var textForPages = ["Support                                                                                                                                                                      for Learning                                                                                                                                                                     in Schools                       Through the Norway Grants and EEA Grants, Norway contributes to reducing social and      SUPPORT FOR LEARNING IN SCHOOLS                  economic disparities and to strengthening bilateral relations with the beneficiary countries                                                     BOHUMÍRA LAZAROVÁ                  in Europe. Norway cooperates closely with the EU through the Agreement on the European                  Economic Area (EEA).                                                                                                                             DAN ROGER STRÄNG                  For  the  period  2009–14,  Norway’s  contribution  is  €1.7  billion.  Grants  are  available  for                                              ROALD JENSEN                  NGOs, research and academic institutions, and the public and private sectors in the 12                  newest EU member states, Greece, Portugal and Spain. There is broad cooperation with                                                             DAG SØRMO                  Norwegian entities, and activities may be implemented until 2016.                  Key  areas  of  support  are  environmental  protection  and  climate  change,  research  and                  scholarships, civil society, health and children, gender equality, justice and cultural heritage.                                                                                                                                                                                  MASARYK UNIVERSITY                                            NOR.indd   1                                                                                                                                                                            17.10.2016   13:48:09","","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   1                                                   26.10.2016   11:45:54","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   2                                                   26.10.2016   11:45:54","Support                                                            for learning                                                           in schools                                                                Bohumíra Lazarová                                                           Dan roger Sträng                                                          roaLD JenSen                                                           Dag Sørmo                                                                                 maSaryk univerSity                                                          Brno  •  2016                                  podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   3                                                   26.10.2016   11:45:54","Acknowledgment                   This book was published with financial aid from Norway Grants as institutional cooperation                   project NF-CZ07-ICP-3-225-2015, Better Learning in Schools.                              Authors of chapters                   Bohumíra Lazarová: Foreword, chapters 3, 5, 7, 10                   Dan Roger Sträng: Introduction, chapters 1, 12, conclusions I, II, III                   Roald Jensen: Chapters 2, 4, 6, 9                   Dag Sørmo: Chapters 2, 4, 8, 11                    Project consultant                   Milan Pol                    Reviews                   Nils Breilid                   Jana Vašťatková Poláchová                                   All rights reserved. No part of this e-book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any                   means  without  prior  written  permission  of  copyright  administrator  which  can be  contacted  at                   Masaryk University Press, Žerotínovo náměstí 9, 601 77 Brno.                     © 2016 Masarykova univerzita                    *4#/                    POMJOF  QEG                   ISBN 978-80-210-8311-0                   *4#/                    QBQFSCBDL                   ISBN 978-80-210-8310-3 (Czech ed.)                   *4#/                    $[FDI FE                   ISBN 978-80-210-8312-7 (Norwegian ed.)                   DOI: 10.5817/CZ.MUNI.M210-8311-2016FE                   *4#/                    /PSXFHJBO                   %0*          $; .6/* .                    podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   4                                                   26.10.2016   11:45:54","Content                         Foreword ...............................................................................................................................................7                  Introduction .........................................................................................................................................9                   I.   Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice ............................................................. 13                      1. Education for the future in a European perspective .......................................................... 15                      2. Main challenges for the Norwegian schools during the last decade .................................23                      3. Selected issues that are current in Czech education ..........................................................35                      4. Landscape of support mechanism in Norway ....................................................................43                      5. Support for learning: Selected support activities and systems in Czech education ........49                      Conclusion I ...............................................................................................................................55                   II.   Support of teachers in theories ..............................................................................................59                      6. Organizational learning as condition .................................................................................. 61                      7. Mentoring and other consultations as a way to peer learning ..........................................69                      8. Reflection and reflective processes ......................................................................................79                      Conclusion II ............................................................................................................................. 87                   III.   Learning teachers as seen through research .........................................................................89                      9. Learning and Assessment – a Norwegian research and developmental project .............. 91                      10. Peer support of teachers from the perspective of organizational                           learning – Czech evaluation research .............................................................................. 101                      11. The impact of reflecting team – selected data from Norwegian projects ..................... 113                      Conclusion III .......................................................................................................................... 121                   IV. Concluding remarks .................................................................................................................123                      12. Support for learning in schools .......................................................................................125                   Appendix 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 135                  References ........................................................................................................................................ 137                  About the authors ............................................................................................................................ 151                  Index ................................................................................................................................................. 153                                    podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   5                                                   26.10.2016   11:45:54","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   6                                                   26.10.2016   11:45:54","Foreword                         Support for learning in schools is a topic based on efforts to develop schools towards                  openness and quality. It is a topic that reacts to the changing shape of Europe, thus                  becoming  a focus  of  attention  in  European  and  national  documents  of  educational                  policy and strategy. Processes of learning in schools apply to both children and adults,                  evoking a variety of sub-themes such as organizational learning, peer support, school                  counselling, mentoring and reflection of practice. These are points that bring together                  the efforts of school politicians, researchers and, obviously, people from schools.                    A common interest in the main topic has also brought together Norwegian and Czech                  authors, who have decided to create this book and offer it to readers involved in education                  and schooling. The book is a collection of studies aimed at a wide scope of support for                  learning in Norwegian and Czech schools. The authors present data of selected surveys                  on this matter as carried out in recent years. The results are a synthesis of research                  knowledge as well as a resource for comparison of Czech and Norwegian conditions and                  support mechanisms for the development of learning and improvement of quality in                  schools. Similarity, concord and difference in efforts to support the learning processes                  in schools are presented, while some possibilites for the further development of support                  of learning in schools are outlined.                    