages, which foreshadowed a switchover from quantitative                to qualitative production (Dougherty, 2003, Jones, 2003). Altogether, those                facts lead to the efforts of particular wine-making enterprises in Slovakia to                the  continuous  improvement  of  production  technology  in  order  to  offer                high  quality  products  at  national  market,  which  would  direct  Slovak                customers  to  buy  and  consume  just  Slovak  products  (Korgó,  Zentková,                2010).  The  specific  features  of  viniculture  and  wine-making  in  the                particular Slovak regions were the matter of studies by geographers, such                as  Spišiak  (2002),  who  was  concentrated  on  viniculture  in  the  Little                Carpathian  wine  region;  Spišiak  (2010)  was  focused  on  the  Tokaj  wine                region, while Némethová (2013) paid attention to the Nitra wine region.                The mentioned issues were also explored abroad, for example in Croatia,                where some studies were published by Smrkulj and Njavro (2016).                                      2 METHODS AND DATA                The  aim  of  the  paper  is  to  introduce  the  specific  features  of  the  Slovak                wine area with the closer focus on the Nitra wine region, due to its high                diversity in natural conditions amongst the all regions in Slovakia, while the                current  wine  routes  may  help  sustain  the  cultivation  and  processing  of                grape vine not only in the target region, but in the Slovakia as a whole.                Wine tourism – as a form of rural tourism and agritourism – is becoming                a suitable  additional  activity  for  cultivators  of  grape  and  wine-makers  in                the  target  area.  The  participants  of  tourism  usually  travel  through                particular  municipalities  of  such  wine  region  and  they  get  in  touch  with                countryside and may contribute to its further development.                The paper is based on the data analysis coming from the various sources,                such as the Situation and Outlook Reports on grape vine by the National                Agricultural  and  Food  Centre  in  Slovakia,  Central  Control  and  Testing                Institute in Agriculture in Slovakia along with the field survey realized in                                              495","2016.  The  secondary  source  of  data  was  represented  by  the  analysis  of           information  from  the  scientific  and  research  literature  focused  on  the           selected topic and issues. In order to come up with relevant comparisons           and results, there were used standard research methods and techniques           based  on  the  comparative  analysis  of  statistical  data  as  well  as  on  the           cartographic depiction.                                 3 SLOVAK WINE AREA           The gradual interannual decrease of vineyards was registered in Slovakia           during the period of transformation of agriculture in the 90’s. In 1998, the           total  area  of  vineyards  reached  22,809  ha,  while  the  bearing  vineyards           were recorded within the area of 19,518 ha. The total area of vineyards fell           down  by  more  than  a  half  (12,009  ha)  till  the  end  of  2016.  The  size  of           bearing  vineyards  was  reduced  by  10,646  ha  (tab.  1).  In  the  year  of           Slovakia’s accession to the EU, there were 12,248 ha of bearing vineyards,           whilst their area decreased by 27.6% compared to 2016. In the mentioned           year,  just  10,800  ha  of  vineyards  were  registered  in  Slovakia  (thence           8,872 ha of bearing ones that represents 82.1% of the total vineyards). The           positive  fact  is  that,  their  share  slowly  raised  from  77.4%  in  2004.  Data           focusing on the bearing vineyards are concerned about the vineyards older           than 4 years (tab. 1).           Tab. 1: Structure of vineyard areas in Slovakia [ha]            Year       Total area of     Non-bearing    Bearing vineyards                        vineyards         vineyards            1998         22,809            3,291             19,518            2000         22,227            4,696             17,531            2003         17,551            4,479             13,072            2004         15,831            3,583             12,248            2005         16,772            3,343             13,429            2006         16,262            4,118             12,145            2007         15,903            4,059             11,844            2008         15,722            5,742             9,980            2009         14,876            5,282             9,594            2010         14,475            5,249             9,225            2011         13,954            3,727             10,226            2012         12,616            2,003             10,612            2013         11,773            1,432             10,341            2014         11,074            2,135             8,939            2015         11,159            2,286             8,873            2016         10,800            1,928             8,872           Decline       -31.8%            -46.2%            -27.6%           Source: Šajbidorová, 2007, 2011, 2012, Meravá, 2016, 2017           Note: Decline between the year 2016 and 2004 [%]            In 1998, the harvest of grape in Slovak Republic reached 75,592 tons, while           the yield was at the level of 3.95 ton per hectare. Till 2016, the production           of grape declined to 37,832 tons. On the other hand, there is a positive           finding that the yield increased to 4.34 t/ha (tab. 2). Within the comparison                                        496","of the years 2016 and 2004, there is recorded a decrease not only in the                total  area  of  bearing  vineyards  (-27.4%),  but  also  in  the  production                (-33.1%) and yield (-7.9%). From the viewpoint of the structure of grape,                the vast majority (99.0%) was represented by must varieties. In 2016, they                covered  the  area  of  8,872  ha  (96.7%),  while  table  grapes  occupied  just                182 ha  (2%)  and  the  rest  (1.3%)  consisted  of  hybrids  of  the  all  varieties                (Meravá, 2017).                Tab. 2: Development of harvest areas of bearing vineyards, their production                and yield in Slovakia                  Year       Area [ha]        Production [t]     Yield [t/ha]                  1998        19,518            75,592              3.95                  2000        17,531            61,092              3.50                  2004        12,003            56,537              4.71                  2005        13,130            54,103              4.12                  2008        9,650             51,617              5.35                  2010        8,152             21,120              2.59                  2011        9,930             49,015              4.94                  2012        10,492            52,209              4.98                  2013        10,039            53,227              5.30                  2014        8,757             38,450              4.40                  2015        8,803             50,158              5.70                  2016        8,712             37,832              4.34                 Decline      -27.4              -33.1              -7.9                Source: Šajbidorová, 2007, 2011, 2012, Meravá, 2016, 2017                Note: Decline between the year 2016 and 2004 [%]                 A consumption of wine in Slovakia has gradually decreased, especially due                to  the  notably  subsidized  wines  that  come  mostly  from  the  Southern                Europe states. In 2015, the total consumption reached 80,210 litres, while                the  consumption  per  capita  was  at  the  level  of  14.8  l,  representing  a                decline  in  comparison  with  2014  (18.6  l)  (Meravá,  2017).  Production  of                wine from grape grown in Slovakia is significantly lower than the total level                of consumption. During the last 10 years, Slovak production has covered                approximately  50%  of  national  demand  for  wine.  The  volume  of  annual                production  has  been  changing  because  of  climate  conditions  during  the                particular  year.  Slovakia  is  not  a  self-sufficient  country  within  the  wine                production,  thus  the  import  is  focused  on  the  cheaper  and  poor-quality                wines from abroad. The field of viniculture is undergoing many qualitative                changes  not  only  in  Slovakia,  but  also  in  the  Czech  Republic.  There  are                registered changes in consumption habits of population, while the demand                for  high-quality  wines  especially  from  domestic  provenance  is  on  the                increase. Naturally, that cannot be successfully done without a thorough                care of vineyards during the whole vegetation period (Svobodová, Věžník,                Král, 2014).                Import  of  wines,  musts  and  juice  to  Slovakia  reached  the  highest  value                (1,037 thousand of hectolitres) in 2014/2015 (tab. 3). On the other side,                Slovakia has only a minor position within the international export of wines                or musts. In the period 2002 – 2017, average volume of export reached                just  140,000  hectolitres  per  year.  Slovakia  is  typical  for  import  of  table                                              497","grape wines that prevailed over the must wines. Generally, import of table           grape into Slovakia has been about 13,000 tons (annually) during the last           five  years.  Within  the  foreign  trade  with  wine  and  grape,  Slovakia  has           registered a negative balance in the long-term period. The most significant           importers of table grape are Italy and Germany, while Hungary has a major           position in the import of must. Slovakia exports a must grape mostly to the           Czech Republic and table grape to Hungary. Within the comparison with           neighbouring  countries  in  the  wine  year  2014/2015,  Slovakia  produced           294,000 hectolitres of wine, while Czech Republic 536,000 hectolitres and           Hungary even 2,773,000 hectolitres of wine (Meravá, 2017).           Tab. 3: Balance of sources of wine and its consumption in Slovakia             Season        A            B             C           D            2002/03       270          340           629         129            2003/04       128          515           583          72            2004/05       226          409           554          99            2005/06       355          302           551         115            2006/07       418          328           602         128            2007/08       432          358           594         129            2008/09       374          433           638          94            2009/10       440          346           666         128            2010/11       709          207           757          91            2011/12       663          369           716         168            2012/13       580          325           694         168            2013/14       902          373           731         201            2014/15      1,037         294          1,010        180            2015/16       740          376           802         209            2016/17       576          310           *638        184             Change      154.8         -24.2         15.2        85.9           Source: Šajbidorová, 2007, 2011, 2012, Meravá, 2016, 2017           Explanatory  notes:  A  –  Import  of  wines,  must  and  juice;  B  –  Production  of  wine  from           national  grape;  C  –  National  consumption  of  wine;  D  –  Export  of  wines  and  musts           [thousands of hl]           Notes: Change between the season 2016/2017 and 2004/2005 [%]; * – estimated            Wine regions in Slovakia belong to the “B” zone according to the European           regionalisation.  Summarily,  in  Slovakia  there  are  6  wine  regions  that           consist of 40 districts located in 603 municipalities (Fig. 1).                                                       498","Fig. 1. Slovak wine area including particular regions and districts.                Source: Viticultural Regions, Landscape Atlas of the Slovak Republic, 2002                 The Southern Slovakian wine region is the largest Slovak wine region, since                it occupies 5,031 ha (28.6% of the all regions). The second one is the Little                Carpathian wine region that covers 5,004 ha (28.4%) (data valid in 2016).                The  Nitra  wine  region,  the  target  area,  consists  of  vineyards,  which                summarily cover 3,182 hectares (18.1%), the Central Slovakian wine region                occupies the area of 2,163 ha (12.3%), while the Eastern Slovakian wine                region covers just 1,132 ha (6.4%) and the smallest one is the Tokaj wine                region consisting of 1,086 hectares (6.2%) (Meravá, 2016).  Almost 80% of                vineyards  are  located  in  the  Western  Slovakia,  13%  are  situated  in  the                central  part  of  the  country  and  the  rest  (7%)  is  located  on  the  east.  In                accordance with Šima (2006), Slovakia has a rich tradition in viticulture and                winery,  especially  in  areas  located  on  south,  where  the  most  traditional                regions  are  situated.  Each  of  the  wine  regions  has  its  own  natural                conditions that may have a significant influence on the production of grape                as well as the quality of wine. Slovak wine regions are located on (or very                close  to)  the  northern  borderline  of  cultivation  of  grape  vine  in  Europe.                Long-term natural conditions do not enable to reach harvests and yields                comparable with the other regions in southern parts of Europe with higher                average temperatures and precipitation. A geological substrate of Slovak                wine regions is very different. On the one hand there are crystalline rocks,                limestones,  volcanic  rocks,  but  fluvial  or  eolian  sediments  on  the  other                hand. The mentioned diversity is underlined by high level of topo-climatic                variability that creates a large potential in terms of typicalness of Slovak                wines  (Slovenská  agentúra  pre  cestovný  ruch,  2015).  The  optimal                combination  of  physical-geographical  elements  of  landscape  with                                              499","consequential application to the conditions of viticulture represents terroir           of Slovak wines. In Slovakia, the cultivation of must varieties prevails over           the  table  ones.  Currently,  there  are  approximately  37  varieties  of  grape           vine  of  which  are  produced  high  quality  wines.  In  Slovakia,  there  are           cultivated varieties typical for the whole region of Central Europe, such as           Welschriesling  (Rizling  vlasšský),  Riesling  Weiss  (Rizling  rýnsky),  Müller           Thurgau,  Veltliner  Gruen,  Chardonnay,  Pinot  blanc,  noir,  gris,  Sauvignon           and  Traminer  Rot.  From  the  red  must  varieties,  in  Slovakia  are  mostly           known   Blaufrauenkisch   (Frankovka   modrá),   Saint   Laurent           (Svätovavrinecké), while planting of  some  varieties (Cabernet Sauvignon,           Alibernet,  Portugeiser  blau  (Modrý  Portugal)  or  André)  increased  during           the  last  years.  In  Slovakia,  there  are  cultivated  varieties  typical  for  the           whole  Central  Europe,  such  as  Welschriesling,  Riesling  Weiss,  Müller           Thurgau  or  Veltliner  Gruen.  Their  quality  is  comparable  with  the  wines           coming from neighbouring countries – Austria, Czech Republic or Hungary.           From the viewpoint of varietal composition of grapevine in Slovakia (valid           in 2016), the most widespread variety is Veltliner Gruen (15.1%) followed           by Welschriesling (13.3%), Blaufrauenkisch (9.1%) Müller Thurgau (6.7%),           Saint  Laurent  (6.7%)  and  Riesling  Weiss  (5.4%).  The  rest  (43.7%)  is           represented  by  other  varieties  (Ústredný  kontrolný  a  skúšobný  ústav           poľnohospodársky, 2017). The most typical Tokaj varieties include Furmint,           Harslevelue  (Lipovina)  and  also  a  new  Zeta.  The  significant  Slovak           contribution  to  international  originality  of  wine  is  represented  by  newly           cultivated  varieties  that  were  created  especially  because  of  Slovak           geographical  conditions.  The  most  favourite  white  varieties  are  Devín,           Noria,  Milia,  while  the  red  ones  are  represented  by  Dunaj,  Hron,  Nitria,           Rudava,  Váh  and  Rosa  (Odrody  pestované  na  Slovensku,  2017).  A  wide           range  and  offer  of  foreign  wines  along  with  the  increased  demand  of           Slovak  customers  for  high  quality  wines  exert  a  pressure  in  order  to           improve the level of quality of grapevine cultivation and its processing.                                4 NITRA WINE REGION           It is assumed that the foundation of the Nitra wine region was formed by                                                                       th           Benedictine monks of Zobor Abbey dedicated to Hippolytus of Rome in 9           century.  From  the  administrative  point  of  view,  the  target  territory  is           situated  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Nitra  Self-Governing  Region  and           a small  part  of  the  Trnava  Self-Governing  Region  (Fig.  1).  Vineyards  are           cultivated  along  the  hillsides  of  Považský  Inovec  and  Tribeč  and  also  by           loessal uplands of the Danubian Lowland (Podunajská nížina). These soils           are known for high proportion of skeleton and special mineral basis, what           together create a great assumption for production of wines typical for their           variety  and  high  quality.  The  majority  of  vineyards  are  oriented  on  the           southern, respectively south-eastern side that ensures sufficient amount of           sunshine  throughout  the  whole  year.  Grapevine  is  usually  cultivated  on           chernozems  or  luvisols.  Within  the  soil  texture,  the  most  often  soils  are           loamy soils (almost 60%), while the share of other soils (especially sandy or           clayey) is significantly lower. Vineyards are usually located at the landscape           from 100 to 350 m a.s.l. Inclination of relief reaches values up to 15°. The           total amount of precipitation during a vegetative period usually achieves                                        500","570  mm,  while  the  average  temperature  gets  approximately  18°C.  The                length of sunshine during a vegetative period reaches 3,200 hrs. Districts                belonging to the Nitra wine region are classified into B1 or B2 category.                The total area of official registered vineyards was 4,029 ha (in 2004), what                represented  19.1%  share  of  the  all  registered  vineyards  in  Slovakia.  In                2015,  there  are  registered  vineyards  covering  just  3,391  ha  that  make                18.4% share of all registered Slovak vineyards (18,437 ha). The four places                known  for  rich  wine-making  tradition  are  located  here  –  Nitra,  Vráble,                Sereď  and  Topoľčianky.  The  Nitra  wine  region  includes  9  wine  districts                formed  by  158  wine  municipalities.  In  terms  of  varieties,  the  majority                (74.7%) is represented by white varieties and the rest (25.3%) belongs to                the  red  ones.  Among  the  white  must  varieties,  there  are  much  known                Welschriesling,  Riesling  Weiss,  Traminer  Rot,  Pinot  blanc  and  gris,                Chardonnay,  Sauvignon,  while  in  the  less  extent  Veltiner  Gruen,  Müller                Thurgau.  From  the  red  varieties,  the  most  favourite  ones  are  Cabernet                Sauvignon, Blaufrauenkisch, Saint Laurent or Pinot noir. Other less known                varieties are on the increase of popularity, such as Devín, Dunaj and Hron.                The Nitra wine region is known for some significant producers of wine or                cultivators of grapevine. From the Nitra wine district, there are examples                represented by VÍNO Nitra, Agricultural Cooperatives in  Mojmírovce and                Ivanka pri Nitre, Ing. Peter Belan from Mojmírovce, Ladislav Trnovec from                Nitra.  From  the  Radošina  wine  district,  well  known  is  the  Agricultural                Cooperative Radošinka in Veľké Ripňany, followed by Pivnica Radošina and                SHR VÍNO Viliam Uhlár in Tesáre. From the Šintava wine district, there are                producers such as HUBERT J. E. in Sereď, Vinidi located in the municipality                of  Báb,  Šintavan  from  Šintava,  TERRA  WYLAK  from  Veľké  Zálužie  or  Ing.                Milan Chudý, the owner of VÍNNA PIVNICA in Vinohrady nad Váhom. In the                Vráble  wine  district,  there  is  a  wine-producing  company  TAJNÁ  in  the                municipality of the same name, VINANZA in Vráble, TRITICUM that is also                from the small town Vráble, AGROVINOL from the municipality of Vinodol,                AGROPEST  in  Veľký  Cetín  and  the  wine-maker  Marián  Čajkovič  from                Vráble.  The  Tekov  wine  district  is  known  thanks  to  the  company  Víno                Levice located in the Levice town, Muráni Víno Čajkov in the municipality                of Čajkov, Frtus Winery in Levice and the wine-maker Branislav Nichta –                VÍNO NICHTA from Čajkov. The Žitava wine district is represented by Víno                VELKEER  1113  situated  in  the  municipality  of  Veľký  Kýr  or  Agricultural                Cooperative  in  Dolný  Ohaj.  There  is  just  one  significant  producer  in  the                Želiezovce wine district that is called BIOCENTRUM from Želiezovce (field                survey,  2016).  According  to  the  currently  unfavourable  situation  of                viticulture  and  wine-making,  the  result  is  that  the  number  of  small                producers in various parts of Slovakia is on the decrease, especially due to                a low ratio of profitability of production, difficulties with sale of the final                production  and  also  because  of  a  high  pressure  coming  from  imported                cheap wines. A low rate of the saleability of final products and relatively                hard conditions to succeed at the market, usually force small producers to                make  wines  of  such  quality  that  is  competitive  with  various  larger                companies from Slovakia as well as foreign producers. At least they want                to get similar parameters of wine, which are typical for many international                producers,  mostly  because  of  continual  technological  progress  (Korgó,                Zentková, 2010). Wines produced in the Nitra wine region are sold not only                                              501","at  specialized  shops,  but  also  at  supermarkets  throughout  the  whole           country. Producers of wine have their irreplaceable position in the field of           wine  tourism  and  promotion  of  wine  routes  that  are  linked  with  the           particular region, district or municipality.           The perspective for sustaining of employment in Slovak countryside lies in           the effective realization and propagation of wine tourism and wine routes.           Wine  tourism  is  popular  in  Slovakia  mostly  in  different  tourism  regions           (hereinafter referred to as “TR”), such as Bratislava TR, Záhorie TR, Lower           Váh River TR, Nitra TR, Upper Nitra TR, Ipeľ River TR and Dolný Zemplín TR           (Habán et al., 2010). In Slovakia, there are  currently various public wine           routes (hereinafter referred  to as “WR”) that are used for promotion of           wine tourism, e.g. Little Carpathian WR, Nitra Royal WR, Tokaj WR, WR of           Záhorie, Hont WR, Kamenín  WR, WR of  Modrý Kameň, WR of Požitavie,           Turňa WR, Strekov WR and Záhorie WR. In general, they promote wine-           making, viniculture and wine tourism along with the traditional crafts and           local  gastronomy.  Wine  tourism  has  potential  to  contribute  to  eliminate           social and cultural differentiations among various Slovak regions; therefore           these activities are often supported by local and regional authorities. Large           positive  economic  impacts  of  wine  tourism  in  Lednice-Valtice  Cultural           Landscape are strongly highlighted in the paper by Šauer and Repík (2014).           This  paper  is  focused  on  the  wine  routes  within  the  Nitra  wine  region,           especially  on  the  Nitra  Royal  Wine  Route  (hereinafter  referred  to  as           “NRWR”) and the Wine Route of Požitavie. The first one is the longest and           largest  within  the  comparison  with  other  routes  in  Slovakia.  It  was           registered in 2003 as a voluntary association of natural and legal persons.           The NRWR comes through the climatically warmest wine regions – Nitra           and Southern Slovakian. It has 4 separate branches that come together in           the city of Nitra. The Upper Nitra branch is located near the spring of the           Nitra  River  (Fačkovské  sedlo),  the  Tekov  branch  is  set  from  Topoľčianky           and  Pukanec,  while  the  Southern  Slovakian  branch  comes  from  Dunaj           (Mužľa)  and  Váh  branch  is  situated  by  Vrbové  and  Sereď  (Haban  et  al.,           2010). It comes through four self-governing regions of Slovakia, while the           Nitra Self-Governing Region is the only one that is suitable for cultivation           of grapevine almost in the whole extent. The NRWR is mainly devoted to           the  restoration  of  old  festivities  and  ceremonies  typical  for  harvest  of           grape,  such  as  Nitra  Wine  Festival  at  the  Svätopluk  Square,  Zobor  Wine           Festival at the park in the  Sihoť city district, Lucy’s sorcery by the wine,           a traditional wine festival in the municipality of Topoľčianky, Vráble festival           of grape harvest, Open Day at the Chateau Topoľčianky that includes public           degustation of various wines, Saint Urban Day – patron of wine-makers,           wine dedication, or other small events focused on degustation or various           tastings  of  wines  along  with  their  evaluation  at  cultural,  social  and  folk           events. Visitors can degust products also at manifold craft fairs or feasts           (field survey, 2016). Some of them take place in nature – right in vineyards;           others  are  realized  at  castles  or  mansions,  social  and  cultural  rooms  or           typical old wine cellars. The Wine Route of Požitavie was founded at the           beginning  of  2009  in  respect  of  an  agreement  between  the  Požitavie           Region  and  74  municipalities  including  the  Zlaté  Moravce,  Vráble  and           Želiezovce wine districts. Different wine traditions are associated with the           openings  of  wine  cellars  on  St.  