We thank everybody who has helped us to publish this book, particularly Milan Pol for                  his professional advice during the project, Klára Záleská for administrative support, Jana                  Polachová Vasťatková and Nils Breilid for article reviews, Tereza Vychopňová and Libor                  Juhaňák for their assistance in article editing and, last but certainly not least, Norway                  Grants for the aid that was essential for the origin of this publication.                                                                                Bohumíra Lazarová                                                                                   7                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   7                                                   26.10.2016   11:45:54","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   8                                                   26.10.2016   11:45:54","Introduction                         A key issue for every nation is how schools can be sustainably developed for students’                  learning to be deepened and improved. But sustainability will not simply happen and                  can’t  be  imposed  only  by  authoritarian  governments.  The  transition  to  sustainable                  development  in  schools  must  be  thoroughly  managed,  planned  and  administered.  It                  also needs a purpose and a vision of where society is heading. Inevitably this will require                  institutional changes in the national schooling systems (Pearce, 1995).                    In a world of rapid change the European educational systems need to adapt both the                  demands of today‘s knowledge society and the need for an improved level and quality                  for increased sustainability. They must offer learning and training opportunities not only                  for young people, but for all kinds of groups at different stages of their life (Collins \&                  Salais, 2004). The need for better quality of education implies the need to make national                  systems of education more comparable. A main focus is to foster the effective use of                  technology, in order to encourage young people to learn new skills and the transfer of                  knowledge.                    In  this  book  a newly  established  collaboration  between  Czech  and  Norwegian                  researchers explore different kinds of supporting schools in their work with the aim                  of providing better learning for all children. Previous research of school development                  has often been influenced by dramatic social changes and more recently by the rapid                  technological change with new arenas for communication and learning. Increased social                  inequalities can be expected to lead to differences in children‘s and young people‘s life                  chances. To solve this problem schools may need a variety of support, apart from the                  traditional activities of teaching and learning.                    We look into alternative options for support, focused on collective learning and activity                  rather than passively receiving help. We pay attention to the different kinds of culture                  which children and youth experience in different contexts in The Czech Republic and                  Norway. Empirically, we use a variety of studies focusing learning in schools from both                  contexts over time. Theoretically, we intend to bring together our research, as mentioned                  above, with an overall European perspective of sustainable school development for the                  future. An important part of our thinking is focused on democracy and humanism.                    School development                    School  development  is  an  ambiguous  concept  open  to  different  explanation  and                  interpretation, depending on the choice of perspectives and approaches. Educational                  institutions are often deeply occupied in various ways to evaluate their performance                  and thoughts of how to explore and identify new ways of learning. Policy documents                  simultaneously emphasize that daily school operations must evolve towards a greater                                                           9                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   9                                                   26.10.2016   11:45:54","Introduction                    goal  attainment.  Educational  leadership  and  the  teachers’  professional  responsibility                   are, according to the curriculum, to take place in active interaction between staff and                   pupils, and in close contact with parents and the surrounding community (Olin, 2009).                   School development facilitates both continuous improvement of the daily activities, and                   the questioning of limits and rules of a certain school.                     Fullan  (1993)  states  that  providing  better  learning  assumes  that  teachers  combine                   their common assignments with the skills of change agentry. This leads to a need for                   new  approaches  of  daily  work  completed  by  specialists  with  different  skills,  such  as                   consultants, researchers and psychologists. Their roles are mainly as change agents, with                   the emphasis on formal and informal work in a collaborative management of the culture                   for organizational renewal – and thus supporting better learning in schools.                     Some believes that the change starts with reflection, in a process where new knowledge                   replaces old knowledge (Rolf, Ekstedt, \& Barnett, 1993). Reflections on human actions                   and  experience  are  unpredictable,  and  can  be  limiting  and  allowing,  liberating  and                   constructive, or oppressing and destructive. It is always relevant to ask ourselves who is                   narrating, and why (Gislén, 2003).                     Strategies for changing and developing schools can hardly lead to sustained changes                   and flexibility to different powers of change if they fail to consider the whole picture                   (Scherp, 2003). Our global world leads to extended roles and perspectives for schools                   and the society alike. School development for social development in a supranational                   reality demands different preparations and methods for implementation than before.                   At the same time, there is an increased need for school actors to reflect on their own                   professional activity and the collective identity of the school.                      The relationship between educational theory and practice                    In  everyday  speech,  educational  practice  means  the  daily  activity  of  a school  or  an                   educational institution. Researchers add to the meaning of the term, but have difficulty                   agreeing on a unified definition. By extending the educational practice to “practice in                   the home, school, preschool and other education and educational theory as a scientific                   discipline” (Wallin, 1986), educational research can focus on the limits and possibilities                   of educational practice in developing for better learning in schools.                     Similarly,  educational  theory  can  be  described  as  being  methodic  and  systematic,                   which means that it describes, explains and understand what happens in every day in                   schools, but also that it makes guidelines for educational practice, which is sometimes                   seen as problematic.                     The  relationship  between  educational  theory  and  practice  belongs  to  a general                   view on scientific knowledge building. The vantage point in our project is a concrete                   educational reality rather than a limited method or philosophical thought. Our aim                   is to present a selection of possible theories, methods and techniques able to develop                   the  educational  activities  and  students‘  learning  on  several  levels  in  a dialectic                   interaction.                                                             10                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   10                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:54","Introduction                     Practice is paramount in this line of thought, to the extent that education is concerned                  with purposeful actions in the actual reality, and because the theory springs out of this                  reality. On the other hand, any theory established through interpretation of reality – and                  anchored in a set of values – can lead to a change in practice, and the resulting practice                  could be the basis for a new theory. “This reciprocal co-dependency might be called                  dialectic, and because neither practice nor theory is determined in advance, it might be                  called an open dialectic relationship” (Myhre, 1980, p. 188).                     Reflection of quality                   Quality as a term is hard to define. It is even harder to analyze and explain the meaning                  of educational quality and quality in educational research. New technologies lead to                  new ways of thinking. A constant priority should be the debate on the benefits of the                  technological development and its consequences for students’ learning. One problem                  is  the  great  quantity  of  knowledge  and  information  that  is  continually  produced  in                  educational activities. Thoroughly considered strategies, methods and instruments that                  can make the flow of information and knowledge manageable are needed in order to                  develop schools.                    A student and problem oriented method of working entails processes of knowledge,                  with  demands  for  collective  learning  and  participation.  This  obligates  school  agents                  to cooperate to achieve the best possible solutions to common problems. Exchange of                  knowledge contributes to an increased growth of knowledge in the whole organization.                    