Urban  Day  in  the  Vráble  town  and  the                                        502","municipality of Dolný Ohaj. Víno Vráble organizes an exhibition focused on                wine degustation, while there is an event called “Vráble festival of grape                harvest”.  Events  on  Saint  Urban  Day  usually  take  place  in  each  wine                municipality belonging to the Wine Route of Požitavie (field survey, 2016).                During  every  year,  many  municipalities  organize  various  events  that  are                associated with wine, such as local exhibitions and tastings, dancing balls,                which  enable  promotion  of  wine  and  wine-makers.  Wine  routes  and                products of wine tourism that are organized within the Nitra wine region                present a very strong perspective for sale of wine to tourists as well as a                good chance for sustaining of employment in the rural parts of region. The                term “wine tourism” does not include only tastings, sittings and routes, but                it covers more activities that are often sought in the particular wine areas.                Some  of  them  are  represented  by  recognizing  of  local  gastronomy  and                traditional food typical for municipality, town or region. There are other                new opportunities that are going to reach more popularity, e.g. wine cycle-                routes, which enable not only degustation, but active life style associated                with sightseeing of important cultural and historical places.                                         5 CONCLUSION                Currently, the quality of wine is preferred to its quantity production. The                viticulture  and  wine-making  industry  in  Slovakia  are  wending  this  way.                There are very good natural conditions for cultivation of grapevine, which                create possibilities to enlarge areas of vineyards within the particular wine                areas in Slovakia. The size of vineyards would rise along with the amount                of produced wine that would strengthen self-sufficiency of Slovakia in its                production. Taking into account the former development of viniculture and                wine-making in Slovakia that brought a significant decline of vineyard areas                by  more  than  50%,  the  future  may  bring  another  reduction  of  areas                together  with  the  drop  in  the  amount  of  cultivated  grapevine  and                produced wine. A favourable development of viniculture and wine-making                industry  in  Slovakia  may  be  achieved  through  production  of  wine  with                a designation  of  origin.  Currently,  especially  cheaper  wines  from  abroad                are more available for Slovak customers. On the other hand, wines made in                Slovakia are often typical for higher quality, but inputs are higher, while                subsidies are lower, what is reflected in more expensive price. The Nitra                wine  region  produces  original  wines  that  may  help  this  region  become                attractive place for wine tourism in Slovakia. Presently, there is a growing                interest  for  wine  routes  and  wine  tourism  within  the  Nitra  wine  region,                what is confirmed by various organized events and a high rate of public                attendance.  There  are  usually  sold  products  from  local  and  regional                producers  and  wine-makers  coming  from  this  wine  region,  what  brings                them  an  appreciable  income  that  may  be  reinvested  into  other  future                improvements.                 The  paper  was  elaborated  within  the  project  VEGA  1/0934/17  Land-use                changes  of  Slovak  cultural  landscape  over  the  past  250  years  and                prediction of its further development                                               503","REFERENCES           CENTRAL  CONTROL  AND  TESTING  INSTITUTE  IN  AGRICULTURE  IN           SLOVAKIA, 2017.           DOUGHERTY, P. H. eds. 2012. The Geography of Wine: Regions, Terroir and           Techniques. Springer. 255 pp.           HABÁN,  M.,  OTEPKA,  P.,  HABÁNOVÁ,  M.,  POLÁČEK,  M.  2010.  Vidiecky           turizmus  na  vínnych  cestách  Slovenska.  Trenčianske  Teplice:  III.  Fórum           vinárov a vinohradníkov, 2010.           JONES, A. 2003. Power in Place: Viticulture spatialities of globalization and           community empowerment in the Languedoc. Transactions of the Institute           of British Geographers. 27, 11-29.           KARLÍK,  L.,  CHARVÁT,  T.  2014.  Fyzicko-geografická  analýza  modranského           vinohradníckeho  rajónu  s  ohľadom  na  pestovanie  viniča.  Geografická           revue. 2014, 10(1), 16-38.           KORGÓ,  L.,  ZENTKOVÁ,  I.  2010.  Ekonomika  výroby  vína  u  vybraných           malopestovateľov viniča v Nitrianskej vinohradníckej oblasti.  Trenčianske           Teplice: III. Fórum vinárov a vinohradníkov, 2010.           MERAVÁ, E. 2016. Vinič hroznorodý, hroznové víno. (Situation and Outlook           Report k 31. 7. 2016). Bratislava: VÚEPP, MPRV SR.  Ročník XVIII, 2016. 47           s. ISSN 1339-0937.           MERAVÁ, E. 2017. Vinič hroznorodý, hroznové víno. (Situation and Outlook           Report k 31. 7. 2017). Bratislava: VÚEPP, MPRV SR.  Ročník XIV, 2017. 49 s.           ISSN 1339-0937.           NÉMETHOVÁ,  J.  2013.  Špecifiká  Nitrianskej  vinohradníckej  oblasti.           Geografické informácie. 17(2), 93-109.           ODRODY  PESTOVANÉ  NA  SLOVENSKU,  2017.  [online].  [cit.  2017-03-10].           Dostupné z http://slovakiawines.com/vinohradnictvo/pestovane-odrody/.           SLOVENSKÁ  AGENTÚRA  PRE  CESTOVNÝ  RUCH.  2015.  Slovensko  –  krajina           vína:   História.   [online].   [cit.   2016-04-16].   Dostupné           z http://www.sacr.sk/uploads/tx_publications/sk_Vino.pdf.           SMRKULJ,  H.,  NJAVRO,  M.  2016.  Risk  management  on  the  winegrowing           farms at Northwest Croatia Upravljanje rizikom na vinarsko-vinogradarskim           gospodarstvima  Sjeverozapadne  Hrvatske.  Journal  of  Central  European           Agriculture. 17(1), 221-235. https://doi.org/10.5513/JCEA01/17.1.1693           SPIŠIAK,  P.  2010.  Tokajská  vinohradnícka  oblasť  na  Slovensku.  In:           Geografické  poznatky  bez  hraníc:  výber  z  maďarských  a  slovenských           príspevkov z fyzickej a humánnej geografie. Košice: UPJŠ, 2010, 224-229.           SPIŠIAK,  P.  2002.  Vinohradníctvo  Malých  Karpát.  Acta  Geographica.  42,           179-196.           SVOBODOVÁ,  I.,  VĚŽNÍK,  A.,  KRÁL,  M.  2014.  Viticulture  in  the  Czech           Republic:  Some  spatio-temporal  trends.  Moravian  Geographical  Reports.           22(1), 2-14. https://doi.org/10.2478/mgr-2014-0001           ŠAJBIDOROVÁ,  V.  2007.  Vinič  hroznorodý,  hroznové  víno.  (Situačná           a výhľadová správa k 31. 7. 2007). Bratislava: VÚEPP, MP SR, 2007. 47 s.                                        504","ŠAJBIDOROVÁ,  V.  2011.  Vinič  hroznorodý,  hroznové  víno.  (Situačná                a výhľadová správa k 31. 7. 2011). Bratislava: VÚEPP, MPRV SR, 2011. 41 s.                ŠAJBIDOROVÁ,  V.  2012.  Vinič  hroznorodý,  hroznové  víno.  (Situačná                a výhľadová správa k 31. 7. 2012). Bratislava: VÚEPP, MPRV SR, 2012. 12 s.                ŠAUER,  M.,  REPÍK,  O.  2014.  Ekonomické  dopady  vinařského  cestovního                ruchu v turistické oblasti Lednicko-Valtický areál. In: Klímová, V., Žítek, V.                (eds.)  XVII.  mezinárodní  kolokvium  o  regionálních  vědách.  Sborník                příspěvků. Brno: Masarykova univerzita, 2014. 824-834.                ŠIMO, D. 2006. Agrárny marketing. 1. vyd. Nitra: SPU, 2006, 321 s.                VINOHRADNÍCKE OBLASTI. Mierka mapy 1:2 000 000. In: Atlas krajiny SR,                2002. Bratislava: MŽP SR, 2002, s. 139.                                             Shrnutí                V  současnosti  se  při  produkci  hroznů  a  výrobě  vína  více  upřednostňuje                kvalita. Tímto směrem se ubírá i vinohradnictví a vinařství Slovenska. Jsou                zde velmi vhodné přírodní podmínky pro pěstování vinné révy, které by se                v  budoucnu  mohly  odrazit  v  rozšiřování  ploch  vinic  v  rámci  vinařských                oblastí  Slovenska.  Tím  by  nejen  vzrostla  plocha  vinic,  ale  zvýšilo  by  se                i množství  vyrobeného  vína  a  zlepšila  by  se  soběstačnost  Slovenska                v produkci  hroznů  a  výrobě  vína.  Ale  pokud  vycházíme  z  předchozího                vývoje  vína  Slovenska,  který  přinesl  značný  propad  ploch  vinic  víc  než  o                polovinu,  může  přijít  v  budoucnu  k  dalšímu  snižování  ploch  vinic  a                následnému  poklesu  sklizených  hroznů  či  vyrobeného  vína.  Pro  příznivý                vývoj  vína  na  Slovensku  je  nejdůležitější  produkce  vín  s chráněným                zeměpisným označením. V současnosti jsou pro konzumenty vína cenově                dostupnější  vína  zejména  ze  zahraničí.  Vína  vyrobená  na  Slovensku  jsou                však  kvalitnější,  ale  vstupy  do  výroby  jsou  vyšší,  dotace  nižší,  a  proto  je                i cena vína vyšší. Nitranská vinařská oblast produkuje originální vína, které                mohou  této  oblasti  pomoci,  aby  se  stala  atraktivní  oblastí  vinařského                turismu  Slovenska.  V  současnosti  je  o  vinné  cesty  a  vinařský  turismus                v Nitranské  vinařské  oblasti  velký  zájem  o  čemž  svědčí  několik  pořádané                akce a poměrně  velká účast  veřejnosti na těchto akcích,  kde se prodává                víno  výlučně  producenty  z  této  vinařské  oblasti,  což  pro  poskytovatele                těchto služeb a samotnou oblast představuje nezanedbatelný příjem.                                                             505","UNRECOGNIZED STATE ENTITIES IN THE (GEO)POLITICAL SPACE OF                                 THE 21ST CENTURY                                    Štěpán Podhrázský            Geografický ústav, Přírodovědecká fakulta Masarykovy univerzity, Kotlářská                                  267/2, 611 37 Brno                               s.podhrazsky@gmail.com            Abstract:  A  significant  part  of  the  international  community  of  states  is           struggling with an erosion of the basic attributes of statehood and is no           longer able to effectively control its own territory. At the same time new           entities are emerging in the political space, seeking for the autonomy or           even  the  independence.  These  entities,  known  as  “unrecognized  state           entities”, represent “gaps” in the current perception of the political space           in  which  they  are  not  officially  identified,  despite  of  their  physical           presence. Many unrecognized state entities not only fulfill the attributes of           statehood and effectively control their territory but they are also able to           exceed  established  states  in  other  characteristics.  Nevertheless,  the           international community of states is often reluctant to their existence. The           aim of the paper is to introduce the issue of unrecognized state entities           from  the  point  of  view  of  internal  and  external  factors  in  a  broader           context.           Key words: state, quasi-state, deviant forms, unrecognized state entities                                  1 INTRODUCTION           It  is  nearly  impossible  to  follow  all  the  changes  of  individual  states  and                                                          st           connections between them in the political space of the 21  century. Many           states are disintegrating and are no longer (or never have been) able to           provide even basic services and security for their own population. These           states,  referred  to  as  “weak”,  “failing”  or  “falling”  (Rotberg,  2004)  are           becoming  more  and  more  of  the  interest  not  only  of  the  academic           community. This is not because of their absence in the past, but rather as           a consequence of the change in the perception of the world after 2001 and           the  declaration  of  the  war  on  terror.  Disintegrated  states  have  become           a potential  space  for  establishing  of  extremist  groups,  against  which  the           international community, led by the US, along with the promotion of its           own  interests,  in  the  long  term  seeks  to  prevent.  The  abovementioned           terms, which are only a short outline of the whole issue, can generally be           summarized as “deviant forms of the state”.           On the other hand, in the political space new entities are emerging. Some           of these entities are not only able to provide security of the population,           but  also  functionally  fully  replace  established  states.  Despite  their           functionality  and  physical  presence  in  political  space,  international           community of states is officially refusing to recognize them as states and           seeks to preserve the current political division of the world.                                        506","The aforementioned issues have already been addressed by a number of                important  authors  on  the  border  of  sociology,  political  science  and                geography.  It  is  worth  mentioning  above  all  Kolstø  (2006),  Sørensen                (2005),  Rotberg  (2004)  and  from  Czech  authors  Vaďura  (2009)  or  Riegl                (2010).  The  aim  of  the  authors  was  to  create  the  most  accurate                terminology. However, the result is a number of  mutually unclear terms                which, in my opinion, often do not reflect the qualitative disparity between                non-functioning states and newly created  functional entities.  The aim of                the  paper  is  therefore  to  present  these  qualitative  disparities  and  to                simplify  the  confusing  terminology,  especially  from  the  point  of  view  of                emerging entities.                                            2 STATE                Before  start  working  with  deviant  forms  of  the  state  it  is  necessary  to                define ideal sovereign state. However, its definition is not the main goal of                this article, so it will be simplified and based primarily on classical theories                including  the  Montevideo  Convention on  Rights  and  Duties  of  States.  At                the same time, it will be taken into account the political-geographic aspect                of international recognition, which was brought to the issue by Glassner                (1988). The use of the criteria contained in the Montevidean Convention is                supported by Kreijen (2004), who considers them to be the “core of the                state”. He further stated that although the criteria are important for the                emergence  of  the  state,  we  must  not  forget  their  importance  for  its                extinction.  As  a  sovereign  state,  we  can,  in  the  scope  of  this  article,                consider those political-geographic entities that fulfill the characteristics of                territory, population, inner sovereignty and external sovereignty.                  -  The Territory is a basic spatial framework for the emergence of the                    state. Except for extreme exceptions, there can be no state without                    its  own  territory.  Under  international  law,  there  is  a  close  link                    between the territory and the population.                  -  The population is generally  perceived as a social  structure that has                    a settled and permanent character. International law does not allow                    the  creation  of  a  sovereign  state  without  a  population.  Without                    population,  it  would  not  be  possible  to  exercise  public  authority                    within the claimed territory.                  -  Internal  sovereignty  is  a  monopoly  of  legitimate  violence.  It                    represents  internally  effective  entities  that  have  a  functioning                    government which controls and enforces the right of the population                    inhabiting the territory of the state. At the same time, the entity is                    able to provide basic services.                  -  External  sovereignty  is  an  international  recognition  of  the                    independence that Glassner has brought to the issue.                Territory and population, which we also refer to as the geographic aspect                of the state, are a mandatory component of every entity claiming status of                state. Internal and external sovereignty is a significant qualitative deviation                between entities. Entity that has been granted external sovereignty by the                international  community  of  states  can  be  officially  called  as  “State”.    By                this  act  they  gain  recognition  of  membership  rights  in  international                organizations  as  well.  On  the  contrary,  internal  sovereignty  represents                                              507","internal functionality in terms of population and territory control and the           provision of basic state services. An entity can be recognized as a state, but           it does not have to function internally. It is these entities that are referred           to as the “deviant form of the state”. On the hand, internally functional           entities  without  international  recognition  represent  “holes”  or  “black           spots” in the political space, as they do not officially exist. In doing so, they           claim  and  effectively  control  territories  assigned  to  another  entity  with           recognized state status. They been labeled by many different terms based           on minor variations. Therefore, I believe that their collective terminological           distinction in the form of “unrecognized state entities” is necessary.                            3 DEVIANT FORMS OF THE STATE           The basic factor in evaluating the degree of deviation is ability of the state           to  provide  basic  services  to  the  population,  to  defend  their  own           sovereignty and application the monopoly of legitimate violence within the           claimed  territory.  A special  terms  used  by  authors  precisely  reflects  this           ability of service fulfilling. Concepts  such as juridical  statehood (Jackson,           Rosberg, 1982), post-colonial state (Sørensen, 2005, p. 75-77), weak state,           fragile, failing state, failed state, collapsed state (Rotberg, 2004, Zartmann,           1995),  quasi-state  (Kolstø,  2006)  are  again  only  short  list  of  them.           However, when examining the terms in detail, we find that they often refer           not  only  to  deviant  forms  of  the  state  but  also  to  unrecognized  state           entities (eg Kolstø, 2006), which fulfill completely different characteristics           (external  sovereignty  vs,  internal  sovereignty)  and  claim  territory  at  the           expense  of  the  deviant  forms  of  the  state.  Currently  fairly  successful           evaluating of the deviation of the state based on the social, economic and           political  characteristics  called  “fragile  state  index”  provides  organization           called  THE  FUND  FOR  PEACE.  Nonetheless,  I  believe  that  it  would  be           appropriate to include in the evaluation criteria also a separate category of           geographical  characteristics  partly  already  contained  in  the  political           characteristics, mainly because they form the mandatory part of any entity           claiming status of the state.                           4 UNRECOGNIZED STATE ENTITIES           As previously noted, unrecognized state entities represents “holes” in the           current political area where they are not officially present as long as they           have not been granted state status. The creation of an unrecognized state           entity is conditioned by the geographic characteristics of the state, while at           the same time fulfilling the internal sovereignty and trying to gain external           sovereignty.  In  the  political  space,  there  may  be  rebel  regions  that  only           demand a higher degree of autonomy or carry out illegal activity without           seeking independence. Such regions cannot be titled as unrecognized state           entities.  The  formation  of  unrecognized  state  entities  is  always  at  the           expense  of  an  already  established  state.  Due  to  the  fulfillment  of  the           internal sovereignty of the unrecognized state unit, the original state loses           its control over part of the territory and thus the internal sovereignty and           becomes  the  deviant  form  of  the  state.  Thus,  it  can  be  said  that  the           emergence of an unrecognized state entity always creates a deviant form                                        508","of the state. However, the state may suffer a certain degree of deviation                even without the existence of an unrecognized state unit on its territory.                These are the rebel regions, or other economic or political problems in the                country. Therefore, it is wrong to consistently designate deviant forms of                the state and unrecognized state entities.                     5 FACTORS AFFECTING THE STATUS OF UNRECOGNIZED STATE                                           ENTITIES                The status and development of unrecognized state entities is influenced by                internal and external factors. Internal factors mean the entity's ability to                establish itself in political space at the expense of the original sovereign,                and  also  its  ability  to  effectively  manage  the  claimed  territory.  External                factors  represent  the  relationship  of  the  newly  established  entity  to  the                original  sovereign,  the  international  community  of  the  states  and                regional/global powers.                Status  of  the  entity  is  always  the  result  of  combination  of  internal  and                external factors.  Internal factor of the entity's ability to establish itself can                be  partially  replaced  by  external  factors,  especially  by  support  from  the                regional/global  power,  as  is  shown  by  current  events  in  South  Ossetia,                Abkhazia or the Turkish Republic of the Northern Cyprus. The approach of                the  central  government  of  the  original  sovereign  to  the  emergence  of                a new  entity  is,  with  exceptions,  always  negative,  as  its  position  is                weakened. The sovereign's functional status plays an important role. It is                easier for new entity to establish itself in the area of non-functional state                which was unable to control its territory even before appearance of the                entity. In the case of the creation of several entities within a single state,                their  chances  for  establishment  are  increased.  An  example  of  the  state                facing such problems is Federal republic of Somalia,  where a number of                entities headed by Republic of Somaliland and Puntland State of Somalia                have been established. The relationships between the factors affecting the                entities,  their  combinations  and  the  anticipated  development  of  the                entities are summarized in table 1.                Since the beginning of the 21st century, many entities have been trying to                establish  themselves  in  the  political  space.  To  achieve  the  geographical                characteristics  of  the  state  and  at  least  partially  to  fulfill  the  internal                sovereignty,  only  about  20  of  them  succeeded.  These  entities  represent                a table 2, which further analyzes their expected development, due to the                internal  and  external  factors  summarized  in  Table  1.  The  degree  of                fulfillment of factors cannot be determined unequivocally in some specific                cases.  In  such  situations,  the  factor  is  considered  negative.  The  most                common causes of this condition are:                -  internal sovereignty – the entity effectively controls only part of the                    claimed territory, controlled borders are highly variable,                -  external sovereignty – the entity was recognized only by a part of the                    international community of the states,                -  central  government  –  the  territory  of  the  entity  does  not  claim  a                    different  state/entity  was  perceived  as  a  state,  but  it  is  losing  its                    position in the long term,                                              509","-  international  community  of  the  states  –  the  approval  by  the              international  community  is  inconsistent.  An  entity  is  supported  by              significant number of states, including global or regional powers,           -  regional/global power – the entity is supported only by an unofficial              path. At the same time, global/regional power does not guarantee the              existence of an entity.           Both  internal  and  external  factors  are  subject  to  change  over  time.           Therefore,  it  is  possible  that  in  the  future  entities  which,  based  on  the           present conditions are predetermined to elimination, will be recognized as           sovereign  states  and  vice  versa.  As  can  be  seen  from  Table  2,  the  most           unrecognized  state  entities  are  created  in  the  political  space  without           external  support  and  their  gradual  elimination  can  be  assumed.  The           second  most  common  type  of  unrecognized  state  entities  is  those           supported by the regional/global power. The existence of an entity can be           assumed at least during the period of support. The primary prerequisite for           this  type  of  unrecognized  state  entity  is  the  stronger  position  of  the           guarantor over the sovereign. At the same time, it can be expected that           entity  will  enhance  the  control  over  the  claimed  territory.  Unrecognized           state  entities  supported  by  a  significant  part  of  the  international           community  are  in  fact  functioning  as  independent  states.  Their  overall           acceptance often hinders the (geo) political interests of the global powers           as can be seen in case of the Republic of Kosovo.                                    6 CONCLUSION           Unrecognized  state  entities  represent  qualitatively  different  units  as           opposed to deviant forms of the state, mainly because of their genesis and           their ability to fulfill the different characteristics of the state. The basis of           both categories is the fulfillment of mandatory geographical characteristics           in terms of territory and population, but the deviant form of the state has           been  officially  recognized  by  the  international  community.  On  the  other           hand, the deviant form of the state lacks internal functionality. Thus, it is           unable to secure one or more characteristics or services of the state. An           unrecognized state entity is, on the contrary, capable of providing internal           functionality,  but  it  lacks  international  recognition,  also  referred  to  as           external  sovereignty.  The  existence  of  an  unrecognized  state  entity  is           always  at  the  expense  of  an  established  state,  from  which  it  forms           a deviant form of the state, as it takes effective control over part of the           territory. The emergence of a deviant form of the state is not conditioned           by the emergence of an unrecognized state entity, because deviations may           be caused by different factors. Unrecognized state entities in the political           space of the 21st Century illustrated the Table 2 including their predicted           development  based  on  internal  and  external  factors  that  influence  their           development.  The  future  development  of  the  most  widely  represented           type  of  unrecognized  government  departments  is  elimination  due  to           insufficient support from external factors. However, individual influences           are  subject  to  change  over  time.  Therefore,  the  future  establishment  of           certain entities in the international community of states cannot be ruled           out.                                        510","Tab.  1:  Relationships  between  the  factors  affecting  the  entities,  their                combinations  and  the  anticipated  development  of  the  entities  claiming                status of sovereign state                                         Supported by:                    Type of the                                        Central   government   International   community   Regional   (global) power                    entity   Sovereignty                  Predicted entity status                                                           Unrecognized state entity,                                                 YES                                                           internally inefficient                             Inner   NO   NO   NO                 Internationally                  NO          Elimination                 unrecognized                   and non-                  functioning                            Unrecognized state entity,                   entities                      YES       internally inefficient                             Outer   NO   YES   NO                                                       Elimination or unrecognized state                                                  NO                                                        entity, internally inefficient*                                                 YES                             Inner   NO   -   YES                                                  NO                Non-functioning                          Internationally recognized                                                         sovereign state, internally                   entities                                   inefficient                                                 YES                             Outer   YES   -   YES                                                  NO                                                         Unrecognized state entity,                                                 YES                                                            internally efficient                             Inner   YES   YES   NO                                                       Elimination or unrecognized state                                                  NO                 Internationally                         entity, internally efficient*                 unrecognized                   entities                              Unrecognized state entity,                                                 YES                                                            internally efficient                             Outer   NO   NO   NO                                                  NO          Elimination                 Internationally   Inner   YES   -   YES   YES                 recognized and                       Sovereign state, internally efficient                  functioning                   entities   Outer   YES   -   YES   NO                 * depending on the power of central government                Source: by Štěpán Podhrázský                                                511","Tab.  2:  List  of  unrecognized  state  entities  existing  in  the  21st  century  and           their  relation  to  internal  and  external  factors,  assumed  development  and           their current status               Entity   Inner   sovereignty   Outer   sovereignty   Central   government   International   community   Regional   (global) power   Predicted entity status    Entity                                                                   status                                               Unrecognized state entity,           Abkhazia   YES   NO   NO   NO   YES                    Existing                                                 internally efficient                    Partl                                         Eliminat           Aceh          NO   NO   NO   NO         Elimination                     y                                              ed                                                                  Eliminat           Anjouan   NO   NO   NO   NO   NO        Elimination                                                                    ed                    Partl                                         Eliminat           Azawad        NO   NO   NO   NO         Elimination                     y                                              ed           Cabinda   NO   NO   NO   NO   NO        Elimination    Eliminat                                                                    ed                    Partl                                         Eliminat           Casamance     NO   NO   NO   Partly     Elimination                     y                                              ed           Democratic           Federation   YES   NO   NO   NO   Partly   Elimination   Existing           of Northern           Syria           Donetsk   Partl                    Unrecognized state entity,           People's   y   NO   NO   NO   YES    internally inefficient   Existing           Republic           Iraqi           Kurdistan   YES   NO   NO   NO   Partly   Elimination   Existing           (Bashur)           Islamic       Partl    Partl                           Eliminat           Emirate of   YES   y   -   y   NO       Elimination      ed           Afghanistan           Islamic           State of   YES   NO   NO   NO   NO      Elimination    Existing           Iraq and           the Levant           Jubaland   YES   NO   NO   NO   NO      Elimination    Existing           (Azania)           Luhansk   Partl                    Unrecognized state entity,           People's      NO   NO   NO   YES                       Existing           Republic   y                         internally inefficient           Maakhir                                                Annexe           State of   YES   NO   NO   NO   NO      Elimination       d           Somalia           Nagorno-  YES   NO   NO   NO   YES   Unrecognized state entity,   Existing           Karabakh                              internally efficient           Pridnestrov           ian      YES   NO   NO   NO   YES   Unrecognized state entity,   Existing           Moldavian                             internally efficient           Republic           Puntland           State of   YES   NO   NO   NO   NO      Elimination    Existing           Somalia                                        512","sovereignty   Outer   sovereignty   International   Entity                    Entity   Inner    Central   government   community   Regional   (global) power   Predicted entity status    status                   Republic of     Partl   Partl  N  Unrecognized state entity,                 China      YES   y   -   y   O     internally efficient   Existing                 (Taiwan)                 Republic of   YES   Mostl  N  Mostl YE  Sovereign state, internally   Existing                 Kosovo           y   O   y   S        efficient                 Republic of   YES   NO   N  NO   N   Elimination    Existing                 Somaliland           O       O                 Sahrawi Arab         N  Partl  YE  Unrecognized state entity,                 Democratic   YES   NO   O   y   S   internally efficient   Existing                 Republic                                      N       YE  Unrecognized state entity,                 South Ossetia   YES   NO   NO                       Existing                                      O       S     internally efficient                 State of   YES   Mostl  N  Mostl YE  Sovereign state, internally   Existing                 Palestine        y   O   y   S        efficient                            Partl     N       N                      Eliminate                 Tamil Eelam     NO      NO           Elimination                             y        O       O                        d                 Turkish                 Republic of   YES   NO   N  NO   YE  Unrecognized state entity,   Existing                 Northern             O       S     internally efficient                 Cyprus                 Source: by Štěpán Podhrázský                                          REFERENCES                GLASSNER, M. I. a H. J. DE BLIJ. Systematic political geography. 4th ed. New                York: Wiley, c1988, xii, 617, p. 6. ISBN 04-716-3583-9.                JACKSON,  R.  H.,  C.  G.  ROSBERG.  Why  Africa's  Weak  States  Persist:  The                Empirical and the Juridical in Statehood. In: World Politics. 1982, p. 1-24.                vol. 32, no. 1. https://doi.org/10.2307/2010277                KOLSTØ,  P.  Journal  of  Peace  Research:  The  Sustainability  and  Future  of                Unrecognized   Quasi-States.   Journal   of   peace   research.   Oslo:                Universitetsforlaget, 2006, vol. 43, n. 6, p. 723 -740.                https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343306068102                KREIJEN, Gerard. State failure, sovereignty and effectiveness: legal lessons                from the decolonization of Sub-Saharan Africa. [Leiden: Leiden University,                2003]. ISBN 9789004139657.                RIEGL,  M.  Quasi-states  terminology.  In:  Acta  Politologica.  Praha:  Karlova                univerzita, 2010, p. 57 - 71. ISSN 1803-8220.                ROTBERG, R. I. Weak and Failinig States: Critical New Security Issues. In:                Turkish Policy Quarterly. Istanbul, 2004, p. 57 - 69. ISSN 1773-0546.                SØRENSEN,  G.  Stát  a  mezinárodní  vztahy.  Vyd.  1.  Translation:  Ladislav                Cabada. Praha: Portál, 2005, p. 237, ISBN 80-717-8910-0.                VAĎURA, T. a V. ŠMÍD. Teoretické vymezení a konceptualizace fenoménu                slabých a selhávajících států. In: Mezinárodní vztahy. 2009, p. 44 - 64. vol.                44. ISSN 0323-1844.                                              513","ZARTMAN,  W.  Collapsed  states:  the  disintegration  and  restoration  of           legitimate authority. Editor I Zartman. Boulder: L. Rienner Publishers, 1995,           vii, 303 p. SAIS African studies library (Boulder, Colo.). ISBN 15-558-7560-2.                                       Shrnutí           Neuznané  státní  útvary  představují  kvalitativně  odlišné  entity  oproti           deviantním formám státu. Nejen z důvodu jejich geneze, ale i schopnosti           naplnit rozdílné charakteristiky státu. Základem obou kategorií je naplnění           povinných geografických charakteristik  v podobě teritoria a obyvatelstva,           avšak  deviantní  forma  státu  byla  dále  oficiálně  uznána  mezinárodním           společenstvím  států.  Na  druhou  stranu  deviantní  forma  státu  postrádá           vnitřní  funkčnost.  Není  tedy  schopna  zabezpečit  jednu  nebo  více           charakteristik nebo služeb státu. Neuznaný státní útvar je naopak schopen           zabezpečit  vnitřní  funkčnost,  avšak  pozbývá  mezinárodního  uznání,  též           označovaného  jako  vnější  suverenita.  Existence  neuznaného  státního           útvaru  je  vždy  na  úkor  etablovaného  státu,  ze  kterého  vytváří  deviantní           formu,  neboť  přebírá  efektivní  kontrolu  nad  částí  území.  Vznik  deviantní           formy  státu  není  podmíněn  vznikem  neuznaného  státního  útvaru,  neboť           deviace může být zapříčiněna odlišnými faktory. Z výše uvedeného vyplývá,           že  je  mylné  považovat  oba  typy  entit  za  totožné  a  terminologicky  je           shrnovat  do  jedné  kategorie.  Neuznané  státní  útvary  vyskytující  se           v politickém  prostoru  21.  století  názorně  představila  tab.  2  včetně  jejich           předpokládaného  vývoje  na  základě  vnitřních  a  vnějších  faktorů,  jež           ovlivňují  jejich  vývoj.  Budoucí  vývoj  nejčastěji  zastoupeného  typu           neuznaných státních útvarů je eliminace z důvodů nedostatečné podpory           ze  strany  vnějších  faktorů.  Nicméně,  jednotlivé  vlivy  podléhají  v čase           změnám.  Nelze  tedy  vyloučit  budoucí  etablování  některých  entit  do           mezinárodního společenství států.                                                                 514","QUALITY OF LIFE EVALUATION IN THE MUNICIPALITY WITH A GREAT                       EMPLOYER: CASE STUDY OF THE MÍROV MUNICIPALITY                                               1                                  Zdeněk Šilhan , Hana Svobodová 2                 1                 Masaryk University, Faculty of Economics and Administration, Department of                   Regional Economics and Administration, Lipová 41a, 602 00 Brno, Czech                                            Republic                                      z.silhan@mail.muni.cz                  2                 Masaryk University, Faculty of Education, Department of Geography, Poříčí 7,                                    603 00 Brno, Czech Republic                                       67632@mail.muni.cz                 Abstract:  The  municipality  of  Mírov  has  385  inhabitants,  it  is  a  small                number in conditions of the Czech Republic. There is a high security prison                with  nationwide  significance  which  employs  more  than  200  employees.                The presence of such a large employer brings to the municipality and its                inhabitants a number of advantages but also disadvantages. The goal of                the  paper  is  to  discuss  the  influence  of  the  large  employer  to  the                municipality  and  the  conditions  for  life.  A  questionnaire  survey  among                inhabitants,  discuss  meeting  with  the  inhabitants  using  participatory                methods of working with the public and a semi-structured interview with                the  mayor  and  municipal  representative  were  conducted.  The  paper                contains a summary of the main factors that are related to the presence of                the  large  employer  and  affect  the  municipality  and  its  inhabitants.                A combination  of  quantitative  and  qualitative  methods  was  used  to                achieve the goal.                Key words: quality of live, questionnaire survey, small municipality, large                local employer.                                        1 INTRODUCTION                One  of  the  key  factors  for  the  quality  of  life  in  a  municipality  is  the                presence  of  employers  offering  enough  employment  opportunities.  The                presence of the employer may have a positive effect on the municipality’s                economy. On the other hand, it may put a burden on local residents, for                example,  by  reducing  the  quality  of  the  environment,  by  worsening                security situation, etc.                The evaluation of the impact of large employers on the development of                regions  and  municipalities  was  dealt  with  by  many  Czech  and  foreign                authors.  At  the  level  of  the  regions,  Kunc  (2006)  and  Novák  (2007)                evaluated Bosch Diesel's influence on commuting and labour market in the                Vysočina Region; at the municipal level, Osman and Šerý (2013) compared                the  town  of  Komořany,  where  EDP  company  operates,  to  Springfield,                a fictional  town  in  American  animated  sitcom  The  Simpsons,  where  the                                              515","local business employs majority of the city's inhabitants. Similar towns and           cities can be found in the Czech Republic, but the municipality of Mírov, on           which this paper focuses, is rather specific.           There are 385 inhabitants in Mírov, which ranks it as a small municipality in           the Czech Republic. There is located a high-security prison of nationwide           significance. This institution employs more than 250 employees, making it           an  unusually  large  local  employer  when  taking  into  consideration  the           number of Mírov inhabitants. The presence of such a large employer brings           the municipality and locals many advantages and disadvantages.           Work opportunity is for local inhabitants only one aspect of quality of life.           Quality  of  life  is  a  subjective  evaluation  of  the  social,  economic  and           technical aspects in the municipality. The indicators of quality of life are           defined  different  by  different  authors.  For  example,  Babinčák  (2013)           defines  quality  of  life  according  to  satisfaction  of  inhabitants  and  their           evaluation of different aspects in the municipality of the scale form good           to bad. Similar evaluation was done in the Mírov municipality.                             2 OBJECTIVES AND METHODS           The aim of this paper is to discuss the impact of the large employer on the           municipality and on the living conditions of the local population. To obtain           the documents for the evaluation of the influence of the large employer,           the following was done in the municipality:           •   a questionnaire survey among residents,           •   discussion  meetings  with  citizens  using  participative  methods  of               working with the public, and           •   a  semi-structured  interview  with  the  mayor  and  a  municipal               representative.           All the partial steps were taken in the scope of the municipality’s strategic           development  plan,  which  is  the  main  tool  for  municipal  development           management. It formulates ideas about the future of the community and           suggests ways to achieve these ideas. Local development and employers'           influence  are  also  the  subject  of  regionalists  (e.g.  Bellandi  2001,  Ježek           2013, Řehoř 2010, and others).           To achieve the goal, an evaluation of the above-mentioned activities was           performed.  Based  on  the  carried-out  evaluations,  the  paper  summarizes           the  main  factors  that  are  related  to  the  large  employer  and  which           influence the municipality and its inhabitants.           A questionnaire survey among the inhabitants of Mírov took place during           the summer 2017. Citizens had the possibility to fill in the questionnaire           either electronically using Google Forms or in a paper form. There were no           criteria for the respondents’ selection except to be older than 15 years and           to have permanent residence in Mírov or the ownership of a real estate on           the  cadastral  territory  of  the  municipality  (to  involve  cottage  owners  as           well). A common demand for gender, age, education, or family status was           not considered in the investigation. The questionnaire contained a total of           20 questions, of which 16 were concerned with the development of the                                        516","municipality  and  4  were  identifying.  The  questions  were  discussed  and                supplemented by citizens on the basis of the discussion meeting conclusion                and  of  a  semi-structured  interview  with  the  mayor  and  a  municipal                representative.                For the purpose of this paper, questions on the quality of life in the village                and issues related directly or indirectly to the presence of a large employer                in the municipality were evaluated. The first question stated “How good                are  living  conditions  in  the  village?”.  Citizens  could  choose:  very  good,                rather  good,  neutral,  rather  bad,  and  very  bad.  Another  area  was                concerned  with  a  matrix  of  questions  about  the  evaluation  of  the                environment  and  services  in  the  municipality.  Citizens  were  marking                27 areas in scale 1 (the best) to 5 (the worst) (see the third part Results).                The following, open, question was formulated as “What specifically do you                miss  in  the  village?”.  The  questionnaire  also  included  the  question                “Imagine that you can decide how to use public funds of the municipality.                What kind of investments would you prefer?” Citizens had the opportunity                to  write  down  their  own  ideas  or  to  choose  from  the  following  list:                restoration  of  local  sights,  extension/improvement  of  public  greenery,                improvement of waste disposal, safety increase, development of tourism,                reconstruction/construction  of  space  for  cultural  and  social  activities,                revitalization of greenery in the local area of Kolonie, new parking places,                completion/reconstruction   of   local   roads   and   pavements,                reconstruction/construction  of  sport  facilities,  improving  the  appearance                of the municipality, community house for seniors, investment in lido, and                housing support. They could select up to 4 options. The paper evaluated                this  question  as  safety  increase,  green  revitalization  and  new  parking                spaces  are  directly  related  to  the  impact  of  a  large  employer  in  the                municipality. Citizens had the opportunity to express themselves freely on                other topics or make comments.                Discussion  meetings  with  citizens,  while  utilizing  participative  methods,                took  place  before  the  questionnaire  survey  and  was  conducted  in  May                2017. In particular, elements of community vision, human focused design,                future  workshop  and  world  café  were  used  (for  details  see                http://www.participativnimetody.cz). All areas related to life in the village                were  covered:  opportunities  for  young  people,  families  with  children,                elderly,  community  associations  and  cooperation  with  them,  shops  and                services  in  the  village,  transport  service,  state  of  the  technical                infrastructure,  municipal  waste  disposal,  and  availability  of  education,                health and social care, community life, environment, and communication                with authorities. In the paper, there is an evaluation of the main problems                in the village and viable solutions for development opportunities for the                future.                A semi-structured interview with the mayor and municipal representative                consisted in finding the municipality's management opinion on the same                topics  as  discussed  with  residents,  supplemented  with  questions  about                information,  which  is  not  publicly  available  (municipal  property,                kindergarten capacity, planned investments, etc.).                                                517","3 RESULTS                      3.1 Major employer in Mírov – Mírov prison           In the municipality of Mírov, as of June 2011, there were 222 economically           active  inhabitants,  out  of  which  25  were  unemployed.  According  to  the           statistical  yearbook  of  the  prison  service,  the  Mírov  prison  employed           274 employees  in  2011.  According  to  the  census  conducted  in  2011,           199 people were commuting to the village, most of them from Mohelnice           (60  employees),  Zábřeh  (32 employees),  and  Loštice  (10  employees).  On           the  other  hand,  63 people  were  commuting  out  of  Mírov.  Mostly  to           Mohelnice (47 employees in total). If the prison employed 274 employees           and,  for  simplification,  it  is  assumed  that  all  commuters  to  the  Mírov           municipality would work in prison (199 employees in total), it is estimated           that 75 citizens of Mírov would be working in the prison, which accounts           for more than 35% of the economically active population. The relevance of           statistics may be limited by the fact that not all prison staff are located in           the Mírov municipality. Additionally, not all employees who commute to           Mírov mentioned this information in questionnaire. In fact, more people           can commute to the prison than the statistics indicates, and therefore, the           number of employed citizens of Mírov in the prison may be actually lower.           A  brief  analysis  of  the  available  data  suggests  the  great  economic           importance  of  the  prison  for  the  inhabitants  of  Mírov  and  the  large           number of commuters to a relatively small community.           The prison significance for the economy of the municipality is confirmed by           employment  data.  Compared  with  other  municipalities  in  the           administrative district of Mohelnice (see Table 1), the highest share of the           number  of  employees  with  the  place  of  work  in  the  municipality  is  the           Mírov  municipality  (index  139).  