Collective learning can be explained as insight and understanding of the interactive                  and communicative actions that identify the common task and how it is to be executed                  (Granberg \& Ohlsson, 2005). Reflection on quality is to accept the educational challenge                  in creating the conditions for successful learning for organizations and individuals alike,                  and how these complete each other (Söderström, 2011).                      Part one of this publication, entitled Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice,                  first explores the topic of support for learning in schools from a European perspective,                  subsequently  presenting  an  outline  of  issues  currently  discussed  within  Czech  and                  Norwegian education. This part is concluded with a list of systemic support measures                  and  selected  initiatives  of  various  subjects  supporting  school  development  and  the                  quality of learning processes in schools. While the Norwegian authors focus largely on                  guidance and social support for families and schools, Czech contributions rather deal                  with initiatives aimed more narrowly at the improvement of teaching.                    Part two, Support of teachers in theories, is more specifically focused on professional                  support  for  teachers  and  school  development  as  a necessary  condition  for  “better                  learning”  in  schools.  This  part  presents  selected  theories  on  which  many  efforts                  to  support  teachers  and  whole  schools  are  based.  The  authors  describe  theories                  of  organizational  learning,  mentoring  and  other  kinds  of  counselling  as  support                  mechanisms for teaching at both individual and organizational levels. Attention is also                                                            11                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   11                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:54","Introduction                    paid to reflective processes; in other words, support for learning through reflection                   carried out by reflecting teams.                     Part three of the book, Learning teachers as seen through research, offers selected results of                   recent research surveys focused on learning processes and peer support in schools. The                   Norwegian part presents the results of the research and development project Learning                   and Assessment and a few other projects in which the authors observed the effects of the                   use of reflecting teams in schools. The Czech author summarizes the data of evaluation                   surveys carried out in schools that had the opportunity to draw on a long-term support                   of mentors and counsellors.                     The last part of the publication is a summary of the main similarities and differences                   between the Norwegian and Czech practices in selected issues of support for the learning                   processes in schools.                     Our  overall  intent  with  this  book  is  to  provide  a comparable  image  for  learning                   processes in Nowegian and Czech schools, in the light of European demands on policy                   and  practice.  Research  data  reflect  the  professional  specialization  and  shows  some                   particular efforts and their impact on school practice.                                                                                                         12                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   12                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:54","I.  Norwegian and Czech schools:                        Policy and practice                                                                       podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   13                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:54","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   14                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:54","1.  Education for the future in a European perspective                         Every nation has its own distinctive character. Sometimes we take the complexity of                  explaining and understanding the characteristics of other nations and ethnic groups too                  lightly. Knowledge and competence equalize differences between groups and increase                  young people’s opportunities to choose career and achieve quality of life (Giota, 2014).                  Without knowledge, we find it harder to relate to the world around us, and our positions                  on various issues may appear vague and ambiguous. Categorizations and preconceptions                  lead  to  prejudice  and  widening  gaps  between  people.  One  way  to  define  equality  is                  people’s right to education.                    As  a concept,  democracy  is  about  equal  worth  and  rights  and  the  possibility  for                  individuals  to  to  influence  their  lives.  Bauman  (2002)  argues  that  the  future  of                  democracy  depends  on  its  ability  to  enthuse  and  engage  young  people  in  dialogues                  on  important  social  issues.  The  Norwegian  school‘s democratic  mission  is  explicitly                  described in the general section of the curriculum; however, the school‘s curriculum                  lacks a clear definition of what is actually meant by democracy and how conversations                  and discussions on democratic values can be implemented in the teaching of various                  subjects. For the teacher, it becomes a matter of understanding the student‘s thoughts                  and  opinions  in  relation  to  various  environments,  but  likewise  to  comprehend  and                  explain the environments in relation to each other. Stray (2010) suggests that teachers                  are  given  the  opportunity  to  develop  democracy  education,  based  on  their  own                  perspective, with unpredictable consequences of differences in the implementation. An                  occasional view is that schools should not engage themselves in democratic nurturing,                  but merely in education and teaching. Nykänen (2009) concludes that teaching activities                  always nurtures, regardless of whether the term „nurture“ is explicitly outspoken in the                  curriculum or not. In the public debate the discussion and the free conversation between                  equals are often stressed as the bedrocks of democracy. School assessors often emphasize                  the deliberative conversation with its origin in Dewey (2008) as an ideal work form,                  though the conditions and opportunities for implementation may vary a lot (Premfors                  \& Roth, 2004). A study of Norwegian teachers‘ experiences of the role of schools in                  democratic education (Samuelsson, 2013) stated that the discussions in the classroom                  are often more focused on social and emotional skills than on attempts of investigating                  the true meaning of democracy. The study shows that students better understand and                  respect the opinions of others when they are given the opportunity to freely express                  their own opinions in the classroom discussions.                    The ability to acquire new understanding and insight into society‘s rules and guidelines                  is  not  obvious.  Common  accepted  opinions  are  neither  obviously  generalizable                  nor  automatically  transferable  to  every  context.  Different  issues  require  different                  approaches to formulate acceptable answers and contribute to the students‘ willingness                  to learn something new. To perceive and absorb the diversity of opportunities and                                                            15                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   15                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:54","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                    challenges of life young people need to acquire a deeper conceptual knowledge of                   what is actually happening. If this kind of knowledge will increase in traditional school                   education, young people can feel more confident that the future will be manageable                   and understandable.                      To augment young people’s understanding                     Philosophers have always argued about the true definition of the term understanding.                   To problematize our reality is an important source of knowledge. But a sentence that                   represents reality in a certain way does not itself say how it manages to represent reality                   in that way (Stroud, 2011). In school, teachers and students are processing complex and                   abstruse issues and problems A challenge for every school is to develop the activities                   of teaching and learning from traditional ways of mediating knowledge, to a stronger                   emphasis on students’ inclinations and abilities to learn. In these processes the pupils                   will acquire strategies for their studies and professional life, through basic skills and key                   competences.                     Student  active  work  forms  and  social  training  demands  the  teacher’s flexibility                   and  ability  to  handle  conflicts.  The  teaching  profession  extends  from  a mediator  of                   knowledge, into a catalyst of the knowledge society (Hargreaves, 2004). However, there is                   uncertainty about to which extent today‘s teachers are really oriented towards strategies                   of this kind. Ekholm and Scherp (2014) emphasizes the risk that the teacher‘s role as an                   active mediator of knowledge will be reduced to passive monitoring of students ability                   to find literature and how to navigate on the Internet.                     