The  number  of  employees  with  place  of           work  in  the  municipality  also  includes  working  prisoners.  There  were           208 of these according to the statistical yearbook of prison service in 2016.           If the the statistics did not include working prisoners, then the index of the           number  of  employees  to  the  total  population  would  be  85,  which  is           comparable  with  the  town  of  Mohelnice.  Winter  and  summer           unemployment  in  the  municipality  is  lower  than  the  surrounding           municipalities and upper territorial units.           Tab.  1:  Employment  in  Mírov  municipality  compared  to  surrounding           municipalities and upper territorial units                        No. of       No. of    (Employees /   Share of the                       inhabitants   employees   inhabitants) *   unemployed                      (01/01/2017)   (01/01/2017)   100    12/201  06/201                                                             6       7            Klopina      595          371          62        3.6    1.4             Police      218          33           15        5.3    2.7            Krchleby     179          49           27        8.7    2.4           Mohelnice    9,232        7,767         84        5.4    4.5            Stavenice    138          15           11        3.1    3.3             Líšnice     343          28           8         3.6    3.5           Moravičany   1,300         234          18        3.8    3.5            Třeština     384          51           13        2.7    3.8            Loštice     3,023        1,187         39        4.1    3.5            Palonín      334          43           13        4.8    3.3             Úsov       1,180         113          10        6.7    5.5                                        518","Maletín      382          33           9        10.7    6.7                  Pavlov       612          77           13       2.7     1.7                  Mírov        385         537          139       3.3     3.4                   Okres     121,288      50,127         41       6.2     4.5                  Šumperk                 Olomoucký   633,925      289,577        46       5.9     4.4                   kraj                    ČR      10,578,820   5,242,520       50       5.2     4.0                Source:  Czech  Statistical  Office,  Czech  Ministry  of  Labour  and  Social  Affairs,  Act  No.                276/2017                  3.2 Evaluation of selected questionnaire questions among residents                There were 102 out of a total of 384 inhabitants of Mírov, who participated                in the questionnaire survey (with return of 26.5%). There were 39 men and                61 women. At the age of 15–29: 28 people, at the age 30–49: 33 people, at                the age of 50–64: 24 people, and at the age over 65: 16 people filled the                questionnaire. Majority of respondents were spouses/partners living with                a child (44 cases) or their children had already moved (27 cases).                The  question  “How  good  are  living  conditions  in  the  village?”  was                answered as “good” by 73% of the respondents (14% answered as “very                good”  and  59%  answered  as  “rather  good”).  23%  of  the  population                answered as “neutral”. There were 4% of respondents, who answered as                “rather bad”. No one answered as “very bad”.                                              4%                                                   14%                                    23%                                                            59%                          Very good  Rather good  Neutral  Rather bad  Very bad                 Fig. 1. Answer to question “How good are living conditions in the village?”                Source: questionnaire survey with inhabitants of the Mírov municipality                Note: no answer „Very bad“                                                  519","Another question evaluated the quality of environment and services in the           city  on  a  scale  of  1  to  5,  with  1  being  the  best  and  5  worst.  In  total,           27 areas were evaluated. The best rating was reached by “nursery school           availability”  with  the  average  mark  of  1.5.  The  second  best,  “Level  of           technical  infrastructure  (drainage,  water,  gas,  and  electricity)”,  with  the           average  mark  of  1.7.  Then  followed  “tap  water  quality”  reaching  2.0.           A good  evaluation  of  the  technical  infrastructure  may  be  related  to  the           presence of a prison. Research of other authors suggests, that high quality           of  technical  or  transport  infrastructure  is  usually  the  biggest  problem  in           municipalities, as its construction and maintenance is expensive.           On the other hand, the worst result with the average mark of 4.3, reached           the “business opportunity” area. The impact of a large employer may be           counterproductive  for  the  development  of  business  –  people  are  not           interested in doing business if there is a strong and stable employer in the           municipality. This fact is also probably intensified by relatively remoteness           of the village from other municipalities, which introduces low demand. The           “use  of  commercial  services”  area  with  an  average  mark  of  4.2  was  the           second  worst-ranked. Due to the recently closed elementary school, the           “education  opportunities”  area  ended  up  as  third  worst-rated  with  an           average mark of 4.1.           The “working opportunities” area is not improved by the presence of the           prison,  according  to  the  inhabitants  as  many  employees  commute.  This           area reached an average mark of 4.0. Thanks to the presence of a large           employer, there is a relatively good transport service in the village despite           its small size, which is supported by good mark of 2.1. The presence of the           prison is positively attributed to the feelings of safety, which is assessed by           citizens with mark of 2.1. On the contrary, the parking options are rated           below 3.3.                                                                 520","Civil coexistence, neighbour relationships                  Activity and communication of job centre                                     Security                        Technical infrastructure quality                                 Parking options                          Public transport availability                     Transportation infrastructure quality                            Municipality appearance                  Waste services, separation, and recycling                                  Water quality                                    Calmness                         Greenery quantity and quality                                     Tourism                        Commercial services availability                              Shopping availability                   Family houses construction possibilities                                 Housing quality                 Free time activities availability for children                         Elementary school availability                           Kindergarten functionality                            Kindergarten availability                           Health service availability                          Services for elderly citizens                           Sport facilities availability                         Cultural acitivity possibilities                             Business opportunities                              Work opportunities                                          0%              50%             100%                                    1   2  3   4  5   I don´t know                 Fig. 2. Environment and service evaluation by Mírov inhabitants.                Source: questionnaire survey with Mírov inhabitants                 Residents could comment on what they lack the most in the village. A total                of  51  inhabitants  responded  and  provided  a  number  of  suggestions  for                improvement.  The  most  frequently  mentioned  shortcomings  of  the                municipality are the following: lack of sport events and insufficient facilities                for  sport-related  activities  (21  cases),  lack  of  cultural  events  along  with                suitable  facilities  (9  cases),  lack  of  commercial  services  in  the  village                (4 cases), lack of job opportunities based in village (3 inhabitants), and lack                of parking places (3 inhabitants).                The  following  question  was:  “Imagine  that  you  can  decide  how  to  use                public  funds  of  the  municipality.  What  kind  of  investments  would  you                prefer?”  Most  people  would  invest  in  housing.  On  the  contrary,  the                restoration  of  local  sights  received  the  smallest  support.  New  parking                                              521","places are ranked 7th out of a total of 14, improving  safety at 11th and           revitalizing greenery in the local area of Kolonie, with new parking places           on the 8th place.                              Housing support                             Lido investment                     Community house for seniors                  Improving municipality appearance            Reconstruction/construction of sport facilities                Investment into local communications                           New parking places               Revitalizing greenery in the local area of …            Reconstruction/construction of cultural house                           Tourism expansion                          Safety improvement                             Waste disposal           Expansion and improvement of public greenery                       Restoration of local sights                                       0        20        40        60                                            Number of respondents            Fig. 3. Answer to question “Imagine that you can decide how to use public           funds of the municipality. What kind of investments would you prefer?”           Source: questionnaire survey with Mírov inhabitants            The answers to open question, “Further suggestions and comments”, were           similar to answers to the question “What specifically do you miss in the           village?”.  In  connection  with  the  prison,  there  were  remarks  about  the           prison  staff  parking  in  the  village.  There  are  also  opinions  that  would           welcome  greater  involvement  of  the  prison  in  the  community  life.  One           respondent proposed to set up a prison museum or to introduce recently           popular  escape  games  in  unused  premises  of  local  school  to  attract           visitors.               3.3 Semi-structured interview with the mayor and a municipal                                   representative           From  an  interview  with  the  mayor  and  municipal  representative,  the           municipality  was  particularly  concerned  with  optimizing  the  buildings           usage in the village. This applies to the abandoned building of the former           school, the under-utilized cultural house, and the building No. 24, where           former grocery was located. The village plans to build a community house           for the seniors and to revitalize the green in a local housing estate with                                        522","Kolonie apartment buildings. The presence of the prison places a burden                on local citizens as it causes a shortage of parking places, as prison staff do                not have sufficient capacity to park on the prison premises and, therefore,                they  are  forced  to  park  in  public  areas  of  the  village.  Staff  shift  causes                dense traffic on the main road and there are issues with speeding. On the                other hand, there is a high-quality bus connection and the presence of post                office, which mainly makes living by servicing parcels sent and received by                prisoners. In other similarly-sized municipalities, post office is generally not                functioning. There is no fear of the prisoners’ presence among the locals.                               3.4 Discussion meeting with residents                The  main  problems  reported  by  residents  during  the  discussion  meeting                were  the  following:  lack  of  sports  facilities,  poor  quality  of  local  road                network  and  poor  behaviour  of  prison  staff  (parking  violations  and                speeding).  In  addition,  citizens  complained  about  untidiness  around  the                prison. Residents would prefer to improve the state of the local lido and                sewers.  In  addition,  there  is  an  issue  with  accessibility  to  outdoor  sport                facilities  in  the  prison  area.  Locals  have  the  option  to  attend  the  sport                facilities,  but  prison  staff  have  a  priority,  and  reservations  are  often                cancelled at the last moment for the purpose of celebrations or sporting                events for prison staff.                                          CONCLUSION                The analysis shows that the prison is of a great economic importance for                the municipality, especially in the area of employment, but only partially                for the local population in general. Negatives associated with the presence                of  the  prison  are  speeding  of  prison  staff  when  commuting  and                problematic  parking  as  follows  from  a  questionnaire  survey,  discussion                meeting  with  residents,  and  an  interview  with  the  mayor  and  municipal                representative.  The  mayor  emphasizes  the  positive  influence  of  the                presence of the prison on services in the village, such as existing post office                and public transport services. Residents complain about limited access to                the sport facilities inside the prison premises.                It has been confirmed that the presence of a large employer affects the                living conditions in the village, both positively and negatively. According to                the population’s opinion, job opportunities are not affected. On the other                hand, inhabitants rated the transport services positively. Paradoxically, the                presence of the prison reflects a sense of security as this trait was rated                above the average. On the contrary, the parking options are rated below                average by the population.                 This  paper  was  created  in  a  scope  of  a  specific  research  project  of  the                Department  of  Regional  Economics  and  Administration,  Faculty  of                Economics   and   Administration,   Masaryk   University   in 2017.                MUNI/A/0976/2016.                                               523","REFERENCES           BABINČÁK, P. Porovnanie troch spôsobov hodnotenia subjektívnej kvality           života.  In  Murgaš,  F.  (ed).  KVALITA  ŽIVOTA  2013  Sborník  příspěvků  z           mezinárodní konference 4. a 5. 12. 2013 v Liberci. Liberec: TUL, 2013.           BELLANDI,  M.  Local  development  and  embedded  large  firms.           Entrepreneurship \& Regional Development, 2001, 13.3: 189-210.           OSMAN,  R.,  ŠERÝ,  O.  Český  Springfield:  velká  firma  na  malém  městě.  In           Robert  Osman. Geografický  výzkum:  participace  a  angažovanost.  Brno:           Masarykova univerzita, 2013. s. 120-139, 20 s. ISBN 978-80-210-6415-7.           KUNC, J. Bosch Diesel – Not only an industrial phenomenon in the Vysočina           region (Czech Republic). Moravian Geographical Reports, 2006, 29.           BELLANDI,  M.,  Local  Development  and  Embedded  Large  Firms.           Entrepreneurship  and  Regional  Development.  Vol.  13,  2001,  s.  189–210.           ISSN 1464-5114. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985620110051103           JEŽEK, J. Strategické plánování obcí a měst: nové přístupy a cesty k jeho           zefektivnění.  XVI.  mezinárodní  kolokvium  o  regionálních  vědách,  2013,           372-376.           ŘEHOŘ, P. Strategický plán rozvoje obcí. Auspicia, 2010, 34.           Participativní metody. Práce s veřejností. URL           http://www.participativnimetody.cz/           NOVÁK, V. Bosch Diesel – nejvýznamnější zaměstnavatel v kraji Vysočina.           In:  KLÍMOVÁ,  V.  X.  mezinárodní  kolokvium  o  regionálních  vědách.  Brno:           Masarykova univerzita, 2007, s. 95–102. ISBN 978-80-210-4325-1.                                       Shrnutí           Obec Mírov má 385 obyvatel, čímž se řadí v podmínkách České republiky           mezi  malé  obce.  Existuje  zde  věznice  se  zvýšenou  ostrahou           s celorepublikovým   významem.   Zařízení   zaměstnává   více   než           200 zaměstnanců. Přítomnost takto velkého zaměstnavatele přináší obci a           jejím  obyvatelům  řádu  výhod,  ale  i nevýhod.  Příspěvek  si  klade  za  cíl           diskutovat  vliv  velkého  zaměstnavatele  na  obec  a  podmínky  pro  život.           V obci bylo provedeno dotazníkové šetření mezi obyvateli, diskuzní setkání           s obyvateli  s využitím  participativních  metod  práce  s veřejností  a           semistrukturovaný rozhovor se starostou a zastupitelkou obce. Příspěvek           obsahuje  shrnutí  hlavních  faktorů,  které  souvisí  s působením  velkého           zaměstnavatele  a ovlivňují  obec  a  její  obyvatele.  Pro  dosažení  cíle  byla           použita kombinace kvantitativních a kvalitativních metod.                                                 524","SPECIFICS OF THE RETAIL NETWORK SPATIAL STRUCTURE IN THE                                       PIEŠŤANY TOWN                                                           2                                          1                       Miroslava Trembošová  , Sandra Wiecková  , Ivana Gálisová                 1                   Katedra geografie a regionálneho rozvoja, FPV, UKF, Tr. A. Hlinku 1, 949 74                                             Nitra                                      mtrembosova@ukf.sk                   2                  Katedra geografie a regionálneho rozvoja, FPV, UKF, Tr. A. Hlinku 1, 949 74                                             Nitra                                   sandra.wieckova@student.ukf.sk                  Abstract: The retail network is a variable subsystem of a cultural landscape                closely  linked  to  a  settlement  structure  that  sensitively  responds  to                changes in the social and economic situation and is a suitable indicator of                the development of human society, the settlement system and the inner                structure  of  the  settlements.  In  the  urban  environment  of  post-socialist                countries under the influence of globalization the retail network belongs to                the most dynamic elements which are very variable in space. A substantial                part  was  processed  using  statistical-mathematical  methods  results  of                which  were  necessary  for  the  calculation  of  key  demographic,  retail  –                area  parameter  (m²/1000  inhabitants).  Data  based  and  results  were                processed  in  Microsoft  Excel  and  map  outputs  in  ArcGIS10.2  software.                Our goal is to identify the spatial configuration of these indicators. At the                same time, we deal with the processes and specifics of the retail network                of the city of Piešťany, which are decisively involved in the modeling of                its  spatial  structure,  polycentrism,  increase  of  disparities,  commercial                suburbanization.  The  development  of  the  retail  network  in  the  city  of                Piešťany  is  significantly  influenced  by  the  following  factors:  purchasing                power  of  residents  and  visitors,  globalization  impacts  of  supranational                chains´ arrival, availability,  synergy effect, development of new  forms of                selling, and self-government.                Key words: retail network in the city of Piešťany, area parameter, stores                (shopping centers, hypermarkets and supermarkets).                                         INTRODUCTION                Retail is one of the main dynamic forces of the economy which are spatially                very variable. It is a summary of all activities related to the direct sale of                products  or  services  to  final  consumers  only  for  personal  use,  not  for                business use. It is part of our everyday life in households and at work, but                it also serves for activities that give us rest, fun and excitement. Retailers                as well as wholesalers or producers whose sales originate primarily from                retail business are engaged in retail activities. The aim of our work is to                                              525","point  out  the  specifics  of  the  retail  network  spatial  structure  in  the           Piešťany Town and by comparing the results of the analysis from 2011 and           2017, to show the development trends in retail amenity and to predict the           perspectives for its development in the Piešťany Town.                             1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND                                                         st                        th           At the end of 20  century and in the first decade of 21  century interest           for  studying  internal  relations  between  spatial  models  of  localization  of           retail  in  urban  environment  and  purchasing  behaviour  increased.  Large-           area stores of retail chains become the centres of attention and research           of  geographers.  Their  impact  on  spatial  organization  of  retail  and  traffic           systems,  area  requirements,  decentralization  processes  characteristic  by           moving  shopping  centres  to  satellite  and  suburb  parts  of  cities  and  the           resulting  specific  problems.  Their  classification  is  not  united,  different           sorting characters create different classifications. Guy (1998) distinguish so           called “edge-of-centre”, “out-of-centre” and “out of town” localization of           shopping centres. From other professional literature (Szcyrba 2006) there           are known three categories of shopping centres (SC) – the first, second and           third generation SC. The first generation SC is limited only on selling goods           in  (by  authors  Križan  and  Lauko  2014  and  Spilková,  2012a  it  is  store  -           magnet)  like  supermarket,  hypermarket,  or  hobby  market  with  the           minimum of specialized business units in shopping mall. SC of the second           generation offers in addition to central large-area shop also shopping mall           with shops, restaurants and other services, just like banks, hair salon, dry           cleaner´s,  babysitting  services,  key  services  and  so  on.  Highest  hierarchy           level of SC is marked as third generation of SC and it contains signs of the           second  generation  with  additional  recreation,  sport  and  entertainment           facilities (fitness, swimming pools, ice rink, cinemas and others). Based on           aspect of localization Daňo (2003) differs 5 types of retails which can be           applied also on SC: type 1 in spatial proximity to customer residence, type           2 in spatial proximity to competitive companies, type 3 in spatial proximity           to companies with supplementary assortment, type 4 in spatial proximity           tourists  flow  and  type  5  position  suitable  in  relation  to  transport           possibilities.           Due  to  the  construction  of  large-area  centres  and  hypermarkets  on           suburbs  of  cities  there  is  a  decrease  in  sales  areas  which  are  located  in           centres of cities. The issue related to revitalization of traditional city retail           centres was pointed out by Nagyova (2001) and phenomenon known as           problem of “food deserts” is being for example described by Bilková et al.           (2015),  Bilková  and  Križan  (2015),  Choi  and  Suzuki  (2013),  Križan           and Danielová,  (2008),  Suchý  (2010),  Wrigley,  Warm  a  Margetts,  (2003)           and others.           Ongoing changes in retail, such as development of huge international retail           chains,   retail   concentration,   localization   changes,   technological           innovations,  new  working  practices  and  increasing  range  of  particular           transactions, Vias (2004) name as revolution in retail. In the states of V4,           these changes are tracked by Aubert and Csapó (2004), Fertaľová (2005),           Križan  (2009),  Mitríková  (2008),  Pulpitlová  (2005),  Szczyrba  (2006),                                        526","Trembošová (2010), Viturka et al. (1998), Wilk (2005) and others. Szczyrba                (2005,  2006)  identified  two  stages  of  retail  development  in  the  Czech                Republic: “atomization and internationalization of retail associated with its                concentration,  which  has  been  manifested  in  the  Czech  Republic  since                1995”. Similarly, but with a certain time shift, retail was also developed in                Slovakia, which was analysed by, Fertaľová and Klamár (2006), Fertaľová                and Varga (2008), Križan (2007) and Križan and Danielová (2008), Kunc et                al.  (2013),  Pulpitlová  (2005),  Trembošová  (2009),  Trembošová  and                Dubcová  (2013),  Spilková  (2012,  2016),  Szczyrba  and  Fiedor  (2014),                Mitríková et al. (2015), Trembošová et al. (2016). The transformation and                globalization tendencies of the retail these authors interpret as the most                dynamic  elements  of  time-spatial  and  functional  changes  in  urban  and                rural environments.                                   2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY                 The  analysis  of  the  spatial  aspects  of  retail  is  based  on  an  accessible                indicators (Bilkova and Križan, 2013), while many common statistical data                are  gradually  becoming  not  monitored  (e.g.  annual  reports  of  municipal                statistics  for  retail  were  completed  in  2012).  Even  economists  are                highlighting the difficulty of the issue the point of view of data collection                (Petrovčíková, 2015).                The  data  processed  in  the  paper  were  obtained  by  the  authors  through                detailed field passports in urban districts (hereinafter UD) of the town of                Piešťany. Compared to 2011, the number of UD changed. UD Kocurice was                included in the filed survey and since 2014 UD Lodenica was added. Both                UDs  are  without  a  retail  network  (tab.  1).  In  2011,  we  visited  511  retail                stores in 15 UDs (Gálisová, 2012) and in 2017 it was 523 retail stores in                17 UDs with different area size, assortment offers and character (new or                old - used goods) in order to identify their basic characteristics: location,                sales  area  and  assortment  structure  (Wiecková,  2017).  As  for  their                classification,  we  used  the  criterion  of  the  characteristic  and  largest                offered goods. Subsequently, each unit was included according to the first                criterion  -  assortment  into  17  groups  of  related  goods:  -  stores  of  food,                baverages  and  tabacoo  products,  -  stores  of  chemical  goods,colors,                vanishes  and  cosmetics,  -  stores  of  textiles,  clothing  and  footwear,  -                pharmacy,  medical  supplies  stores,  -  toys  and  sport  goods  stores,  -                furniture and household accessories stores, - flower shops and gardening                supplies,-  stores  of  electronics,  electrotechnics  and  musicals,  -  stores  of                goldsmiths',  watchmaking,  imitation  jewelry  and  optics,  -  stationery  and                office  supplies  stores  and  bookshops,  -  stores  of  breeding  goods,  -  car                shops,  -  stores  of  glass,  -  porcelain,  gift  shops,  -  sales  of  construction                goods,  -  sale  of  fuels,  -  sales  of  industrial  goods,  ironmongery,  -  mixed                goods stores.                The analysis of the spatial changes of the urban areas we interfered on the                basis of surface parameter indicators area parameter PAFS the ratio of the                population   (in   thousands)   to   the   admissible   floor   space                (m²/1000 inhabitants)  (Urbion,  1984).  On  the  basis  of  the  calculated                                              527","absolute values of the area parameter of individual urban areas, the values           of the surface parameter were determined by their assumed hierarchical           level (local, urban, regional and supra-regional).           The ongoing changes in the spatial structure of the area parameter can be           expressed  through  the  average  growth  rate  which  is  based  on  the           geometric mean theory. In the sense of Bartscha (1987), if we cannot find           the  observation  values  (values  every  year,  month  or  day)  but  only  their           partial sets (in our case, the area parameters were expressed only in 2011           and 2017), we can calculate this data via the average growth rate:                                      BCD                                        A                                ? = @      E ∗ 100                                       A           n = number of years in the observed period, X n  = area parameter for the           last measured year, X 1  = area parameter for the previous measured year.           According to Bartsch, if the W result is greater than 100, it is an average           growth rate that is increasing. On the contrary, if the W result is smaller,           the average growth rate is decreasing. Moreover, the more W ranges from           100, the average growth rate is either faster (W>100) or slower (W<100).             3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PIEŠŤANY TOWN WITH THE FOCUS ON                                BUSINESS FUNCTIONS           The town of Piešťany is the center of the Piešťany district, which lies in the           northern tip of the Trnava region. The Váh River flows through the edge of           the town in the Danube Lowlands and at the foothills of the Malé Karpaty           (mountain).  According  to  the  number  of  inhabitants  28  266  (as  of           December 31, 2016), Piešťany Town is the 21st biggest town in Slovakia.           Today,  the  town  is  the  seat  of  the  district,  several  educational  and           scientific institutions, and the departments of two universities. Thanks to           a spa with a beautiful park on the Spa Island and the town park, it is one of           the most famous Slovak towns also abroad. A significant expansion of the           spa  tourism  and  associated  activities  (accommodation,  socio-cultural)           occurred  after  the  arrival  of  Winter's  family  and  spa  rentals  in  1889.           Entrepreneur Alexander and his son Ľudovít significantly contributed to the           development  of  the  town  by  building  infrastructure  (water  supply,           communications), mill, guest house for workers or later hospital. Piešťany           town  has  become  an  established  center  with  a  well-developed  retail           network.  Larger  industrialization  occurred  in  the  60s-70s.  (companies           TESLA, Chirana) of which Chirana company continued to focus on medical           technology until today. At present, Piešťany Town is divided into 17 urban           districts of which 5 of them are the core retail network (Stred I., Kúpeľný           areál, Horné Piešťany, Juh III., and Za železnicou).           The retail network of the town of Piešťany has been evolving more rapidly           since the declaration of the statute of the spa town in 1956. At this time,           the  first  souvenir  and  spa  wafers  shops  began  to  emerge.  These  stores           were also part of the first shopping centers (hereinafter SC) in the town, SC           Kocka opened in 1976 and SC Prior in 1983. The retail network of the town           of Piešťany is also influenced by the zonation which was connected with                                        528","the housing units construction of Sídliska pred stanicou, Pri Váhu, Adam                Trajan during the era of socialism.                In the town of Piešťany in 2017, there were 523 retail stores at the retail                               2                area of 124 608 m . Almost 21% of the rentable area was used by clothing                stores.                The most important urban district in terms of shopping streets and squares                -  but  only  for  pedestrian  shoppers  -  is  UD  Stred  I.,  represented  by                Winterova Street (the pedestrian zone for almost 30 years) and Námestie                Slobody  (square).  In  addition  to  the  shopping  function,  visitors  to  and                residents of Piešťany Town, it is also the center of cultural and social life                (Beer  Festival,  Christmas  Market  connected  with  big  sales).  Main                assortment  in  the  Winterova  Street  is  offered  by  small-scale  souvenir                shops,  spa  wafers  shops,  jewellery  shops,  catering  and  clothing  stores                especially  for  the  spa  clientele.  From  this  street  there  is  good  walking                distance to the Kolonádový most /Colonnade (Glass) Bridge/ where other                souvenir shops are located, as it is the area of the highest tourism. Behind                the Colonnade Bridge is the most beautiful part of the town UD Kúpeľný                ostrov with the famous lakes in the large park and hotel buildings. Ground                floor passageways and connecting corridors provide space for retail stores                such as drugstore, textiles and clothing stores, imitation jewellery shop and                pharmacies.  In  recent  years,  small-scale  retail  operations  have  been                expanding  along  communications  from  the  center  to  outside  residential                areas  which  are  also  available  to  pedestrian  visitors  or  spa  guests  at                Kukučínova and Štefánikova Streets with bakery, butchery, exclusive coffee                and  chocolate  shop,  porcelain  and  imitation  jewellery  shops.  Small-scale                shops with accessibility also for motorized customers in UD Stred I. form                the  following  streets:  Teplická,  Rázusova,  E.  Suchoňa  and  Námestie                Slobody.                The  construction  of  large-scale  retail  outlets  in  Piešťany  Town  is                concentrated in 4 UDs: The first solved area was UD Stred I. where at the                crossroads of Teplická and Nitrianska Street from 2010 there is the only                shopping  center  of  the  “second  generation”  OC  Aupark.  Its  stores  have                a varied character (with clothing, footwear, sports outlets, a bookstore) or                Billa store. The town market as a traditional form of the “yard” sale is not                far from Nitrianska Street. On the north-west outskirts of UD Stred I. there                is a “socialist” shopping centre OD Prior with today's Lidl discount store. At                present, the next important attraction is also the seasonal farm market. On                the other side of the big crossroads is the two-storey shopping centre OD                Kocka  in  the  UD  Pred  stanicou  with  the  CBA  grocery  store  and  a  small                marketplace with both desk and stall sales. At the crossroads of Bratislava                and  Lipová  Streets,  several  retail  stores  were  built  in  the  period  of                socialism (in the 70s of the 20th century) and today, it is the core of the                retail at the connecting line of town center and railway and bus stations.                UD Horné Piešťany connects on this retail zone with excellent accessibility                along the I/61 road in the direction towards the town of Trenčín. Its core is                the Billa supermarket since 2000. Together with the shopping centre OD                Prior and OD Kocka, it creates a significant shopping triangle of the town                surrounded  by  residential  complexes.  There  is  a  major  specialized  shop                called Aquacentrum with a wide range of products reaching the regional                                              529","level. In this UD near the airport, there is a retail focused mainly on the           sales  of  car  components  and  repairs  e.g.  KIA  motors,  ARAVER  or  D-           súčiastky.           The third spatial-functional unit with retail services is UD Za železnicou in           the outer zone of the town. The large-scale Tesco store and Family Center           hypermarket with several non-food stores (Deichmann, Takko, OKAY, JYSK,           Kik, DM Drogerie and Dráčik), were built between 2006 and 2008 on the           Nikola Teslu Street. They originated “on a green meadow” near II/499 road           in the direction towards Vrbové and D1 highway not only because of the           good  accessibility  or  proximity  to  the  residential  complexes,  but  also           because of the space - today the stores use common parking spaces.           UD  Juh  III.  is  the  outer  spatial-functional  zone  with  the  largest  housing           estate Adam Trajan (5 126 inhabitants as of December 31, 2016) situated           on  the  left  side  of  I/61  road  in  the  direction  towards  Trnava  City.  The           Kaufland hypermarket and PT Universal store have found their location for           retail  business  in  this  place.  The  hypermarket  Kaufland  includes  a  large           grocery  store  and  promenade  with  butchery,  florist,  pharmacy  and           confectionery and bakery products. It is located about 3 km south-west of           the town center with accessibility by public transport links.           Due to the limited spatial possibilities in the town center, large-scale retail           outlets in Piešťany Town were moved to the outer parts of the town (UD           Juh  III.,  Za  železnicou  and  Horné  Piešťany)  in  a  direct  connection  to  the           transport network of the town formed by the I/69 and II/499 roads not           only  from  the  town-service  flows,  but  also  in  terms  of  regional  and           supraregional links (Figure 1).                                     Fig. 1. Shopping centers in urban districts of Piešťany Town in 2017.                                         530","Bicycles  have  long  been  part  of  the  everyday  image  of  a  peaceful                recreational  town,  therefore,  Piešťany  Town  is  often  called  the  town  of                bicycles.  Moreover,  they  are  also  a  very  common  “mobile”  tool  for                purchasing people.                The Piešťany town belong to the group of “shrinking” towns (Buček, Bleha,                2013),  whose  population  is  decreasing.  In  2010-2016  years  was  in                population in the town of Piešťany a significant decrease from 29 083 in                2010  to  28  266  in  2016  (by  2.8%).  The  population  decline  in  cities  is  a                common  phenomenon  in  the  post-socialist  region  (Haase,  Rink,                Grossmann, 2016). According to Buček and Bleha, (2013) it is influenced by                a  number  of  processes  accompanying  post-socialist  transformation  and                globalization, disintegration, decline in total fertility after 1989, postponed                social fertility in post-socialist countries etc.                Jedným  z najvýznamnejších  faktorov  podieľajúcim  sa  znižovaní  počtu                obyvateľov mesta je popri nízkom prirodzenom prírastku suburbanizačný                proces  v okolitých  obciach  (Graph  1),  ktorý  vyvolal  nedostatok  nových                bytov a vysoká cena pozemkov v meste. Počet obyvateľov mesta Piešťany                v rokoch  2001  a  2011  poklesol  o 7,6%,  zatiaľ  čo  v priľahlých  obciach                vzrástol  od  7%  v Krakovanoch  po  21,2%  v Moravanoch  nad  Váhom.                V celom  okrese  Piešťany  bol za  toto  obdobie  zaznamenaný  pokles  počtu                obyvateľov  o 1,2%.                One of the most significant factors contributing to the decline of Piešťany                town population is the suburbanization process in the surrounding villages                (Graph 1), in addition to a low natural increase, which caused a lack of new                housing  and  a  high  price  of  land  in  the  city.  The  population  of  Piešťany                declined by 7.6% in 2001 and 2011, while in neighboring villages it grew                from  7%  in  Krakovany  to  21.2%  in  Moravany  nad  Váhom.  In  the  whole                district of Piešťany, the number of inhabitants decreased by 1.2% over the                period.                      25                      20                      15                      10                     %                       5                       0                      -5                      -10                                                 municipalities                 Graph 1: Variations in the number of inhabitants in selected municipalities in                the district of Piešťany (of the Piešťany city background) in 2001 and 2011                Source: Statistical Office, 2017, autors´ survey                                              531","4 ANALYSIS OF THE RETAIL NETWORK SPATIAL STRUCTURE IN THE                                  PIEŠŤANY TOWN           By  collecting  data  on  sales  areas  and  applying  the  area  parameter  (PP)           calculation at city district-level in the years under review, we have created           a four-stage hierarchy of city districts, based on the average PAFS for EU           cities, which is 1,000 m² / 1000 inhabitants (in our hierarchy urban level): i)           local: up to 250 m² / 1,000 inhabitants, ii) urban: 1,000-1,500 m² / 1,000           inhabitants,  iii)  regional:  1,501-3,000  m²  /  1,000  inhabitants  and  supra-           regional  hierarchical  level:  3,001  m²  and  more  /  1,000  inhabitants).  This           hierarchy was used for the surface parameter of the retail network of Nitra           (Trembošová, 2012), Trnava (Trembošová et al. 2016a) and Žilina.                            4.1 Dynamics of area parameter           The  area  parameter  is  an  internationally  renowned  retail  secondary           indicator  that  points  to  the  size  of  the  retail  space  (excluding  storage           space).  By  compiling  data  and  computing  the  area  parameter,  we  can           compare the level and position of the town UDs. In this comparison, the           retail in the case of the town of Piešťany should take into account not only           the  number  of  permanently  living  population,  but  also  the  number  of           visitors or spa guests (about 16%).           Tab. 1: Basic parameters of the population and tourists in Piešťany Town in           2011 and 2017              Piešťany Town            2010                 2016                 Number            Sum     Aliquot      Sum     Aliquot               Inhabitants       29 083       -       28 266      -                 Visitors        92 656     254      106 666     292               Stays (nights)   557 715     1 528    619 262     1 697            Inhabitants and stays   30 611            29 963                 (nights)           * aliquot share / day            It can be assumed that the vast majority of these “transitional” inhabitants           of the town significantly affect the resulting values of the area parameter           in  two  UD  Kúpeľný  ostrov  and  UD  Stred  I.  where  most  of  the  hotel           accommodation capacity is located.           The first step was to evaluate the hierarchical level of UD according to the           absolute size of the area parameter (Table 2, Fig. 2). The resulting values                                                       2                          2           ranged from 226 m /1 000 inhabitants up to 83 644 m /1 000 inhabitants.           In both years, there is only one UD in each hierarchical level. A significant           change  is  the  transfer  of  UD  Juh  II.  on  the  hierarchical  level  in  2017           associated with the opening of the Piešťanský pivovar /Piešťany Brewery/           in 2015 which not only produces but also sells its beer. Several UDs have           moved  to  regional  hierarchical  level  in  2017.  Moreover,  we  focus  on           assessing the first or last three UDs. UD PVÚ proceeded from the local level           to  the  regional  level  thanks  to  the  Lidl  supermarket  built  in  2015                                                     2                  2           (1 265 m /1  000  inhabitants  in  2011  and  8  139  m /1  000  inhabitants  in                                               2           2011). UD Kúpeľný ostrov (in 2011 - 4 413 m /1 000 inhabitants and 2017 -                   2           10  416  m /1  000  inhabitants)  also  moved  from  the  town  level  to  the                                        532","regional level. The stores in this UD are still being innovated or increase                their capacity. In the future it can be assumed that the area parameter of                this UD will continue to grow. The regional level was reached also by UD                                     2                                                                       2                Stred I. (in 2011 - 4 748 m /1 000 inhabitants and in 2017 - 5 175 m /1 000                inhabitants)  part  of  which  is  the  shopping  centre  OD  Prior  which  also                contributed  to  the  shift  due  to  continuous  development  of  retail                operations.                Tab. 2: Retail amenity in the town of Piešťany according to area parameter                  2                (m /1 000 inhabitants in 2011 and 2017)                                        Retail – area   Amenity by sales   Growth                    Urban Districts   parameter PAFS*    area (% to the   rate                                                         town average)                                       2011     2017     2011    2017   11:17                    Horné Piešťany     1,250    1,889     33      43    108.59                      Stred III.       2,627     595      69      14    74.53                      Pri Váhu          958      976      25      22    100.40                    Kúpeľný ostrov     4,413    10,416   116     236    118.74                       Stred I.        4,748    5,175    125     117    101.74                       Stred II.       7,408    2,128    195      48    78.07                  Priemyselný obvod    2,245    3,599     59      82    109.86                    Za železnicou     38,075    83,644   1,002   1,897   117.08                 Sídlisko pred stanicou   1,658   1,742   44      40    100.98                       Floreát          174      226      5       5     105.39                        Juh I.          259      540      7       12    115.89                       Juh II.          212     3,650     6       83    176,65                        PVÚ            1,265    8,349     33     189    145.85                       Juh III.         612      622      16      14    100.40                      RO Sĺňava          -        -       -       -       -                      Lodenica           -        -       -       -       -                      Kocurice           -        -       -       -       -                      PIEŠŤANY         3,800    4,408    100     100    103.01                     PIEŠŤANY*         3,244    3,609                   111.25                Source: authors´ survey                *                 PAFS the ratio of the population (in thousands) to the admissible floor space                PIEŠŤANY* number of inhabitants of the Piešťany Town together with overnight stays for 1                day                                                            533","Fig:  2.  PAFS  (the  population  (in  thousands)  to  the  admissible  floor  space)           according to Urban Districts of Piešťany Town in 2017.                            4.2 Average growth rate of PAFS           The second evaluation criterion of the area parameter is the UD amenity           with  sales  area  (%).  It  is  determined  as  a  percentage  share  of  the  town           average (Table 2). The development of amenity by sale area in 2011 and           2017  points  to  a  reduction  in  the  number  of  levels.  In  2011,  the  UD           belonged to all 5 levels ranging from very low to very high. In 2017, there is           no high level (61-80%) - the UD amenity only reached four levels. Very low           level was reached by UD Floreát (5%), Juh I. (12%), Juh III. and Stred III.           (14%), low level by UD Pri Váhu (22%) and UD Sídlisko pred stanicou (40%).                                        534","The average amenity was recorded in UD Horné Piešťany (43%) and Stred                II. (48%) and the very high level of amenity of area parameter in 2017 was                reached  by  UD  Priemyselný  obvod  (82%),  Stred  I.  (117%),  PVÚ  (189%),                Kúpeľný areál (236%) and Za železnicou (1897%) (Figure 3).                The highest amenity of the retail network according to the area parameter                was  reached  by  UD  Priemyselný  obvod,  UD  PVÚ  and  UD Juh  II.  A  very                positive change in amenity is seen in UD Juh II. which changed from very                low level in 2011 to very high level in 2017. UD PVÚ also changed from the                low level in 2011 to very high level. In the urban district Priemyselný obvod                we can see a shift from average level to very high level in 2017.                Result of the area parameter analysis is the already mentioned reduction                of disparities of retail amenity among individual UDs.                The average growth rate of area parameter, based on the geometric mean                theory, is the third way to capture ongoing changes in the spatial structure                of area parameter. We can define the period of 2011-2017 as more or less                balanced ranging around the value of 100 (Figure 3). The slowest growth                rate (the lowest value below 100) was recorded by UD Stred III. (74.53%)                and  UD  Stred  II.  (78.07%).  The  growing  average  growth  rate  which  is                characterized by values higher than 100 is typical for the remaining 12 UDs.                The highest and fastest average growth rate was recorded by UD Juh II.                (176.65%),  UD  PVÚ  (145.84%)  and  UD  Kúpeľný  areál  (118.74%).  The                average of the Piešťany Town, according to the average growth rate of the                area  parameter,  has  the  value  of  103.01%  which  means  a  slightly                increasing dynamics of the area parameter.                                                                            535","Fig. 3. Average growth rate of PAFS at the level of urban districts of Piešťany           Town in 2011-2017.                                     DISCUSION           In  the  contributions  of  the  Slovak  geography  of  retail,  the  authors'           attention  is  only  exceptionally  focused  on  the  analysis  of  the  spatial           changes of the urban areas on the basis of surface parameter indicators           area  parameter  PAFS  the  ratio  of  the  population  (in  thousands)  to  the           admissible floor space (m²/1000 inhabitants). This is especially the analysis           new  retail  space  and  development  of  the  large-scale  retail  in  a  post-           socialist  city  (Pulpitlová,  2005,  Dudek-Mankowska  and  Križan  2010;           Trembošová,  2010,  2012,  Kunc  et  al.  2016,  Trembošová  et  al.  2016,           Mitríková, 2017). Evaluating the intraurban schemes, retail development in                                         536","the city centre, in its suburbs or outside the territory of the city (cf. Nagy                2001) should be considered.                Urbanists  and  geographers  traditionally  prioritized  the  retail  as  a key                indicator of city vitality and determining the centre’s position in the city                hierarchy (Hillier, 1999). The concept of “live centre” is the main topic of                Hillier theory of centrality as a process, in which it is stated that models of                movement of pedestrians are affected by the city border network, what is                leading to formation of networks of connected centres with retail shops                and  other  services.  If  shopping  depends  on  the  sample  of  pedestrian                movement,  which  type  of  space  comparable  features  of  city  street                network  predetermines  localization  of  shops  (cf.  Vaughan  et  al.  2010).                Even from research (cf. Hillier 1999, p.110-113) was revealed, that shops                tend to be localized along most spatially integrated streets and in streets                with high level of connectivity.                Retailing in postsocialism cities lost, according to Maryas et al. (2014), their                traditional and key positions in favour of the new shopping centres, which                have  grown  on  the  outskirts.  These  trends  (Hillier  theory,  1999,  Maryaš                theory,  2014)  have  also  been  identified  in  surveyed  Piešťany  town,                because  the  town  of  Piešťany  is  a  spa  and  tourist  destination,  while                fulfilling the functions of a district town.                                          