A report  from  the  European  Parliament‘s Committee  on  Culture  and  Education                   (European  Parliament,  2015),  concludes  that  many  European  schools  are  not  able                   to  effectively  adapt  traditional  teaching  to  the  new  information  and  communication                   technology. One of the challenges is to teach pupils how to systematically use their own                   technical knowledge and skills in their daily work. The digital revolution is transforming                   the way children and young people play, access information, communicate with each                   other and learn. The report questions whether schools really manage to update their                   teaching  and  learning  process  in  relation  to  today‘s digital  requirements.  The  rapid                   development of technology leads to further questions about how schools in the future                   will be able to meet the constantly changing digital landscape.                     Alongside  strategies  and  teaching  techniques,  knowledge  formation  also  needs  to                   be based on mutual respect and humility towards new conditions and opportunities                   for learning. In the pedagogical renewal, different perspectives are being considered,                   and both students and teachers are respected for their knowledge. In The European                   Parliament’s report  (European  Parliament,  2015)  the  Finnish  educational  researcher                   Kirsti Lonka describes how the increased use of new technologies as educational tools                   make the pupils learning turn into a journey of discovery. Student active learning based                   on the attitude that the students’ skills are to be exploited and not their weaknesses to                   be resolved, can lead to genuine learning.                                                             16                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   16                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:54","1. Education for the future in a European perspective                     Whether a work form is student active or not depends however not only on the context                  in which it is applied, but on how the students’ learning process is made up. It is important                  that  the  youngsters  get  help  from  their  teachers  to  create  new  ideas  about  various                  phenomena to understand, explain and manage their environment. In the student active                  school, students get answers to questions that they pose themselves, as opposed to the                  traditional teaching with answers to questions that they may have never thought about.                    An essential idea of the school’s educational activities is to be found in the perspective                  of learning and socialization, as constituted in the students’ interaction with other                  students and with their teachers (Säljö, 2005). Increased amount of communication and                  interaction in the school environment makes it possible to develop new knowledge on                  how the learning occurs and what comes out of it. One problem is that the traditional                  learning goals can be defined and measured on the basis of certain criteria, while the                  social skills and achievement are difficult to assess and predict the consequences of.                     A complex field of educational policy                   A global  challenge  for  democracy  is  that  political  challenges  transcend  national                  frameworks,  while  influence  over  the  politics  remains  at  a national  level.  When                  democracy  is  moving  across  national  borders  to  a supranational  level,  important                  social  issues,  such  as  how  we  can  achieve  an  equal  level  of  education,  have  to  be                  viewed in a broader perspective. Kemp (2005) notes that globalization increases young                  people’s opportunities to move within and between different cultures, as active citizens                  of the world. Nihlfors (2008) suggests that globalization has the same effect on schools                  and learning as on other areas of society, with increased mobility and competition as                  a consequence. An equal education for all, where skills and talents are nurtured, places                  certain demands on schools and educational institutions. The increase in international                  comparisons  also  helps  creating  a complex  field  of  educational  policy  (Ball,  2008;                  Nordin \& Sundberg, 2014).                    The recurrent PISA surveys (Program for International Student Assessment), conducted by                  the OECD, have had a major impact in the debate on education. However, Pisa is only one                  in a series of international student assessments carried out regularly, i.e. every third or                  fourth year. The aim of these surveys is to provide the basis for stable and accurate trend                  descriptions of students’ level of knowledge compared to students in other countries. The                  results of these measurements make it possible to read the development of knowledge                  over time. Although those responsible for the knowledge assessments emphasizes that                  the rankings are not the area of focus, the surveys tend to get a lot of attention. Nations                  average level and trend are used by both the OECD and other international researchers                  in studies of various countries’ school systems. International assessments of knowledge                  have been conducted for nearly 50 years, but in recent years they have been given a larger                  role in education policy debates on development. The pupil’s knowledge is studied in                  a context of global competition and national school system. The focus on the assessments                  is related to globalization, competition and measurement trends (Skolverket, 2014).                                                            17                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   17                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:54","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                      In a study by McKinsey \& Company (2007) some basic principles to achieve quality in                   education were defined. The first principle was that the quality of a school system can                   not exceed the quality of its teachers. The second principle is that in order to improve                   the results you also need to improve the instructions given to the pupils. Thus, the school                   has to deliver high quality instructions to all pupils. Jensen (2012) sees obvious problems                   in using traditional measurement and analysis to determine the quality of educational                   programs. The level of quality depends on which values we wish to promote in school.                   Educational  equity  requires  that  its  basic  qualities  are  ensured  at  every  level  of  the                   institution. The national mission of education and training is realized through a regional                   and  local  educational  responsibility.  Critics  claim  that  if  the  collective  responsibility                   does not work as expected, the school is in risk of changing from a distribution policy                   instrument  to  an  individual  springboard  for  key  players  (Dahlstedt,  2007).  Research                   shows that better learning is stimulated in a safe and orderly school environment with                   common, clear goals and guidelines, as well as continuous monitoring of pupils’ learning                   and school development (Sträng, 2014).                      Europe 2020                     In a European perspective, growth for everybody requires that as many as possible get                   into a job market with more and better jobs, especially for women, young and older.                   The education systems in the EU must therefore be strengthened and adapted to future                   needs, with particular focus on entrepreneurship and innovation.                     The European Union has in their strategy Europe 2020 (European Commission, 2010a)                   set targets for employment, innovation, education, social inclusion, climate and energy                   to be achieved by the year 2020. The member states will thereafter set their own national                   targets in each area. Concrete actions both at European and national levels will support                   this strategy. In the strategy, the European Union work for sustainable growth, based on                   two main initiatives. The first initiative is about helping people to acquire new skills and                   adapt to a changing job market. The second initiative aims to develop the job market                   to increase employment, reduce unemployment and increase productivity in order to                   create a sustainable model of society. The aspects of entrepreneurship and innovation                   need to be introduced early in the schools’ teaching to prepare young people for the                   challenges facing society. The educational programs and the needs of the business world                   must be coordinated in a better way for Europe to fill the growing need for expertise in                   different areas.                     In the Europe 2020 strategy there are two objectives in the field of education and                   youth which should be reached by 2020. The first goal is that the proportion of students                   dropping out of school should be less than 10 percent, and the second goal is that 40%                   of 30–34 year olds should will a postsecondary education.                     In  other  strategies  and  action  plans,  goals  such  as  reduced  distance  between                   education and job market and young people’s active citizenship can be identified. To                   reach these goals, the EU has a number of tools available to the member countries                                                             18                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   18                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:54","1. Education for the future in a European perspective                   in  form  of  funds  and  programs  as  well  as  national  recommendations.  