CONCLUSION                In a society formed under the influence of a free market economy, the size                of demand is clearly the most important factor. It can be rightly assumed                that  in  the  major  tourist  centers  this  is  the  dominant  component  of                demand. This must also be reflected in the nature of the retail network.                Given the relatively long history of tourism development in Piešťany, it is                not  surprising  that  the  retail  network  in  this  city  has  adapted  to  such                a modified demand (Trembošová and Tremboš, 2014).                In  the  Piešťany  town  between  years  2011  and  2017,  there  were  two                processes: the number of inhabitants declined and the number and sales                area of retail stores increased. These processes affected the calculation of                the  selected  parameters  -  area  and  service  parameter  and  reflected  on                their change. Compared to 2011, when the regional hierarchical level of                the area parameter was reached by 2 UD (Stred II. and Za železnicou), in                2017 it was already 4 UDs (Kúpeľný areál, Stred I., PVÚ a Za železnicou).                According  to  the  growth  rate,  the  biggest  changes  were  in  UD  PVÚ,  UD                Kúpeľný  ostrov  and  UD Za  železnicou.  The  result  of  the  analysis  of  area                parameter  is  the  reduction  of  disparities  between  the  retail  facilities  of                individual  UDs.  The  high  serviceability  was  reached  by  5  UDs  (Stred  I.,                Kúpeľný ostrov, Priemyselný obvod, Juh II., and Za železnicou) According to                the  growth  rate,  the  most  significant  changes  were  in  UD  PVÚ,  UD                Priemyselný obvod and Stred II.                Piešťany  Town  with  the  status  of  spa  town  was  also  influenced  by  our                procedure also counted aliquots overnight stay visitors (in 2011 - 1 528 and                in 2017 - 1 697) to the permanent inhabitants. Since we do not know the                exact locations of hotels and guest houses as well as other accommodation                facilities  with  given  overnight  stays,  these  numbers  were  added  to  the                                              537","town average. This method changed the town average of both parameters.           PAFS  reached  the  value  of  3,244  (2011)  and  3,699  (2017)  (increase  by           11.25%), service parameter was 59.9 (2011) and 57.3 (2017) (decrease by           4.35%).           The long-term reduction of the number of inhabitants supports existence           of  abandoned  areas  in  cities,  mostly  associated  with  deindustrialisation           processes.           The population decline in the town of Piešťany is definitely not reflected in           the retail network which, on the contrary, is developing and growing also           due to the growth of the population in its background. Spa, culture, rich           history  of  Piešťany  Town  attracts  visitors  to  repeated  visits  which  leads           owners and potential investors to develop the retail network and innovate           already operating and functioning retail stores.           In the next stage of the research it will be interesting to extend our results           on  the  research  of  the  impact  of  population  purchasing  power  on  the           development  of  retail  network  or  comparison  with  the  Topoľčany  Town           with  a  similar  number  of  26  916  inhabitants  (to  31.12.2012),  where  the           same research of retail network (total 346 stores in area 45,281 m², a PAFS           1,682 m²/1000 inhabitants) was carried out in 2012.           In the paper, we achieved results that speak of a positive situation in the           town  of  Piešťany  at  present,  but  also  having  a  significant  effect  on  the           future.  It  is  possible  to  assume  that  the  retail  network  of  the  Piešťany           Town will be constantly developing. It should be said that in 2011 the local           self-government did not agree with for building the hobby market called           OBI because of the chosen place. At present, Piešťany authorities do not           register  applications  for  a  change  in  spatial  plan  for  the  needs  of  new           investors in retail sector.            Acknowledgment:  This  article  was  prepared  as  part  of  the  project  VEGA           No.1/0799/14  project:  “Geographical  Aspects  of  the  Retail  Network  of           Large Cities in New Market Conditions”.                                     REFERENCES           AUBERT, A., CSAPÓ, J. 2004. Transition of retail supply of the small cities of           Baranya   County.   In:   Sammelband   Zsilincsar   [ed.]:   Neue           Einzelhandelstrukturen   am   Rande   von   Kleinstädten.   Tagung           Forschungssechseck  Hartberg,  Graz,  Institut  für  Geographie  und           Raumforschung, Karl Franzens Universität. p. 89-98. ISBN 3-901266-02-3.           BARTSCH,  H.J.  1987.  Matematické  vzorce.  2.  vyd.  Praha:  SNTL,  1987,  p.           746. ISBN 80-200-1448-9.           BILKOVÁ,  K.,  KRIŽAN,  F.  2013.  Koncentrácia  podnikateľských  subjektov           v maloobchode  v slovenských  mestách.  In:  Geographia  Cassoviensis,  Vol.           7., p. 31-44.           BILKOVÁ,  K.,  KRIŽAN,  F.  2015.  Mapping  of  grocery  stores  in  Slovak           countryside in context of food deserts. In: Acta Universitatis Agriculturae           et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, Vol. 63, p. 1633 -1638.                                        538","BUČEK,  J.,  BLEHA,  B.  2013.  Urban  Shrinkage  as  a  Challenge  to  Local                Development Planning in Slovakia. In: Moravian Geographical Reports, Vol.                21, No.1, p. 2-15. https://doi.org/10.2478/mgr-2013-0001                CHOI,  Y.,  SUZUKI,  T.  2013.  “Food  Deserts,  Activity  Patterns,  \&  Social                Excclusion:  The  Case  of  Tokyo,  Japan.”  In:  Applied  Geography,  Vol.  43,                p. 87-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2013.05.009                DAŇO, F. [ed.]: (2003): Distribučný manažment. Hronský Beňadik, Netri. 68                pp. ISBN 80-968904-1-7.                DUDEK-MANKOWSKA, S. KRIŽAN, F. 2010. Shopping centers in Warsaw and                Bratislava: a comparative analysis. In: Miscellanea Geographica, No. 14, pp.                215-225. ISSN 0867-6046.                FERTAĽOVÁ,  J.,  KLAMÁR,  R.  2006.  Hodnotenie  návštevnosti  vybraných                veľkoplošných  predajní.  In:  Folia  geographica,  Vol.  10,  p.  140-155.  ISSN                1336-6157.                FERTAĽOVÁ,  J.,  VARGA,  P.  2008.  The  Huff’s  probability  model  and  its                application  on  selected  large-area  retail  units  in  Košice.  In:  Folia                geographica, Vol. 12, p. 77-81. ISSN 1336-614.                GÁLISOVÁ,  I.  2012.  Vybrané  geografické  aspekty  maloobchodnej  siete                mesta  Piešťany.  Diplomová  práca.  Nitra  :  FPV  UKF;  Katedra  geografie                a regionálneho rozvoja, 2012. 87 pp.                GUY, C. 1998. Classifications of retail Stores and Shopping Centres: Some                Methodological  Issues.  In  GeoJournal,  Vol.  45,  No.  4,  p.  255-264.  ISSN                0343-2521. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006960414161                HAASE, A., RINK, D., GROSSMANN, K. 2016. Shrinking Cities in Post-socialist                Europe: What can we learn from their Analysis for Theory building today.                In:  Geografiska  Annaler:  Series  B,  Human  Geography,  Vol.  98,  No.  4,                p. 305–319. https:/10.1111/geob.12106                HILLIER,  B.  1999.  Centrality  as  a  process:  Accounting  for  attraction                inequalities in deformed grids. In: Urban Design International, Vol. 4, No. 3,                p. 107-127. https://doi.org/10.1057/udi.1999.19                KRIŽAN,  F.  2007.  Regionálna  typológia  územia  Bratislavy  na  základe                dostupnosti supermarketov a hypermarketov. In: Geografický časopis, Vol.                59, No. 4, p. 373-384. ISSN 0016-7193.                KRIŽAN, F. 2009. Globalizácia maloobchodu: definícia základných procesov                a ich analýza v slovenskej geografii maloobchodu. In: Geografický časopis,                Vol. 61, No. 1, p. 49-68. ISSN 0016-7193.                KRIŽAN,  F.,  DANIELOVÁ,  K.  2008.  „Potravinové  púšte“  definované  na                základe  merania  dostupnosti  –  prípadová  štúdia  mesta  Bratislava.  In:                Urbanizmus a územní rozvoj, Vol. 9, No. 3, p. 1-6. ISSN 0231-715.                KRIŽAN,  F.,  LAUKO,  V.  2014.  Geografia  maloobchodu.  Úvod  do                problematiky.  Bratislava:  Univerzita  Komenského.  196  pp.  ISBN  978-80-                223-3542-3. ISBN 978-80-223-3542-3.                KUNC,  J.,  FRANTÁL,  B.,  SIWEK,  T.,  HALÁS,  M.,  KLAPKA,  P.,  SZCZYRBA,  Z.,                ZUSKÁČOVÁ,  V.  2013.  Časoprostorové  modely  nákupního  chování  české                populace. Brno, Masarykova univerzita. 194 pp. ISBN 978-80-210-5875-0.                                               539","KUNC,  J.  KRIŽAN,  F.  BILKOVÁ,  K.,  BARLÍK,  P.  MARYÁŠ,  J.  2016.  Are  there           differences  in  the  attractiveness  of  shopping  centres?  Experiences  from           the Czech and Slovak Republics. Moravian Geographical Reports, 24, No. 1,           pp. 27-41. ISSN 1210-8812.           MARYÁŠ, J., KUNC, J., TONEV, P., SZCZYRBA, Z. 2014. Shopping and services           related travel in the hinterland of Brno: changes from the socialist period           to the present. In: Moravian Geographical Reports, Vol. 22, No. 3, p. 18–           28. ISSN 1210-8812. https://doi.org/10.2478/mgr-2014-0015           MITRÍKOVÁ,  J.  2008.  Geografické  aspekty  transformácie  maloobchodu           a nákupného správania sa na Slovensku (prípadové štúdie z miest Prešova           Košice).  Prešov,  Prešovská  univerzita.  213  pp.  ISBN  978-80-8068-922-3.           https://doi.org/10.5937/GeoPan1503110M           MITRÍKOVÁ, J., ŠENKOVÁ, A., ANTOLÍKOVÁ, S. 2015. Application of the Huff           model  of  shopping  probability  in  the  selected  stores  in  Prešov  (Slovak           Republic). In: Geographica Pannonica, Vol. 19, No. 3, p. 110 – 121. ISSN           0354-8724.           MITRÍKOVÁ,  J. 2017.  Geografia maloobchodu. (vybrané kapitoly). Prešov,           Prešovská univerzita. 115 pp. ISBN 978-80-8165-218-9.           NAGY, E. 2001. Winners and Losers in the Transformation of City Centre           Retailing in East Central Europe. In: European Urban and Regional Studies,           Vol. 8, No. 4, p. 340-348. ISSN 0238-2008.           PETROVČÍKOVÁ, K. 2015. Lokalizácia maloobchodných jednotiek v regióne.           In:  Ekonomické  aspekty  územnej  samosprávy  –  medzinárodná  vedecká           konferencia: recenzovaný zborník. Košice, Univerzita P. J. Šafárika. 1-6 p.           ISBN 978-80-8152-361-8.           PULPITLOVÁ,  M.  2005.  Maloobchodná  sieť  mesta  Nitry  v rokoch  1992,           2002  a 2005.  In:  Geografie  XVI:  Geografické  aspekty  středoevropského           prostoru, p. 337-342. ISBN 80-210-3759-8.           SPILKOVÁ, J. 2012. Geografie maloobchodu a spotřeby. Praha, Karolinum.           245 pp. ISBN 978-80-246-1951-4.           SPILKOVÁ,  J.  2016.  Alternativní  potravinové  sítě:  česká  cesta.  Praha,           Karolinum. 184 pp. ISBN 978-80-246-3307-7.           SUCHÝ, J. 2010. Problematika potravinových pouští – případová studie Zlín.           Diplomová práce. Praha: Katedra sociální geografie a regionálního rozvoje           PřF UK.           SZCZYRBA,  Z.  2005.  Maloobchod  v ČR  po  roce  1989.  Vývoj  a trendy  se           zaměřením  na  geografickou  organizaci.  Olomouc,  Univerzita  Palackého.           126 pp. ISBN 80-244-1274-8.           SZCZYRBA, Z. 2006. Geografie obchodu (se zaměřením na současné trendy           v maloobchode).Olomouc, Univerzita Palackého. 91 p. ISBN 80-244-1453-8.           SZCZYRBA,  Z.,  FIEDOR,  D.  2014.  Vývoj  velkoplošného  maloobchodu           Olomouce a výzkum nákupního chování. 17th International Colloquium on           Regional Sciences, Brno, p. 740-748. ISBN 978-80-210-6840-7.           STATISTICAL OFFICE, 2017. http://datacube.statistics.sk/#!/view/sk/VBD_           TREMBOŠ, P. TREMBOŠOVÁ, M. 2014. Cestovný ruch a maloobchodná sieť.           In: Sborník z mezinárodní konference Aktuální problémy cestovního ruchu                                        540","„Cestovní ruch a jeho dopady na společnost“. VŠPJ Jihlava, p. 239-248. ISBN                978-80-87035-87-0                TREMBOŠOVÁ,  M.  2009.  Intraurbánne  spádové  oblasti  maloobchodnej                vybavenosti mesta Nitra v roku 2008. In: Geografické štúdie, Vol. 13, No. 2,                p. 93-109. ISSN 1337-9445.                TREMBOŠOVÁ,  M.  2010.  Vybrané  aspekty  transformácie  maloobchodu                v meste Nitra v rokoch 1992–2008. In: Geografický časopis, Vol. 62, No. 1,                p. 49-73. ISSN 0016-7193.                TREMBOŠOVÁ,  M.,  DUBCOVÁ,  A.  2013.  Vývoj  maloobchodu  v Nitre                v nových  trhových  podmienkach.  In:  Acta  Geographica  Universitatis                Comenianae, Vol. 57, No. 2, p. 213-230. ISSN 1338-6034.                TREMBOŠOVÁ,  M.,  DUBCOVÁ,  A.,  CIVÁŇ,  M.  2016.  Geografické  aspekty                maloobchodnej siete mesta Trnava a nákupné správanie jej obyvateľstva.                Prírodovedec, UKF Nitra, 175 pp. ISBN 978-80-558-1103-1.                URBION.  1984.  Zásady  a  pravidlá  územného  plánovania.  VÚVA                Brno/Urbion Bratislava.                VAUGHAN,  L.,  JONES,  C.  E., GRIFFITHS,  S.,  HAKLAY,  M.  2010.  The  spatial                signature of suburban town centers. In: The Journal of Space Syntax, Vol. 1,                No. 1, pp 77-91.                VIAS, A. C. 2004. Bigger stores, more stores, or no stores: paths of retail                restructuring in rural America. In: Journal of Rural Studies, Vol. 20, No. 3, p.                303-318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2003.10.003                VITURKA,  M.,  MARYÁŠ,  J.,  TOUŠEK,  V.,  VYSTOUPIL,  J.  1998.  Investiční                atraktivita vybraných měst České republiky. Brno: Masarykova Univerzita.                119 pp. ISBN 90-210-2007-5.                WILK, W. 2005. Miesjce miast w sieciach handlowych – przykład Polski. In:                Prace a Studia Geograficzne, Vol. 35, p. 129-153.                WIECKOVÁ,  S.  2017.  Vybrané  aspekty  maloobchodnej  vybavenosti  mesta                Piešťany.  Bakalárska  práca.  Nitra  :  FPV  UKF;  Katedra  geografie                a regionálneho rozvoja, 2017. 59 pp.                WRIGLEY, N., WARM, D., MARGETTS, B. 2003. Deprivation, Diet, and Food-                Retail  Access:  Findings  from  the  Leeds  `Food  Deserts'  Study.  In:                Environment and Planning A, Vol. 35, p. 151-188.                                            Zhrnutie                V spoločnosti formovanej pod vplyvom slobodného trhového hospodárstva                je  jednoznačne  najvýznamnejším  faktorom  veľkosť  dopytu.  Možno                oprávnene  predpokladať,  že  vo  významných  centrách  cestovného  ruchu                tento tvorí dominantnú zložku dopytu. To sa zákonite musí prejaviť aj na                charaktere  maloobchodnej  siete.  Vzhľadom  na  relatívne  dlhú  históriu                rozvoja  cestovného  ruchu  v  Piešťanoch  nie  je  prekvapujúce,  že  aj                maloobchodná sieť sa v tomto meste prispôsobila takto modifikovanému                dopytu (Trembošová and Tremboš, 2014).                Skúmané  okresné  mesto  Piešťany  patrí  do  skupiny  „shrinking“  miest                (Buček,  Bleha,  2013),  ktorých  počet  obyvateľov  sa  znižuje.  Pokles  počtu                obyvateľov v mestách je bežný fenomén v regióne postsocialistických miest                                              541","(Haase,  Rink,  Grossmann,  2016).  Podľa  Bučeka  a  Blehu,  (2013)  je  to           ovplyvnené   radom   procesov   sprevádzajúcich   postsocialistickú           transformáciu  a globalizáciu,  dezintegráciu,  pokles  celkovej  plodnosti  po           roku  1989,  proces  odloženej  plodnosti  v  postsocialistických  krajinách,           suburbanizácia  do  vidieckych  obcí  a pod.  Dlhodobé  znižovanie  počtu           obyvateľov podmieňuje  vznik voľných resp. opustených plôch v mestách,           zväčša spojených s procesmi deindustralizácie.           Znižovanie počtu obyvateľov v meste Piešťany sa rozhodne neodzrkadlilo           v maloobchodnej  sieti,  ktorá  sa  naopak  intenzívne  rozvíja  a vzrastá.           Kúpeľníctvo,  kultúra,  bohatá  história  mesta  Piešťany  láka  návštevníkov           opakovane  prichádzať  do  Piešťan,  a  to  vedie  majiteľov  a potenciálnych           investorov  vynakladať  úsilie  o rozvoj  maloobchodnej  siete  a inováciu  už           pôsobiacich a fungujúcich maloobchodných predajní.           V meste v rokoch 2011 až 2017 prebiehali súčasne dva procesy, znižoval sa           počet obyvateľov a zvyšoval sa počet a predajná plocha maloobchodných           prevádzok.  Tieto  procesy  ovplyvnili  ukazovatele  pre  výpočet  nami           vybraných parametrov - plošný a obslužný parameter a odzrkadlili sa v ich           zmene.  V porovnaní  s rokom  2011,  kedy  regionálnu  hierarchickú  úroveň           plošného parametra dosiahli 2 UO (Stred II. a Za železnicou, v roku 2017 to           už boli 4 UO (Kúpeľný areál, Stred I., PVÚ a Za železnicou). Podľa tempa           rastu najväčšie zmeny prebehli v UO PVÚ, Kúpeľný ostrov a Za železnicou.           Výsledkom  analýzy  plošného  parametra  je  znižovanie  disparít  MO           vybavenosti  medzi  jednotlivými  UO.  Vysokú  obslužnosť  podľa           rovnomenného  parametra  dosiahlo  5  UO  (Stred  I.,  Kúpeľný  ostrov,           Priemyselný  obvod,  Juh  II.,  a Za  železnicou).  Podľa  tempa  rastu  boli           najvýraznejšie zmeny v PVÚ, Priemyselný obvod a Stred II.           Piešťany so statusom kúpeľného mesta ovplyvnili aj naše postupy, keď sme           do  počtu  obyvateľov  s trvalým  pobytom  pripočítali  alikvótne  prepočty           prenocovaných návštevníkov, ktorých v roku 2011 bolo 1528 a v roku 2017           1697.  Keďže  nepoznáme  presné  lokalizácie  hotelov  a penziónov  ako           i ostatných  ubytovacích  zariadení  s danými  prenocovaniami,  tieto  počty           sme boli nútený pripočítať až k priemeru mesta. Týmto postupom sa nám           zmenili  celomestské  priemery  oboch  parametrov,  PAFS  dosiahol  v roku           2011  hodnotu  3,244  a 3,699  v roku  2017  (nárast  o 11,25%),  obslužný           parameter mesta Piešťany v roku 2011 bol 59.9 a 57.3 v roku 2017 (pokles           o 4,35%).           V ďalšej  etape  výskumu  bude  zaujímavé  rozšíriť  naše  výsledky           o spracovanie  vplyvu  kúpnej  sily  obyvateľstva  na  rozvoj  MO  siete,  príp.           o porovnanie  s mestom  Topoľčany  s podobným  počtom  obyvateľov           (26 916  k  31.12.2012,  kde  prebiehal  rovnaký  výskum  MO  siete  v r.  2012           spolu  346  predajní  na  ploche  45 281  m²,  PAFS  bol  1,682           (m²/1000 inhabitants).           V práci sme dospeli k výsledkom, ktoré hovoria o pozitívnej situácií v meste           Piešťany  v súčasnosti,  ale  výrazne  ovplyvňujú  dianie  aj  do  budúcna  a je           možné  predpokladať,  že  MO  sieť  mesta  Piešťany  sa  bude  neustále           perspektívne  rozvíjať.  V súčasnosti  MsÚ  Piešťany  neregistruje  žiadosti           o zmenu   územného   plánu   pre   potreby   nových   investorov           v maloobchodnom sektore.                                        542","SELECTED INDICATORS OF COMPUTER LTERACY OF THE POPULATION                                         IN SLOVAKIA                            Katarína Vilinová, Gabriela Repaská, Laura Babjaková                   Department of Geography and Regional Development, Faculty of Natural                Sciences Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Tr. A. Hlinku 1, 949 74,                                             Nitra                    kvilinova@ukf.sk, grepaska@ukf.sk, laura.babjakova@student.ukf.sk                 Abstract:  Due  to  the  rapid  growth  of  scientific  knowledge  and                development of information and communication technologies, significant                changes  are  taking  place  in  individual  countries.  New  technologies  are                coming  to  the  fore  through  which  there  is  an  increase  in  country's                economy, employment as well as labor productivity. To some extent, this                fact is influenced by the ability of basic computer skills. Computer handling                is an essential knowledge important to all areas of human life. Computer                work  is  one  of  the  leading  characters  of  an  information  society.  At  the                same time, this indicator is also important from the viewpoint of regional                development of individual regions. The aim of the paper is to characterize                selected indicators of computer literacy (work with text and the Internet)                in the districts of Slovakia based on the results of the population census in                2011.  The  methods  of  analysis,  synthesis  as  well  as  graphical  and                cartographic methods will be the main methods used in the paper.                Key  words:  computer  literacy,  work  with  text,  work  with  the  Internet,                Slovakia, districts                             COMPUTER LITERACY OF THE POPULATION                The current 21st century population is often referred to as an information                society.  This  concept  is  related  to  the  development  of  information  and                telecommunication technologies which affect the economies in individual                countries of the world as well as their inhabitants.                As a result of the introduction of new technologies and innovations, the                countries have to adapt to this trend and maintain the pace of growth. At                the  same  time,  considerable  disparities  in  the  development  in  different                regions of the world have emerged. Informatization has led to a transition                from an industrial society to an informational society which is very closely                related to literacy.                Literacy is currently a very broad-spectrum concept that includes several                other  types  (digital,  computer,  and  information).  These  began  to  be                separated gradually with the development of civilization. The most basic                understanding is that it is the ability of a person to write, read and count.                Digital literacy includes the ability to understand information and use it in                various  formats  from  various  sources  presented  through  modern                information  and  communication  technologies  (Velšič,  2005).  At  present,                                              543","however,  it  may  seem  that  this  term  is  only  a  synonym  of  computer           literacy and it is often being interchanged. These two types of literacy have           a close connection, but not the same meaning. Digital literacy is a relatively           complex  phenomenon  which  can  be  effectively  expressed  through           a synthesizing indicator - Digital Literacy Index (DLI). According to Svetlík,           Bačíková (2015), the level of digital literacy is  specific to  several aspects           whether in terms of gender, educational structure or other factors. Digital           literacy includes also computer literacy and complements it with several           competencies  and  capabilities  that  enable  critical,  creative  and  safe           procedures  to  work  with  digital  technologies  in  all  areas  of  life.  The           connection to education from primary school is very important from the           viewpoint of development of the given literacy (Hosťovecký, Štubňa, 2012,           Kramáreková et al., 2016).           In  today's  society,  great  emphasis  is  placed  on  information  literacy.  Its           importance grows gradually and it is important to every individual from the           aspect  of  both  personal  and  professional  life.  This  literacy  is  an           indispensable part of primary, secondary and tertiary education. However,           it  gradually  becomes  part  of  lifelong  learning  of  the  population.  The           information  society  is  defined  by  several  authors  e.g.  Korcová  (2004),           Klinec, (2010), etc.           Computer  literacy  is  generally  understood  as  the  ability  of  a  person  to           handle  and  use  a  personal  computer.  This  concept  is  very  difficult  to           precisely  define  and  separate  from  information  or  digital  literacy.           According to Jirák, Wolak (2007), the computer literacy represents a set of           knowledge  and  skills  aimed  at  handling  and  using  the  computer  in  life           (work  with  a  text  program,  tables,  graphs,  numerical  data,  acquiring           information and communicating via computer, using the Internet, e-mail           account, etc.). One aspect of computer literacy is its spatial differentiation.           This  phenomenon  is  analyzed  in  the  young  population  of  Serbia  by           Stojanovic  et  al.  (2017).  They  point  to  the  differences  in  both  age  and           gender structure of this population group.            Indicators for the Evaluation of Computer Literacy of the Population                                    in Slovakia           In Slovakia, computer literacy has been paid close attention in recent years           since it lags behind the European average regarding the level of individual           computer  skills.  In  particular,  it  is  the  older  generation  which  has           difficulties in adapting to the use of modern technologies. Increase in the           level of computer knowledge and skills is also important from the aspect of           communication  of  population  and  various  state  institutions.  Due  to  the           informatization  of  society,  most  of  the  services  of  state  institutions  are           being mediated via the Internet (Velšič, 2015).           The population census  in Slovakia in 2011  (SODB 2011) included for the           first  time  the  survey  on  the  computer  knowledge  of  the  population  i.e.           skills related to the computer literacy. For the  first time,  the population           was surveyed the level of selected computer skills. The census was a part           of the global population and housing census program. It was organized in           cooperation with Eurostat and coordinated by the United Nations.                                        