All  member                  countries are requested to create a strategy in line with national conditions, to work in                  parallel with the strategy at EU level. The guidelines for the Europe 2020 emphasized                  that representatives from all levels of society should be involved in the formation of                  the national strategies.                    The  European  collaboration  is  not  limited  to  the  member  states  of  the  EU,  thus                  dialogue and exchange takes place in consultation with the European Union’s external                  partners, such as Norway and Switzerland. Europe’s future prosperity depends on areas                  of knowledge, research, innovation and education to develop and remain at a high and                  consistent level. Basic social factors need to be adapted to the requirements of the job                  market,  adaptability  and  creativity.  Through  the  introduction  of  more  and  open  job                  markets, both national and supranational, it is possible to guide and teach young people                  at an early stage on how to best meet future global challenges.                     Youth on the move                   The initiative Youth on the Move (European Commission, 2010b) is expected to contribute                  to the development of knowledge and innovation, and is part of the objectives of the                  Europe 2020 strategy. The initiative emphasizes the youth’s role in the realization of the                  Europe 2020 strategy. Through high quality education, integration on the job market                  and increased mobility, young people’s knowledge and potential skills can be used to                  implement the strategic growth objectives.                    A lot of young people in Europe still drop out of school early, with a high risk of                  unemployment and social hardship at a later stage. An OECD report (2015) concludes                  that more than 35 million of the 16–29 year olds in the OECD countries are neither in                  employment nor education. The report shows that when education and work function                  as  two  separate  worlds,  it  is  hard  for  young  people  to  make  the  transition  into  the                  professional world.                    Youth on the Move aims to reach the headline targets of Europe 2020, which are by                  2020 to reduce early school drop outs from 15% to 10% and increase the share of young                  people with higher education from 31% to at least 40%. These efforts are also expected                  to  help  the  member  states  achieving  the  EUs  headline  target  of  75%  employment                  by providing young people with knowledge and skills for the future demands of the                  job market. Commission surveys show that 35% of the new jobs in 2020 will require                  high-level  qualifications  and  50%  will  require  medium-level  qualifications  (European                  Commission, 2010b). A vital part of the work is to improve young people’s study and                  working  conditions,  with  collaboration  at  local  and  regional  level  on  various  issues,                  such  as  integration  measures,  guidance  to  choose  the  right  high  school  programs,                  internship  opportunities,  as  well  as  support  to  entrepreneurship  and  mentoring.                  Moreover, European education programs need to adapt to the knowledge society by                  focusing more on entrepreneurship, languages and ICT, which are important features                  in today’s society.                                                            19                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   19                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:54","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                      Youth  on  the  Move,  emphasizes  the  importance  of  necessity-based  training  and                   investment in innovative knowledge and entrepreneurship. Another important feature                   of  working  life  is  international  experience.  Apart  from  language  skills,  there  is  also                   a demand for knowledge and understanding of other social systems. Personal experience                   through longer stays abroad is an important skill. The majority of those who actively                   move across EU borders’ in order to study or work is between 25 and 34 years of age.                     The main idea behind Youth on the move is to give all young people an opportunity                   to practice abroad. Through increased international exchange and the creation of more                   jobs, young people can get help and support to look for work in other countries after                   finishing education. Greater mobility augments young people’s future employability and                   opportunities for new experiences and skills. With access to new knowledge, as well as                   language and intercultural skills young people will develop into global citizens (Kemp,                   2005).                      Lifelong learning                    One of the objectives of what is commonly known as lifelong learning is to promote                   equality and integration, and interact with educational institutions and the society as                   a whole.  Besides  formal  education,  development  of  vocational  skills  and  experience-                   based knowledge are important factors in the context of lifelong learning.                     In  the  European  perspective  there  is  a deep  understanding  of  the  importance  of                   lifelong  learning,  based  on  the  student‘s own  responsibility  and  the  teacher‘s ability                   to convey knowledge. The teacher’s learning contributes to the student’s learning, by                   presenting new perspectives that stimulate their natural curiosity (Holmqvist \& Nilsson,                   2005).                     To form national strategies for lifelong learning is a challenge for the world‘s nations.                   In  a global  perspective,  lifelong  learning  may  be  facilitated  by  the  various  learning                   opportunities, where young people can move more easily between different levels and                   institutions of education. In the European collaboration, the support for mobility is                   enhanced  through  programs  and  various  forms  of  initiatives,  linked  to  national  and                   regional programs and investment areas. Lifelong learning requires that the nation’s school                   systems develop knowledge in accordance with the needs of the individuals as well as the                   professional world.                     Apart from traditional acquisition of knowledge through education, young people                   also need to learn how to make well-informed decisions for their upcoming adult life.                   Career counselling high quality guidance, with extensive involvement of representatives                   from the job market are important elements of lifelong learning.                     To  learn  how  to  learn,  communicate  in  other  languages,  develop  knowledge  and                   insight into the conditions of self-employment, can be considered as key competencies                   in lifelong learning. When young people‘s knowledge, skills and social competence are                   combined with the right attitude to different situations and contexts, it can contribute                   to self-realization, social community and an active citizenship.                                                             20                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   20                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:54","1. Education for the future in a European perspective                     In the Norwegian school, entrepreneurship has become an important and valued part                  of the education in both primary and secondary school. Education in entrepreneurship                  is preparing the young to face the challenges of working life and to get an identity in the                  local community (Sträng, 2015).                     Key competence and challenges                    The  Europe  2020  strategy  (European  Commission,  2010a)  defines  eight  “key                  competencies” with an emphasis on critical thinking, creativity and initiative, as well                  as problem solving, risk assessment, decision making and constructive management of                  feelings. These key competences are:                    –  Communication in the mother tongue                  –  Communication in foreign languages                  –  Mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology                  –  Digital competence                  –  Learning to learn                  –  Social and civic competences                  –  Initiative and entrepreneurship                  –  Cultural awareness and expression                  (Europaparlamentetets och rådets rekommendation, 2006).                      The term “key competencies” has achieved great importance in the European school                  policy debate. Key competencies such as skills and attitudes are considered necessary                  for young Europeans if they are to succeed in both the professional and private life                  (European Commission, 2012). For lifelong learning, young people need to acquire                  the key competencies early, as a basis for continued education and preparation for                  adult life. After the completion of basic training, the key skills continuously need to                  be updated to meet their personal needs as well as the expectations on the job market.                  Lifelong  learning  provides  alternative  educational  opportunities  and  flexibility  that                  will discourage early dropouts.                    