544","The  Statistical  Office  of  the  Slovak  Republic  surveyed  the  ability  of  the                population  to  handle  individual  computer  skills  which  they  identified  as                computer literacy. The content of the survey was not to find the level of                handling particular skills, but only the fact if the person handles the given                skills through self-assessment. The survey included four areas of computer                literacy: work with text, tables, e-mail, and the Internet.                During the SODB 2011, Slovakia had 5 397 036 inhabitants. Based on the                census data, 49.9% of the population can work with text while 38.8% of                them  can  handle  the  work  with  tables.  The  work  with  an  e-mail  was                declared by 46.9% of the population and work with the Internet by 53.8%                (Table 1).                Different  types  of  skills  belonging  to  computer  literacy  and  which  were                analyzed require different knowledge and skills. Work with the Internet is                one of the most basic skills in order to handle computer work. This skill is                currently handled also by preschool children because it does not require                any special education. The second highest share can be seen in the work                with  text.  Nowadays,  this  skill  is  a  necessity  in  some  jobs  as  well  as  in                education.  It  is  handled  by  about  half  of  the  population  in  Slovakia.                Regarding the work with table editor such as Microsoft Excel, the lowest                percentage  of  population  (38.8%)  was  recorded.  This  computer  skill  is                mostly used by people with higher education. This type of activity already                requires more knowledge and experience. From a gender perspective, we                can say that men prevail in all computer skills (Table 1) which means that                male gender has a closer relation to these technical skills.                Tab. 1: Computer skills of the population in Slovakia according to gender in                2011                                       Women           Men           Sum                   Computer skills                                      Abs.    %     Abs.    %      Abs.    %                   Work with text   1 303 601  24.2  1 387 415  25.7  2 691 016  49.9                   Work with tables   1 033 876  19.2  1 062 327  19.7  2 096 203  38.8                  Work with e-mail   1 245 998  23.1  1 287 623  23.9  2 533 621  46.9                Work with the Internet  1 445 372  26.8  1 460 002  27.1  2 905 374  53.8                Source: SODB 2011; elaborated by: Babjaková L., 2017                 One of the most common activities in the computer work is writing and                editing  text.  Work  with  text  usually  belongs  to  the  first  activities  with                which the computer beginners start to get familiar. The programs that are                needed to create a text are called text editors. There are a number of text                editors from different software companies. An example is Microsoft Word                which is a part of the most widely used office software called Microsoft                Office.                At  the  regional  level,  we  can  see  different  representation  of  this  skill,                which is documented in Graph 1. The highest percentage was recorded in                the Bratislava Self-governing Region (63.7%). On the contrary, the Košice                                               545","Self-governing  Region  reached  the  lowest  value  with  44.7%  of  the           population who can work with text.              80             Share of population (%)  40              60                20                0                                                   Prešov                                      Trnava                                                          Banská                                             Nitra                 Bratislava                         Žilina                               Trenčín                                                          Bystrica  Košice                                     Region                 Yes  No    Not found           Graph  1:  Population  with  the  ability  to  work  with  text  in  the  regions  of           Slovakia in 2011           Source: SODB 2011; elaborated by: Babjaková L., 2017            Map 1 documents the studied indicator at the level of districts in Slovakia.           Significantly  above-average  values  can  be  seen  especially  in  the  districts           located  in  the  Bratislava  Self-governing  Region.  These  districts  are           accompanied by the Nitra District as well as six districts located mainly in           the  central  part  of  Slovakia.  The  highest  values  were  reached  by  the           districts of Bratislava V (70.2%) and Bratislava IV (69.2%). Below-average           values of handling this  skill  can be seen in the districts of Southern and           Eastern Slovakia with the exception of the districts of Humenné, Košice I,           and Košice III.                              Map  1:  Population  with  the  ability  to  work  with  text  in  the  districts  of           Slovakia in 2011           Source: SODB 2011; elaborated by: Babjaková L., 2017                                         546","The created disparities between Western and Eastern Slovakia are caused                by different educational structure, economic activity of the population and                an  important  role  is  played  in  particular  by  larger  representation  of  the                Roma minority in the districts of Southern and Eastern Slovakia. Therefore,                the  lowest  values  were  reached  in  the  districts  of  Revúca  (37.8%),                Rimavská  Sobota  (38.1%),  and  Kežmarok  (39.3%)  which  in  long-term                belong to the least developed districts of Slovakia from the viewpoint of                several aspects.                The second studied indicator of computer literacy was the work with the                Internet. The Internet is one of the information media that has spread very                quickly around the world and it still expands. It is the name for a system for                viewing, storing and creating links to documents on the Internet.                    80                   Share of population (%)  40 0                    60                     20                                             Trnava                               Žilina                                     Trenčín                       Bratislava                                                                Banská                                              Region  Nitra  Prešov  Bystrcia  Košice                         Yes  No  Not found                Graph 2: Population with the ability to work with the Internet in the regions                of Slovakia in 2011                Source: SODB 2011; elaborated by: Babjaková L., 2017                 During the census (2011), work with the Internet was the most widely used                skill of computer literacy. The highest value at the level of the regions was                reached  by  the  Bratislava  Self-governing  Region  (66.1%)  and  Žilina  Self-                governing  Region  (56.4%).  Similarly  to  the  previous  indicator,  the  Košice                Self-governing  Region  again  maintained  its  unfavorable  position  with                a share  of  about  50%.  Unlike  the  previous  indicator,  the  differences  in                individual regions of Slovakia are less significant (Graph 2).                                                               547","Map 2: Population with the ability to work with the Internet in the districts           of Slovakia in 2011           Source: SODB 2011; elaborated by: Babjaková L., 2017            Map 2 documents the ability of inhabitants to work with the Internet in the           districts  of  Slovakia.  Similarly  to  previous  indicator,  districts  of  the           Bratislava Self-governing Region are dominant. The above-average values           were  also  recorded  in  these  districts:  Nitra,  Námestovo,  Dolný  Kubín,           Žilina, Ružomberok, Liptovský Mikuláš, Banská Bystrica, and Zvolen. Below-           average values were reached by the districts in southern and southeastern           part of Slovakia. The lowest share of Internet users was in Revúca (41.4%).           This indicator is also affected by the broadband internet connection and its           coverage  in  the  regions.  The  problem  is  the  lack  of  quality  electronic           services and the development of access networks. The access networks are           built  mainly  in  cities  and  municipalities  with  high  population  density  or           concentration  of  business  activities.  Rural  and  mountainous  areas  and           economically  weak  regions  remain  on  the  margin  of  interest.  It  is  these           regions  where  the  assistance  is  directed  as  a  part  of  the  regional           development  of  Slovakia.  From  the  viewpoint  of  the  availability  of           broadband  internet  connction,  Slovakia  clearly  belongs  to  the  least           developed EU countries despite the dynamic increase in connections.           From  the  viewpoint  of  the  development  of  Internet  usage,  we  can  see           a relatively increasing trend in the studied period of 2004 - 2016 (Graph 3).           There were no significant fluctuations during the studied period, but the           use of the Internet increased by 3.6% on average from year to year. The           greatest  progress  was  in  2007  and  2008.  By  2007,  the  share  of  Internet           users  increased  by  8%  to  51%  and  in  2008  it  was  by  11%  to  62%.  The           overall increase in Internet usage during this years is also related to the           development  of  broadband  internet  coverage  in  Slovakia  which  the           government set in the programming period of 2007 - 2013 as one of the           priorities in the field of informatization of the society. The only decrease in           the  studied  period  occurred  in  2015  when  the  share  of  Internet  users                                        548","dropped  by  two  percent  to  74%.  By  2016,  78%  of  the  population  in                Slovakia had the ability to work with the Internet.                    100                   Share of population (%)  60 0                     80                     40                     20                         2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016                                               Year                 Graph  3:  Population  with  the  ability  to  work  with  the  Internet  in  Slovakia                during the years 2004-2016                Source: EUROSTAT; elaborated by: Babjaková L., 2017                 Graph  4  documents  the  development  of  Internet  usage  among  the                population  of  V4  countries  from  2004  to  2016.  In  the  context  of  the                comparison  of  Slovakia  with  other  V4  countries,  we  can  see  a  relatively                favorable development.                    100                   Share of  population (%)  60                     80                      40                     20                      0                         2 004 2 005 2 006 2 007 2 008 2 009 2 010 2 011 2 012 2 013 2 014 2 015 2 016                                              Year                                      Czech Republic       Hungary                Graph 4: Population with the ability to work with the Internet in V4 countries                during the years 2004-2016                Source: EUROSTAT; elaborated by: Babjaková L., 2017                 The  largest  share  of  the  population  with  the  ability  to  work  with  the                Internet between 2004 and 2014 was in Slovakia. Since 2014, Czechia took                a leading position while Slovakia and Hungary recorded approximately the                same values. In terms of the change index from the first to the last studied                year, the greatest progress was recorded in the Slovak population with the                value of 51.3%.                                                 549","CONCLUSION           Computer  literacy  of  the  population  is  a  topic  that  has  been  paid  much           attention  in  recent  years.  It  is  an  important  aspect  for  the  country  and           points  to  its  development.  It  is  important  to  know  for  the  society,           professionals  and  institutions  how  the  population  acquires  the  skills  to           work with new technologies such as computers.           As  for  the  studied  indicators  of  computer  skills  of  the  population  in           Slovakia  in  2011,  we  can  see  significant  differences  in  the  west-east           direction.  The  western  part  of  Slovakia  is  economically  more  developed           and more educated as a result of which it recorded the highest shares of           the population with computer skills. On the contrary, the eastern part of           Slovakia  is  typical  for  districts  that  have  long  been  defined  as  the  least           developed regions in terms of several indicators. An example is the lower           educational level or economic activity of the population. We can also see           considerable differences in the north-south direction where there is a clear           lagging of the southern part of Slovakia behind the northern part.           In terms of the development and dynamics of the two main indicators of           computer  work  (work  with  e-mail,  work  with  the  Internet),  Slovakia  has           a positive development in comparison with other V4 countries. By the year           2016, 71% of the population in Slovakia was capable of working with the           Internet  and  78%  with  an  e-mail.  Computer  literacy  is  a  necessary           prerequisite for life in today's modern society. We can assume that along           with  the  increasing  living  standard  of  the  population  the  differences  in           computer knowledge in Slovakia will decrease and the share of inhabitants           capable of computer work will increase. We assume that this trend will be           confirmed by the census in 2021.            Acknowledgements:  This  paper  was  prepared  within  the  grant  project           VEGA 1/0934/17: Land-use changes of Slovak cultural landscape over the           past 250 years and prediction of its further development.                                     REFERENCES           HOSŤOVECKY,  M.,  STUBNA,  J.,  2012.  Development  of  digital  literacy  in           technical  subjects  at  primary  schools.  In:  10th  IEEE  International           Conference  on  Emerging  eLearning  Technologies  and  Applications           (ICETA)Location: Stara Lesna: 2012. pp. 139-141           JIRÁK, J., WOLÁK, R. 2007. Mediální gramotnost jako dimenze současného           člověka. 1. vyd. Praha: Radioservis, 2007. 152 s. ISBN 978-80-86212-58-6.           KLINEC, J. 2010. Ekonomická podstata prechodu k informačnej spoločnosti.           Bratislava: Ekonomický ústav SAV, 2010. 38 s. [cit. 2017-06-30]. Dostupné           na   internete:<http://www.ekonom.sav.sk/uploads/journals/WP26.pdf>.           ISSN 1337–5598.           KORCOVÁ,  Z.  2004.  Informačná  spoločnosť  a  SR.  In:  Zborník  z  vedeckej           konferencie „Aktuálne problémy riešené v agrokomplexe“ Nitra: SPU, 2004,           s. 545-551. ISBN 80-8069-488-6.                                         550","KRAMARÉKOVÁ,  H.,  NEMČÍKOVÁ,  M.,  RAMPAŠEKOVÁ,  Z.,  SVORAD,  A.,                DUBCOVÁ, A., VOJTEK, M. 2016. Cartographic Competence of a Geography                Teacher  –  Current  State  and  Perspective.  In:  Bandrova,  T.,  Konečný,  M.                (eds.) 6th International Conference on Cartography \& GIS: vol. 1, 2016. pp.                200-209. ISSN 1314-0604. https://doi.org/10.18421/GP21.01-04                STOJANOVIC, T., PENJISEVIC, I., LUKIC, T., ZIVKOVIC, J. Computer literacy of                young  people  in  Serbia  and  regional  differences.  In:  Geographica                Pannonica. vol. 21 (1).  pp. 43-53. DOI: 10.18421/GP21.01-04                SVETLIK, J., BACIKOVA, Z., 2015. Digital natives immigrants and literacy, age                and gender differences in Slovakia. In: International Scientific Conference                on Marketing Identity – Digital Life Location: Smolenice: 2015, pp. 331-342                VELŠIČ,  M.  2005.  Digitálna  gramotnosť  na  Slovensku.  Bratislava:  Inštitút                pre verejné otázky. 2005. 31 s. [cit. 2017-07-10]. Dostupné na internete:                <http://www.ivo.sk/buxus/docs//vyskum/subor/Digitalna_gramotnost.pdf                >.                VELŠIČ,  M.  2015.  Digitálna  gramotnosť  na  Slovensku.  Bratislava:  Inštitút                pre verejné otázky. 2015. 31 s. [cit. 2017-07-10]. Dostupné na internete:                <http://www.ivo.sk/buxus/docs//publikacie/subory/Digitalna_gramotnost                _2015.pdf>.                                            Zhrnutie                V  dôsledku  rýchleho  rastu  vedeckých  poznatkov  a  vývoja  informačno-                komunikačných  technológií  nastávajú  v  jednotlivých  krajinách  výrazné                zmeny.  Do  popredia  sa  dostávajú  nové  technológie,  prostredníctvom                ktorých  dochádza  k  ekonomickému  rastu  krajiny,  rastu  zamestnanosti                a v neposlednom  rade  rastu  produktivity  práce.  Tento  fakt  je  do  určitej                miery  opvlyvnený  schopnosťou  základných  počítačových  zručností.                Ovládanie  práce  s  počítačom  je  nevyhnutnou  znalosťou  dôležitou  pre                všetky  oblasti  života  človeka.  Práca  s  počítačom  je  jeden  z  popredných                znakov  informačnej  spoločnosti.  Zároveň  je  tento  ukazovateľ  dôležitý  aj                z hľadiska regionálneho rozvoja jednotlivých regiónov. Cieľom príspevku je                charakteristika  vybraných  ukazovateľov  počítačovej  gramotnosti  (práca                s textom a internetom) v okresoch Slovenska na základe výsledkov Sčítania                obyvateľov  domov  a bytov  (SODB)  2011.    Počítačová  gramotnosť                obyvateľstva je téma, ktorej sa v priebehu posledných rokov venuje veľká                pozornosť.  Je  to  dôležitý  aspekt  rozvoja  krajiny  a  poukazuje  na  jej                vyspelosť.  Pre  spoločnosť,  odborníkov  ako  aj  inštitúcie  je  dôležité                zisťovanie stavu populácie v oblasti osvojenia si zručnosti práce s novými                technológiami ako sú počítače.                Pri  sledovaných  indikátoroch  počítačových  znalostí  obyvateľov  na  území                Slovenska k roku 2011 môžeme konštatovať značné rozdiely v smere západ                – východ. Západná časť územia Slovenska tvorí ekonomicky rozvinutejšiu,                vzdelanejšiu časť územia v dôsledku čoho vykazovala aj najvyššie podiely                obyvateľov  schopných  ovládať  jednotlivé  počítačové  zručnosti.  Naopak                východná časť Slovenska je typická lokalizáciou okresov, ktoré sú dlhodobo                definované ako najzaostalejšie regióny z hľadiska viacerých ukazovateľov.                Príkladom je nižšia vzdelanostná úroveň či ekonomická aktivita obyvateľov.                                              551","Značné  rozdiely  sme  mohli  sledovať  na  území  našej  krajiny  aj  v  smere           sever – juh, kde je zreteľné zaostávanie južnej časti Slovenska za severnou.           Z hľadiska  vývoja  a  dynamiky  ovládania  dvoch  hlavných  indikátorov           v oblasti  práce  s počítačom  (práca  s  e-mailom,  práca  s  internetom)  má           Slovensko  priaznivý  vývoj  aj  v  porovnaní  s  krajinami  patriacimi  do           spoločenstva Vyšehradskej štvorky. K roku 2016 ovládalo prácu s e-mailom           71%  obyvateľov  a  prácu  s internetom  78%  obyvateľov  Slovenska.           Počítačové  znalosti  sú  nevyhnutným  predpokladom  života  v  dnešnej           modernej  spoločnosti  a  môžeme  predpokladať,  že  so  zvyšujúcou  sa           životnou  úrovňou  obyvateľov  sa  budú  v priebehu  nasledujúcich  rokov           zmenšovať  aj  jednotlivé  rozdiely  ovládania  počítačových  znalostí  v  rámci           územia Slovenska a celkovo sa bude zvyšovať podiel obyvateľov schopných           ovládať prácu s počítačom. Predpokladáme, že tento trend sa potvrdí pri           sčítanie v roku 2021.                                                                                   552","POTENTIAL OF THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN MUNICIPALITIES OF                            THE LOCAL ACTION GROUP HORNÝ LIPTOV                                               1                               Gréta Vrbičanová , Hilda Kramáreková 2                 1                  Department of Ecology and Environmentalistics, Faculty of Natural Sciences,                  Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Trieda A. Hlinku 1, 949 74                                      Nitra, Slovak Republic                                     greta.vrbicanova@ukf.sk                   2                    Department of Geography and Regional Development, Faculty of Natural                  Sciences, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Trieda A. Hlinku 1,                                    949 74 Nitra, Slovak Republic                                      hkramarekova@ukf.sk                 Abstract:  Tourism  has  a significant  impact  on  the  economic  and  social                development of the regions. The importance of this sector, not only for the                economy but also for the general development of countries, confirms the                fact that the United Nations declared the year 2017 as the International                Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development. This organization appeals to                tourism  stakeholders  and  the  public  to  create  a  number  of  positive                changes  in  tourism.  Their  job  is  to  look  for  new  opportunities,  ways  of                promotion,  and  tourism  services  in  less  desired  areas.  In  this  sense,  the                aim of this article was defined – to analyze the tourism potential for the                region of Horný Liptov in the context of activities of relevant organizations                and to propose new activities for its further development.                Key  words:  development,  tourism,  publicity,  Local  Action  Group  Horný                Liptov                                         INTRODUCTION                Tourist industry in Slovakia began to develop in the eighteenth century in                the  area  of  Western  Carpathian.  The  development  of  skiing,  mountain                climbing  and  tourism  in  Tatras  and  Liptov  region  started  not  until  1873                with the establishment of the Hungarian Carpathian Society in Tatranská                Lomnica.  During  the  twentieth  century,  a system  of  tourist  trails  was                established  here  ranked  among  the  best  in  the  world  considering  the                length,  maintenance,  marking,  and  compatibility  with  GPS  maps                (Pichlerová, 2015). The high potential in tourism of Liptov region does not                consist only in its natural uniquenesses but also in cultural traditions. In                this article, we will deal with potential development of tourism of the Local                Action Group Horný Liptov (LAG HL), the method of its  propagation and                with organizations whose activities in the area influence the development                of tourism.                                               553","THEORETICAL-METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS           Tourism  is  an  important  factor  of  the  regional  economy  which  becomes           evident by the means of income function, employment function, balancing           function  and  value  creation  function  (Jarábková,  2010).  Several  strategic           documents ensureits sustainable development, both on transnational level           (e.  g.  A European  Strategy  for  more  Growth  and  Jobs  in  Coastal  and           Maritime  Tourism,  www.europarl.europa.eu)  and  on  national  level           The Tourism  Development  Strategy till  2020,  www.telecom.gov.sk).           Concerning the legislative, the following laws interfere the most with the           tourism  area:  Act No 91/2010 Coll.  on  support  of tourism  and  Act  No           281/2001  Coll.  On  Collective  Tours,  Business  Conditions  for  the  Travel           Offices and Agencies. Hence the development of sustainable tourism in the           area of LAG HL requires usage of natural, cultural and other resources with           the emphasis on the preservation of their natural values. The planning of           the development must be coordinated with an institution and a strategic           document  also  on  the  subregional  level.  For  the  LAG  HL  there  are  two           strategy  papers  in  the  new  program  period:  Community-Led  Local           Development  (CLLD)  of  LAG  HL  2014-2020  and  Common  Program  of           Economic and Social Development of LAG HL till 2022 (the elaborator of           both documents is the LAG HL).           The  development  of  microregions  in  Slovak  Republic  represents  a  broad           publication  issue.  From  among  the  inspirational  works  of  national           provenience we might mention authors as Charvát (2012), Kramáreková,           Dubcová, Kasanická (2009), Oremusová (2009) and others. Many authors           also  deal  with  the  tourism  development  problem  in  conditions  of           microregions  or  the  LAG  in  the  Slovak  Republic,  e.g.  Novanská           a Brnkaľáková  (2014),  Bátora  et  al.  (2010),  Jarábková  (2010),  Dubcová,           Kramáreková, Rýchla (2001), Clarke et al. (2001) and others. In the article,           we outlined the question of ecosystem services evaluation which consists           in the identification of ecological, social and economic values of the area           and its subsequent protection. The authors, who are engaged in this area,           are  e.g.  Bucur,  Strobel  (2012),  Getzner  (2010),  Považan,  Getzner,  Švajda           (2014) and others. We have used the information also from the authors           Vrbičanová,  Kramáreková  (2016),  Vrbičanová  (2016),  Pichlerová  (2015),           Mariot (1983) and from the websites www.hornyliptov.sk (LAG HL, 2015),           www.klasterliptov.sk (Klaster Liptov, 2017), www.napant.sk (Národný park           Nízke  Tatry  -  NAPANT,  2017),  www.spravatanap.sk  (Tatranský  národný           park - TANAP, 2017), www.euwt-tatry.eu (European Grouping of Territorial           Cooperation TATRY Limited – EGTC TATRY Ltd, 2017).           We  used  several  methods  -  the  method  of  analysis,  field  research,           questionnaire  survey  of  the  25  mayors  of  municipalities,  comparative           method  and  SWOT  analysis.  