The  European  countries  have  made  great  progress  in  incorporating  the  key                  competences in the national curricula and other governing documents, demonstrating                  a commitment  to  better  align  the  school’s teaching  to  young  people’s everyday                  lives and to the society they live in. But there are still challenges in terms of how                  to  implement  the  reformed  curricula  in  the  best  possible  way.  The  extent  of  the                  reform work varies from national strategies to improve learning by focusing on all                  the key competencies, to that of only emphasize some of them. The Scandinavian                  countries early focused on the need to provide both school and society with relevant                  information to be able to face the expected explosion of knowledge. In this effort,                  the basic skills, or key competencies have had a main role.                                                            21                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   21                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:54","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                      In the Norwegian school the Knowledge Promotion (Kunnskapsløftet) was launched in                   2006, a major reform of the school’s content, structure and organization. Apart from                   traditional school subjects, such as reading, writing, arithmetic and oral expression, digital                   knowledge is now prioritized as a basic skill in the curriculum (Kunnskapsdepartementet,                   2006). One major aim of this reform was that the curriculum, through an emphasis on                   the relationship between primary and secondary school, should contribute to an overall                   understanding of the pupils’ total education. National goals for school activities were                   complemented by increased local freedom for schools and teachers. The five basic skills                   or key competences were to be integrated both within and between different subjects,                   based on the possibilities and conditions in the teaching.                     The concept of competence was later expanded with cognitive, practical, social and                   emotional aspects of pupils’ learning (NOU, 2014). Broader competence was expected                   to increase the pupil’s ability to solve tasks and face various challenges. Critical thinking,                   problem solving, and cooperation have always been essential for the development of                   society and is expected by many to become even more important in the future society.                     At  the  same  time,  critical  voices  have  been  raised  against  the  concept  of                   competence’s aptitude to compare different individuals the ability to perform certain                   tasks. To acquire competence through education also means to be able to carry out                   a work that requires certain skills. In the OECD and EU document, even ethical qualities                   were classed as competencies. Liedman (2008) argues that the concept of competence                   is also being used as a measure of quality. The division of competencies in knowledge,                   skills and attitudes give an impression of fairness and transparency. All parties involved                   are  informed  about  the  level  of  competence  the  individual  pupil  possesses.  But,  in                   what way will the school be able to assess the pupil’s actual ability to perform outside                   the educational institution? Liedman stresses that the key competencies must apply to                   lifelong learning, with recurrent training. To create preconditions for lifelong learning                   in an increasingly complex society is emerging as a major challenge for Europe.                                                                                       22                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   22                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:54","2.  Main challenges for the Norwegian schools                       during the last decade                        This part of the book deals with elements that show how developments in school and                  in the teachers’ education are demanding processes. Various aspects are being pointed                  out as background for the necessity of continuous guidance in a profession that at all                  times must adapt to a complex and rapidly evolving society. Since the school receives                  its assignment from the authorities, it should reflect and prepare students for a society                  that is consistently directed towards the future. At the start of his career, a teacher has                  a basic education that will help him or her to manage various future challenges. With                  such a task, it is important that the teacher acknowledges that updates and adjustments                  of both own competence and interaction must be continuous processes that evolve along                  the way. It is difficult to be a citizen in the new modern world, but perhaps even more                  challenging to be a teacher who has to deal with all these changes. Society often expects                  the teacher to be ahead of the events. At the same time, the teacher is responsible for                  leading the school in the direction established by the authorities. Often, this can also be                  in conflict with professional judgement and decisions (Garbo, 2014).                    Ethical dilemmas are no longer just an individual challenge, but also an educational                  and political challenge (Ohnstad, 2011). An example would be when politicians need                  other forms of assessment than the ones believed to promote learning and knowledge                  from  the  teacher’s academic  point  of  view.  Test  results  can  be  used  to  establish  the                  school‘s goals,  while  they  were  initially  conceived  as  educational  tools  to  promote                  learning. As a result, this can become a conflict between professional considerations and                  political governance. This will be particularly apparent if school results are being used as                  incentives for resource allocation in favor of schools and individual teachers with good                  results. Media often reports on conflicts and dilemmas where school management has                  been subject to performance pressure, for instance by payment of principals according                  to the students achievements (Oslo kommune Utdanningsetaten, 2013). Cases like this                  create unrest and poor group cohesion, because this practice may be used against the                  individual teacher as well. Politicians have proposed higher wages for those teachers                  who achieve the best results (Aftenposten, 2013). The debate in media shows that such                  suggestions derive from political ideologies that still believe that the teacher is working                  alone in the classroom.                    This rapid change in both the political and professional landscape, along with financial                  constraints, may require other solutions to everyday school. In such situations, help is                  not  obtained  merely  by  seeking  advice,  but  also  in  finding  your  own  resources  and                  alternative ways of working. These hidden resources may well be found in the individual                  teacher. Faced with such challenges, it might be necessary to consider other ways to                  empower  the  teacher  in  order  to  release  new  solutions  to  everyday  challenges.  This                                                           23                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   23                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                    could be increased awareness and extended pedagogical reasoning in the teaching. This                   book will show the results of one way or method that might help to create a better life                   for both teachers, school administrators, students and parents.                     The teacher education                     During  the  period  of  reconstruction  of  Europe,  Norway  has  been  characterized  by                   significant school reforms. The post-war birth rates have been steadily increasing, the                   population has augmented and society has evolved rapidly, with the development of                   industry and commercial interaction between nations. The need for a higher level of                   competence has been an urgent one, as society has become more and more advanced.                   In  addition  to  a rapid  development  in  agriculture  and  fishing,  the  industrialization                   has required large resources. In Norway, the oil production has contributed to a rapid                   growth in society in nearly all areas.                     The schools constant adaption to keep pace with the growth in industry and trade has                   been imperative for the success of a rapid and positive social development. Thus, the                   teacher’s education needs to address these challenges with research, development and                   reforms. At the same time, the school must help to safeguard the national heritage. The                   teacher should be an important cultural mediator and must therefore be ahead of the                   cultural development. This is similarly demanding for teacher’s education institutions                   that are subject to continuous restructuring processes. Meanwhile, the concept of culture                   is being expanded as the diversity in society increases. The teacher’s training must be                   part  of  this  development,  and  the  need  for  competence  development  is  consistent                   with the challenges faced by every day school. The need for continuous guidance and                   development is required (Utdanningsdirektoratet, n.d.).                     