Thanks  to  them,  we  identified  the           suppositions  of  tourism  development  in  the  LAG  HL  area  and  the           organizations in the area with participation in tourism. The results of the           questionnaire  survey  were  evaluated  in  absolute  and  relative  data  and           visualized through graphs. Map outputs were processed using ArcView GIS           software.                                         554","CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LOCAL ACTION GROUP HORNÝ LIPTOV                The  LAG  HL  is  situated  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Liptovský  Mikuláš                district in Žilina region. The area extends on the West of Liptovská kotlina                (Liptov Basin), it is lined by the Low Tatras mountain range from the South,                and  by  the  West  and  High  Tatras  from  the  South.  The  most  important                water course is Váh running through the center of the LAG HL area. The                area  of  this  association  is  bordered  by  Poland  on  the  North,  by  Poprad                district on the East, and by Brezno district on the South. Considering the                transport, the area has a convenient location. A railway traverses almost                through  its  center  (railway  105,  section  Liptovský  Mikuláš  –  Liptovský                Hrádok – Važec) and D1 motorway section in the West – East direction.                The nearest airport is located in Poprad, a city distant 27 km to the East                from the LAG HL area.                                            Fig. 1. Area of the LAG Horný Liptov in the Slovak Republic (2017).                 The idea to connect the municipalities of Horný Liptov with the intent to                systematical partnership on the development originated in 2007. Twenty-                one municipalities altogether joined the public-private partnership in 2008                (Vyšná  Boca,  Nižná  Boca,  Malužiná,  Kráľova  Lehota,  Liptovská  Porúbka,                Podtureň,  Liptovský  Ján,  Uhorská  Ves,  Beňadiková,  Liptovský  Ondrej,                Konská,  Jakubovany,  Jamník,  Pribylina,  Liptovská  Kokava,  Vavrišovo,                Liptovský  Peter,  Hybe,  Východná,  Važec,  Závažná  Poruba)  and  Liptovský                Hrádok.  Six  years  later,  Veterná  Poruba,  Smrečany,  and  Žiar  joined  the                association  as  well  (Fig.  1).  Twenty-five  municipalities,  twelve  corporate                entities,  and  eighteen  personal  entities  are  its  members  at  the  present                                                          2                time. These 25 municipalities represent 800.77 km  (59.7% of the area of                                                                st                Liptovský Mikuláš district) with 26335 inhabitants (up to 1  July 2017). The                                              555","webpage  of  the  LAG  HL  is  www.hornyliptov.sk.  The  members  of  the           association are: members' meeting, board, chair, vice-president, manager           and auditing commission. (http://www.hornyliptov.sk/dokumenty.html).             PRECONDITIONS OF TOURISM DEVELOPMENT ON THE AREA OF THE                                 LAG HORNÝ LIPTOV           Within  the  categorization  of  the  touristic  regions  in  Slovakia,  Liptov  is           ranked  among  the  regions  with  international  importance  (Weiss,           Kostovský, 2005).  The  region  earned  this  prestige  not  only  because  of           natural and cultural preconditions but also thanks to organizations which           stand  behind  their  propagation  and  protection.  According  to  Mariot           (1983), the visit rate of the area is the mirror of its quality. The visit rate is           comprised  of  a  package  of  activities,  and  a  standard  of  services  or           accessibility.  The  localization  of  tourism  within  the  LAG  HL  binds  to  the           natural conditions predominantly (TANAP/NAPANT) and also of its cultural           traditions.  For  this  area  is  typical  higher  rate  of  representation  of  the           traditional way of life in the countryside (Pribylina, Východná, Nižná Boca).           The fundamental part of tourism is a package of realization preconditions.           By  their  means,  the  visitors  are  offered  a  stay  out  of  legal  residence.           A network of catering, accommodation, and sport and relaxing services in           the  area  belongs  to  the  realization  preconditions  of  tourism.  They  are           located  in  developed  destinations  considering  the  tourism  (Liptovský           Hrádok, Liptovský Ján). The providers of such services in the LAG HL area           are dispersed also in TANAP and NAPANT areas. In the area of the LAG HL           is  tourism  development  ensured  by  several  program  documents  and           organizations.  One  of  the  duties  of  the  LAG  HL,  which  results  from  the           articles of the association           (http://www.hornyliptov.sk/upload/File/dokumenty_2014/           stanovy_akt_2014.pdf), is also the control of implementation of the CLLD           Strategy of Horný Liptov up to 2020 and the Common Programme of the           economic and social development of the municipalities of Horný Liptov up           to 2022. Due to the fact that there are 4.7 visitors fall on one inhabitant in           the LAG HL (the efficiency of tourist industry in HL area presents a sum of €           8,663,832  and  the  gain  recalculated  on  one  inhabitant  is  €  313.7),  the           association  gives  attention  to  tourism  also  in  their  strategic  documents.           The  association  included  the  demand  to  enhance  the  infrastructure  of           tourism in priority areas of development within the frame of strategic part           CLLD. The aim is to build the infrastructure of nature and tourist trails and           bicycle tracks in forests as well, whereby the previous programming period           2007-2013 is followed. Almost 260 km of bicycle routes  were marked in           the LAG HL area within this period (MAS HL, 2015a). The tourism Cluster           Liptov  (Klaster  Liptov)  exceeds  in  the  propagation  of  Liptov  region  as           a whole  since  2008  (www.klasterliptov.sk).  It  is  the  first  Destination           Management Organisation  in  Slovakia  with  the  vision  to  make  Liptov  a           recognizable destination within Europe. From the LAG HL association, the           city Liptovský Hrádok and the municipality Smrečany are included in this           society of corporate entities (26 members). An active presentation of the           offers in the region is advertised on the  webpage www.visitliptov.sk, on           the social network Facebook as well, or via printed promotional materials.                                        556","From  among  many  activities  of  the  Cluster  Liptov,  the  collaboration  on                Hrádocké hradné dni (Hrádok castle days) held within XIV. Hornoliptovský                jarmok (Upper Liptov Market Days) in Liptovský Hrádok in the beginning of                September 2017 is notable.                The  tourism  in  the  LAG  HL  area  is  supported  by  the  activities  of  two                national   parks   NAPANT   (http://www.napant.sk/)   and   TANAP                (http://spravatanap.sk/  web/index.php)  administrations  well,  which                actively  interaction  social  network  Facebook.  The  planned  activities  and                current events in national parks are advertised there. The area becomes                more  attractive  also  thanks  to  EGTC TATRY  Ltd  (http://www.euwt-                tatry.eu/sk/). Their flagship project “Historical – cultural – natural cycling                route around the Tatra Mountains” connects Slovak and Polish Republic.                By the end of 2018, the construction of a bicycle route is planned through                the  municipalities  Važec,  Východná,  Kráľova  Lehota,  Liptovská  Porúbka,                Liptovský Ján, Podtureň, and Závažná Poruba from whence it continues to                Liptovský Mikuláš. The co-financing of the project and also its propagation                on  the  website  (http://www.cestaokolotatier.eu/),  social  networks                Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and Youtube is provided from the European                Union resources from the European Regional Development Fund within the                cross-border cooperation program INTERREG PL-SK 2014-2020.                With the aim to find out the tendency and the development of tourism of                the  LAG  HL  association,  we  asked  the  mayors  of  the  municipalities                questions about the propagation of the municipality and about the LAG HL                association  concerning  tourism.  According  to  the  mayors  (Graph 1),  the                association could have promoted cultural events (26%), regional product                (23%), and more advertising materials (21%).                                                  advertising materials                      23%       21%              cultural events                                                  fairs                    12%                          propagation on the internet                                  26%                       10%                       opportunities for recreation                           8%                    regional product                 Graph 1: Mayors' opinion about the promotion of the tourism in the LAG HL                area                 Only  8  out  of  25  mayors  rated  the  propagation  of  municipality  as                satisfactory, related to quality/quantity of the information advertised on                the internet. The majority of the mayors (20 out of 25) consider the offer                of services for tourists in the municipality's area as insufficient. The mayors                see the potential of the municipality's tourism development mainly in the                existence of natural environment (8), in the bicycle routes (6), and in the                general propagation of municipality (5).                                              557","Through  the  Rural  Development  Programme  of  the  Slovak  Republic  and           LAG HL was in 2013 supported a project “Regional electronic information           system”  (www.hornyliptov.eu).  It  was  realized  by  the  Association  of           landlords  of  the  Tatras.  Its  aim  was  to  inform  the  tourists  about  the           possibilities  how  to  spend  the  leisure  time,  and  the  opportunities  of           accommodation and catering in Horný Liptov. The last time the webpage           was updated was in 2014. Thereby its original idea to start the propagation           of  the  tourism  in  the  LAG  HL  area  declines  repeatedly.  Currently,  the           association  is  not  active  almost  for  a  year  even  on  its  own  webpage           (www.hornyliptov.sk). It does not do any promotional activity via printed           media,  such  as  advertising  brochures  about  municipalities  (the  last  are           from 2011), informative bulletins (the last are from 2014), calendars and           other advertising items (the last are from 2014), or annual reports (the last           is from 2015). In the light of these circumstances, the problem of tourism           propagation stays within the member municipalities of the LAG HL.             SWOT ANALYSIS OF THE TOURISM IN THE LAG HORNÝ LIPTOV AREA           Based on the analysis of development documents, interviews with mayors           of  municipalities  as  well  as  questionnaire  survey  of  the  mayors  of           municipalities, we came to the conclusion that all municipalities from the           association consider the propagation and utilization of their area for the           purposes of tourism as inadequate, except the municipality Liptovský Ján           (LAGHL, 2015b). The final view on the tourism situation in the LAG HL area           is reflected by SWOT analysis (Tab. 1) processed on the basis of the field           research.           Tab. 1: SWOT analysis of the tourism in the LAG HL area           Strengths                      Weaknesses           · wide offer of natural and cultural   · deficient propagation/marketing on the            uniquenesses                   part of the LAG HL           · preserved cultural traditions   · pollution of the area (illegal dumping,           · original rural buildings      insufficient waste sorting ...)           · presence of protected areas (national parks  · limited service coverage of the area (rental            TANAP, NAPANT...)              services, guide services,           · tradition in cultural events (Východná,   accommodation/catering facilities...)            Pribylina, Liptovský Hrádok)    · low number of entrepreneurs within           · activity of Klaster Liptov    tourism           · high forest coverage of the area   · inappropriate hotel architecture, which           · excellent accessibility (D1, railway...)    often does not fit into the mountain           · elaborated documents for the development   landscape,            of municipalities with a declared interest in  · inappropriate location of accommodation            developing tourism             facilities in valuable and vulnerable areas of                                           protected areas            Opportunities                  Threats           · field of study “Entrepreneurin rural tourism” · absence of eligible funding leading to a            at   Secondary  School  of  Jozef  Dekret  reduction of activities related to the            Matejovie in Liptovský Hrádok   tourism           · development  of  agricultural  tourism  (Žiar, · growing number of marginalized population            Beňadiková, Liptovská Kokava)   leading to a higher rate of criminality and                                           vandalism                                        558","· transition to BIO farms/agriculture   · illegal felling and timber pests leading to                · reconstruction of original houses   forest loss                · providing private accomodation   · collision between nature protection and                · hunting law enforcement (Liptovská   investors leading to problems with planned                  Porúbka, Liptovská Kokava)     recreational built – up areas and                · independent municipality initiative to build   sustainable landscaping                  tourism infrastructure                Source: own processing, 2017                       PROPOSALS FOR ACTIVITIES OF TOURISM DEVELOPMENT                The LAG HL area offers a large number of ways how to spend leisure time                for local and foreign tourists throughout the whole year. Both natural and                cultural wealth Horný Liptov region abounds in is not promoted enough on                the part of the association.                Considering the marketing, existence on social media would be one of the                key  opportunities  for  the  association  how  to  address  the  younger                generation  of  population.  As  a  suggestion  of  the  actual  propagation  of                individual  municipalities  from  the  association,  we  created  an  advertising                material  thematically  oriented  on  tourists.  It  contains  summary  of  the                history, location, nature, bicycle tourism, membership of the municipality                in the LAG HL, significant personalities, economic activities, tourism, and                attractions in its area (Fig. 2).                               Figure 2. Promotional brochure of the Liptovská Porúbka municipality.                Source: own processing, 2017                 The  area  of  the  association  could  be  more  attractive  for  tourists  via                interactive  map  on  the  LAG  HL  webpage.  It  would  contain  cultural  or                natural  uniquenesses  of  the  area  that  are  not  mostly  promoted  (Fig.  3).                A planned construction of spa and recreational resort in Liptovská Kokava                could  also  draw  new  tourists  to  the  area.  The  LAG  HL  could  promote                accommodation  in  original  rural  houses  which  would  improve  the  local                economy and keep the tourists in the area for a longer time. At the same                time, agricultural tourism would begin to be advertised as a new kind of                tourism.  Hiking  (e.g.  the  hill  Ďumbier)  or  contests  (e.g.  photographic)                organized through the LAG HL would be interesting not only for tourists                but also for locals. The meaning of these activities would be ecotourism as                                              559","a more environmentally friendly form of tourism in protected areas with           the aim to know the nature and advertise its preservation.                                    Fig. 3. Uniquenesses of the LAG Horný Liptov.            Throughout the summer season, a summer camp for children or families           would enrich the people on vacation and locals as well. The LAG HL would           co-organize  it  together  with  local  teachers  or  TANAP/NAPANT           administrations,  and  entrepreneurs.  Participants  would  be  staying  at           original  rural  houses  in  the  municipalities  within  the  association  which           would positively influence the local economy. The program would consist           in the discovering of the natural beauty in the region, local gastronomy,           traditions,  and  customs.  Very  useful  activity  would  be  online  or  printed           tourist guidebook of the area (based on the example by Bátora et al. 2010).           With the vision to actively interconnect and use the natural elements of           protected areas with social and economic aspects, tourism requirements           stand  before  the  question  about  the  assessment  of  ecosystem  services.           According  to  the  Civil  Association  Pronatur  (2014),  current  nature           preservers'  arguments,  such  as  the  occurrence  of  protected  species  and           habitats, are weak to prevent from rapid progress of developers' projects           in protected areas. Conservationists would gain stronger arguments by the           representation  of  nature's  value  in  numbers  and  tourism  could  be           sustainable in the protected areas.                                              560","CONCLUSION                In  2017  passed  nine  years  since  the  establishment  of  the  association  in                Horný  Liptov.  Despite  the  long  period  of  activity,  the  LAG  HL  fails  in                expressive  tourism  propagation  in  the  area.  Besides  the  propagation,                deficiency  could  be  seen  also  in  realization  suppositions  and  offered                activities which are poorly based in the LAG HL area. The association does                not  create  appropriate  conditions  for  ecotourism  or  agricultural  tourism                development in the area. These are considered as a promise of future for                the  rural  area,  economy  improvement,  regional  development,  and                environment  protection.  The  advantage  of  the  LAG  HL  is  the  impact  of                organizations  which  support  the  tourism  development  indirectly  within                their  activities  even  within  the  association's  area.  They  present  chosen                parts of this locality by their own webpages and social networks as well                (Cluster  Liptov,  EGTC TATRY  Ltd.,  TANAP  and  NAPANT  national  parks                administrations).  With  the  vision  to  start  a  new  concept  of  tourism,  we                created  several  activities  that  consist  in  agricultural  tourism  and                ecotourism.                                          REFERENCES                BÁTORA, J., DUBCOVÁ, A., HUNKA, J., KRAMÁREKOVÁ, H., NEMČÍKOVÁ, M.,                VOJTEK,  M,.  2010.  Turistický  sprievodca  mikroregiónom  Požitavie  –                Širočina.  2.  doplnené  vydanie.  Malé  Vozokany:  Mikroregión  „Požitavie  –                Širočina   –   záujmové   združenie   obcí   pre   CR“.   304   s.                ISBN 978-80-970475-0-4.                BUCUR,  C.,  STROBEL,  D.  2012.  Valuation  od  Ecosystem  Services  in                Carpathian  Protected  Areas  –  Guidelines  for  rapid  assessment.  Brasov:                Green Steps.                CLARKE, J., DENMAN, R., HICKMAN, G., SLOVAK, J. 2001. Rural tourism in                Roznava Okres: a Slovak case study. In Tourism management, Volume 22.                Issue 2. p. 119-218. ISSN: 0261-5177                DUBCOVÁ,  A.,  KRAMÁREKOVÁ,  H.,  RÝCHLA,  H.  2001.  Potenciál                mikroregiónu  Požitavie  –  Širočina  pre  cestovný  ruch.  In  Geografie  XII:                Geografické  aspekty  středoevropského  prostoru.  Předpoklady  vstupu  ČR                a SR do Evropské unie. Brno: Masarykova univerzita. s. 31-37. ISBN 80-210-                2664-2.                EZÚS  TATRY  s.r.o.  2017.  Cesta  okolo  Tatier.  Dostupné  online:                <http://www.euwt-tatry.eu/sk/cesta-okolo-tatier.html>. [cit. 2017-09-06].                GETZNER,  M.  2010.  Ecosystem  services,  financing  and  the  regional                economy: a case study from Tatra National Park (Poland). Biodiversity. Vol.                11. p. 55-61 https://doi.org/10.1080/14888386.2010.9712648                CHARVÁT,  T.  2012.  Analýza  využitia  prostriedkov  z Programu  obnovy                dediny  na  rozvoj  mikroregiónov.  In Geografické  informácie.  ISSN  1337-                9453, 2012, roč. 16, č. 1, s. 116-123.                JARÁBKOVÁ,  J.  2010.  Vidiek  –  nevyužitý  potenciál  z hľadiska  cestovného                ruchu. Nitra: SPU. 111 s. ISBN 978-80-552-0364-5.                                               561","KLASTER   LIPTOV.   2017.   Klaster   Liptov.   Dostupné   online:           <http://www.klasterliptov.sk/sk/klaster_liptov.php.>. [cit. 2017-09-06].           KRAMÁREKOVÁ, H., DUBCOVÁ, A., KASANICKÁ, K. 2009. Trvalo udržateľný           rozvoj  mikroregiónu  Požitavie  -  Širočina  -  začiatok  cesty  ...  .  Nitra:  UKF           v Nitre, 2009. 185 s. ISBN 978-80-8094-610-4.           MARIOT,  P.  1983.  Geografia  cestovného  ruchu.  1  vyd.  Bratislava:  VEDA,           1983. 252 s. ISBN 71-053-83           MIESTNA  AKČNÁ  SKUPINA  HORNÝ  LIPTOV.  2015a.  Stratégia  CLLD2014  -           2020.                     Dostupné                     online:           <https://www.enviroportal.sk/eia/dokument/237031>. [cit. 2017-09-07].           MIESTNA  AKČNÁ  SKUPINA  HORNÝ  LIPTOV.  2015b.  Spoločný  Program           hospodárskeho  rozvoja  a sociálneho  rozvoja  do  roku  2022.  Dostupné           online:           <http://www.hornyliptov.sk/upload/File/2016_dokumenty/SPRO_HL_19_           4_2016.pdf>. [cit. 2017-09-06]           NAPANT.    2017.   Aktivity   a spolupráca.   Dostupné   online:           <http://www.napant.sk/akcie/akcie.htm. >. [cit. 2017-09-06]           NOVANSKÁ,  V.,  BRNKAĽÁKOVÁ,  S.  2014.  Cestovný  ruch  ako  nástroj           trvaloudržateľného rozvoja mikroregiónu Biela Orava s ohľadom na mienku           vybraných aktérov územného rozvoja. Acta Universitas Matthiae Belii, 16.           Banská Bystrica. s. 29           OREMUSOVÁ,  D.  2009.  Geografické  aspekty  regionálneho  rozvoja           mikroregiónu Termál. Nitra: UKF v Nitre. 146 s. ISBN 978-80-8094-559-6.           OZ  PRONATUR.  2014.  Hodnotenie  ekosystémových  služieb  NP  Muránska           planina.     Dostupné        online:<http://www.ozpronatur.sk/wp-           content/uploads/2014  /02/  ESS_  Mur%C3%A1nska_planina.pdf>.  [cit.           2017-09-06]           PICHLEROVÁ,  M.  2015.  Vedecký  turizmus  ako  jedna  z foriem  cestovného           ruchu           Slovenska.          Dostupné           online:           <https://www.tuzvo.sk/files/FEE/katedry_fee/kptk/pichlerova_.pdf.>.           [cit. 2017-09-06].           POVAŽAN, R., GETZNER, M., ŠVAJDA, J. 2014. Value of Ecosystem Services           in  Mountain  National  Parks.  Case  Study  of  Veľká  Fatra  National  Park           (Slovakia). Polish Journal of Environmental Studies. Vol. 23. No. 5. 1699-           1710. ISSN 1230-1485           TANAP. 2017. Projekty. Dostupné online:           <http://spravatanap.sk/web/index.php/2012-08-24-09-46-38/projekty-           sk.>. [cit. 2017-09-06]           VRBIČANOVÁ, G., KRAMÁREKOVÁ, H. 2016. Aktuálne trendy regionálneho           rozvoja Miestnej akčnej skupiny Horný Liptov. Geografické informácie, 20           (2). Nitra. p. 768–781.           VRBIČANOVÁ,  G.  2017.  Regionálny  rozvoj  Miestnej  akčnej  skupiny  Horný           Liptov. Nitra. UKF v Nitre. FPV, Diplomová práca, 2017, p. 95                                          562","WEISS,  P.,  KOSTOVSKÝ,  D.  2005.  Regionalizácia  cestovného  ruchu  v                Slovenskej  republike.  Bratislava:  Ministerstvo  hospodárstva  SR,  odbor                cestovného ruchu, 2005.                                            Zhrnutie                V rámci  kategorizácie  regiónov  cestovného  ruchu  (CR)  na  Slovensku  sa                Liptov zaraďuje medzi regióny s medzinárodným významom. Jeho súčasťou                je aj územie Miestnej akčnej skupiny Horný Liptov (MAS HL) s 25 obcami,                ktorého potenciál rozvoja je v súčasnosti stále nedostatočne využívaný.                Prostredníctvom  viacerých  metód  (metóda  analýzy,  terénny  výskum,                dotazníkový  prieskum  25  starostov  obcí,  komparatívna  metóda,  SWOT                analýza)  sme  identifikovali  predpoklady  rozvoja  CR  územia  MAS  HL                a organizácie  s participáciou  na  CR.  Najväčší  nedostatok  v oblasti  rozvoja                CR  vidíme  v jeho  propagácii.  Priblíženie  sa  k potenciálnym  turistom                prostredníctvom sociálnych sietí využíva na území MAS HL správa TANAP-                u,  NAPANT-u,  ale  aj  Klaster  Liptov  či  EZÚS  Tatry.  Vzhľadom  na  to,  že                združenie momentálne nevyvíja žiadnu propagačnú činnosť, zostáva tento                problém  prevažne  na  členských  obciach  MAS  HL.  Pozornosť  venujú                vlastným internetovým stránkam či sociálnym sieťam.                Sme toho názoru, že cieľom udržateľného turizmu na území MAS HL by mal                byť turistický produkt, ktorý je v rovnováhe s ochranou prírody a zároveň                poskytuje  turistom  zážitok  z  prírodných  a  kultúrnych  hodnôt  krajiny.                S víziou  naštartovať  nový  koncept  CR  sme  navrhli  osem  aktivít,  ktoré  by                mohli  pomôcť  lepšie  propagovať  CR  a  naštartovať  agroturistiku  či                ekoturizmus.                                                                          563","Useful Geography: Transfer from Research to Practice           Proceedings of 25th Central European Conference            Edited by: Hana Svobodová            Published by Masaryk University, Žerotínovo nám. 617/9, 601 77 Brno, CZ           1st electronic edition, 2018            ISBN 978-80-210-8908-2",""];