The  first  public  teacher  training  (1826)  consisted  of  short  seminars  (Store  norske                   leksikon, n.d.). The professional level of the late 1800s was limited to reading and writing                   skills, and knowledge was related to the church’s need to convey their message. After                   the Local Government Act was passed in 1837, municipal councils and school boards took                   responsibility for the training. The church had previously been the driving force in the                   training, but with the Local Government Act, the responsibility was assumed by elected                   members of the local community. This resulted in a change towards a broader range                   of  knowledge  and  an  important  democratic  upbringing.  Democracy  meant  not  only                   commitment for everyone, but also a need for more control and knowledge to lead the                   society into the future.                     The education of teachers with a broader academic base was a natural consequence                   of a society that wanted the school to have more significance for the population. Into                   the 1900s, the teachers training consisted of a four-year course in addition to a two-                   year  training  building  on  the  “Examen  artium”  (the  academic  certification  qualifying                   students for admission to university studies). In the 1970s, the teacher training became                   a 3-year academic study, and a specialization in various subjects gave the teacher a more                   profession-oriented position in the school. Eventually teachers got the opportunity to                                                             24                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   24                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","2. Main challenges for the norwegian schools during the last decade                   immerse  themselves  professionally  through  specialization  and  continuing  education                  courses. The authorities stimulated to such education through economic incentives like                  student loans and competency-based salary. This is an ongoing process, leading towards                  the future master – trained teachers.                     A short summary of the school’s significance in society                    School has been a primary focus of all political parties. The notions of the educational                  contents, however, have changed according to the prevailing political direction. It may                  seem  as  if  the  government  at  any  given  time  wants  to  mark  their  political  position                  through new curricula and educational models. Either way, everyone has realized that                  the next generations will be significantly more dependent on specialization due to this                  rapid  social  development.  Almost  until  the  1950s  the  school  system  in  Norway  was                  characterized by different curricula for children within and outside the cities, until a law                  passed  on  7-  year  primary  schooling  for  everybody  in  1959.  The  aim  was  improved                  general  knowledge  and  a platform  to  facilitate  further  education.  Subsequently,  the                  students had the choice between a predominantly craft based education (Framhaldskolen)                  or the more academic direction (Realskolen), which again gave the opportunity to choose                  upper secondary education. However, education beyond this level was associated with                  expenses.  Thus,  it  was  not  very  common  to  complete  upper  secondary  education                  that provided opportunities for academic studies. With the law on 9-year compulsory                  education (1970), the choice between the craft based and academic based direction was                  abolished.                    In the 60’s, admission to universities included about 10 percent of the youth cohorts                  (Statistisk Sentralbyrå, n.d.), moreover, the choice of studies was limited. In 1970 the                  number of people who completed a short-cycle higher education was 162,714 while in                  2010 the numbers had risen to 782,284. Hence, the expectations towards the school, was                  mainly related to the provision of a good basic education for all children, to give as many                  as possible the opportunity to choose a higher education. Public measures of financial                  support to education should contribute to this.                     In line with the social development that gained momentum in the 60’s, better and                  deeper  learning  in  basic  education  became  a topic  for  discussion.  The  population                  increased, influx of people looking for work in the industry and service in the cities                  increased, housing shortage required the development of larger residential units, and the                  car as means of transport together with new technical everyday inventions, contributed                  to  the  quickly  changing  society.  The  need  for  specialized  training  and  competency                  increased, and schooling became more important than it had been before. This brought                  about a change in schooling, and the first nine-year compulsory school was introduced                  in 1963, though initially only as a trial arrangement in some designated municipalities.                  Educational research had come far and there was an increasing interest in differentiating                  teaching.  The  last  two  years  of  the  9-year  compulsory  school  was  organized  so  that                  the pupils, together with their parents, could choose the level of the education. In the                                                           25                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   25                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                    subjects Norwegian, mathematics and English, there were three different levels of choice.                   Moreover, the pupil could choose German as third language, an offer divided into two                   levels. It was also made   clear that in order to be admitted to the gymnasium, pupils had                   to be assessed on basis of their performance at the higher level.                     Upper secondary school (ISCED 3) had not yet had an emphasis on academic learning,                   but  from  now  on  the  youngster’s opportunities  to  acquire  in-depth  knowledge  and                   obtain  entrance  qualifications  for  admission  to  universities  and  university  colleges,                   was to be facilitated. However, this organization of education created both pedagogical                   and political debate that led to the dissolution of the level division within a few years.                   Apart from the unfortunate division of academic levels associated with this, various                   voices claimed that such a division led to an undesirable social development as well.                   Although the curriculum enabled trials with 9-year schooling in 1960, the compulsory                   9-year school was passed by law in 1969. The new reform of 1969 contained both the                   right to a 9-year schooling, but also a duty to complete this education. It also became                   necessary to offer further education after compulsory school. But, the educational                   program  was  still  based  on  the  old  system,  and  thus  divided  the  young  between                   a predominantly  academic  direction  aiming  at  university  studies  and  colleges,  or                   a vocational education preparing for an occupation in industry or crafts. Anyone who                   had finished the compulsory education was entitled to an upper secondary education,                   but  there  was  no  obligation  to  complete  the  three-year  upper  secondary  program.                   Though  there  were  no  duties  associated  with  the  upper  secondary  education,  the                   rights were given for a period of five years. For many young people, this can prove                   a difficult time if they are not admitted to their program of choice. This might lead                   to major challenges for student, teacher, school and the surroundings, thus it became                   necessary to expand and specialize the teacher’s role. From 1997, the school starting                   age was lowered to 6 years, resulting in ten year compulsory schooling.                      Planning                    It has been necessary for the school to contribute in the various processes of change.                   The teacher’s professional background and assignment has been challenged to seek new                   knowledge and to make frequent vicissitudes. In such restructuring processes, it is vital                   for the school that the employees are meeting the expectations and requirement of the                   political authorities. Restructuring processes are still part of school life, and demanding                   for teachers pursuing continuing education and guidance in work.                     From  1974  onwards,  the  educational  content  in  schools  was  regulated  by  a new                   National curriculum plan for the comprehensive school “Mønsterplan for grunnskolen”.                   This was the school’s governing document. “Mønsterplan for grunnskolen” (KUD, 1974)                   was made up of two main sections of which the academic part made it possible for                   students to choose optional subjects in their last years of training. Moreover, the plan                   differed between compulsory subjects and topics, and intended to provide all students                   with a solid and broad competence in social studies.                                                             26                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   26                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","2. Main challenges for the norwegian schools during the last decade                     Ten years later, a new plan was launched, but delays caused by political decisions,                  ultimately made this plan the “Mønsterplan of 1987” (KUD, 1987). The Special schools                  were  phased  out  by  law  in  1975,  and  the  training  of  children  who  had  pronounced                  individual needs for care and education was now to be offered in the school. Pupils with                  special needs should be integrated into their nearest school and get their education                  together with other children. Hence, many children experienced to get out of an isolated                  environment. For the schools this became particularly challenging in terms of providing                  good teaching. School authorities stated that education is a community matter, and that                  such integration strengthened a positive view of humanity and equality. It was important                  to understand that learning in a socio-cultural context created better opportunities for                  learning for all (Säljö, 2001, p. 155).                    From  the  mid-  1980s  primary  education  was  characterized  by  increasing  demands                  for  professionalism  (M87).  The  new  reforms  expected  the  teachers  to  participate  in                  development and planning. School subjects should include new methods and mindset                  and largely be adapted to an increasingly complex society.                    In 1997, the Education Act was altered to accommodate 6-year-olds in school. The debate                  around this law amendment, included worries about the transition from a preschool                  environment with a high number of adults, to a large group of pupils with few adults                  in the first school year. The transition should be secured by increasing the number of                  pedagogues and assistants at the new first level (NOU, 1995, p. 18). Moreover, the first                  year in school should be characterized primarily by preschool pedagogics. Before long,                  the staffing norms were somewhat eased, and today they are practiced differently. For                  various reasons, mandated pupil-teacher ratio in class was abolished by the parliament on                  the 12 of June 2003 (NOU, 2003, p. 16) schools’ freedom to manage its own personnel,                  together with financial constraints, may have been some of the causes for this.                    The reform also resulted in another pedagogical approach that not all teachers were                  skilled in. This was particularly true of the concept “theme and project work” which                  was  an  overarching  principle  of  the  reform.  Teachers  had  good  expertise  in  lecture                  methods,  whereas  the  reform  required  active  learning  with  focus  on  interaction,  or                  student active teaching as it was called. Haug (2003) points out that in this case, the                  school owner showed no responsibility for the competence improvement necessary for                  the new educational thinking.                    Concepts such as theme work and projects were new topics in the curricula, without                  the  schools  being  familiar  with  the  significance.  The  terms  were  often  mixed  up,                  probably because teachers were not updated on the differences between themes and                  projects. School owners were too late with the necessary competence development in                  this (Kompetanse for utvikling, 2005).                    This  brought  about  a restructuring  process  both  in  school  life  and  in  the  teacher                  training. The most important part of the training was to undertake various projects                  and make use of experience. There was to be more emphasis on the ability to think                  creatively and new, than on mere knowledge. The concept of self-regulated learning                  demanded that pupils could master to spend their time efficiently and to organize and                  adjust their own learning. This new way of working was unknown to teachers who up                                                           27                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   27                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                    until now had been mediators of knowledge. In M87, other methods were prevalent,                   which became very challenging for many, as the teachers lacked the necessary skills. The                   evaluation of this reform did not impress school researchers (Haug, 2003). Yet, lecture-                   based  pedagogy  survived.  A new  plan  was  needed,  and  the  “Knowledge  Promotion”                   took over, with the National Curriculum for Knowledge Promotion (LK06), (Læreplanen                   Kunnskapsløftet, 2006).                     Attention was once again directed towards customized training and planning with                   a focus on local curriculum work. This led to a new restructuring process for school                   staff. Now the curriculum turned into a binding regulation as well. Teachers training                   followed behind and the curriculums are still in edit mode, as the school is changing.                     The  economic,  technical  and  social  changes  occurred  at  unexpectedly  accelerated                   pace after this. From the 1970s, the Norwegian economy was based on oil exploration,                   which solidified economic development. This created new opportunities, but also new                   challenges. Authorities eventually got increasingly need to put emphasis on this through                   changes in the school system. Reforms were lining up, and it was important to indicate                   political direction. Developments in school should be reflecting changes in society.                      Norwegian school in an international context                    This section attempts to identify connections between the teacher’s role and the social                   development. How can focus on more knowledge and expertise contribute to a better                   society? What are the forces governing this development? Is it plausible that education in                   our own country relates to the development elsewhere in Europe? How does this change                   the teacher’s role and duties?                     The challenges faced by the schools may be seen in context of what was going on outside                   Norway. Comparison with other countries‘ school systems made the school significant,                   not only for the pupils. Today it is crucial that the pupils are globally competitive. The                   school is in the process of becoming more international. Hence, it might be necessary                   with more control over what is going on in school. The nation’s need for further expertise                   and specialization should affect the way education prepares citizens for new challenges.                   Norway has strengthened its ties with the international market through oil trade and                   investment. Yet, the major political parties have rather different agendas in conveying                   their  political  values    and  reality,  because  school  and  training  involves  considerable                   expenses for the society. Meanwhile, the attitude towards the results of the efforts made                   in school has grown more conscious. This may be related to their need to compare                   endeavors in school with other countries, which the authorities have found it natural to                   compare with. Today, it seems to be a growing urge to measure up to those who have                   the best results, various measures are applied in order to identify and record the pupils’                   knowledge and progress. This assessment culture is thought to have internal educational                   purposes,  but  also  to  help  directing  the  need  for  knowledge  and  expertise  towards                   a more international path. Norway does not stand alone in the world or Europe, but                   must relate closely to other countries to maintain their own growth and social security. In                                                             28                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   28                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","2. Main challenges for the norwegian schools during the last decade                   this manner, the school is also governed by a financial commitment to achieve common                  goals. With tools like National Tests, TIMMS, PISA and other international assessments,                  classes and students are being measured against each other. This has led to debate about                  which priorities are wise, and how society should organize education in the best possible                  way, but still be able to control the costs.                     Growing need for expertise in the teaching profession and education                   The teacher education in Norway is greatly affected by this. The authorities are facilitating                  for a major continuing education scheme, and from 2022 a master degree in education                  will be a requirement. Moreover, all teachers, irrespective of previously approved teacher                  training will have to augment their expertise through a large continuing education project.                  The teachers’ unions are supporting the suggestion, although they seem upset by the                  fact that requirements for higher expertise should be applied retroactively (Ministry of                  Education). In this context, experience does not count as expertise, but the number of                  credits in the basic subjects does. In 2016, the number of teachers in need of supplementary                  education makes up about half of the entire profession. Nevertheless, there is a plan of                  great efforts to ensure that all teachers get a master’s degree. Admission to the new                  teacher education program on master level starts in 2017, but the work has been going                  on for years. This is also the reason for the considerable restructuration of universities                  and colleges, with merging into larger units and stricter admission requirements for                  new teacher education students. In 2014, Statistics Norway (SSB) presented estimates                  showing that the lack of teachers will be around 40,000 within short (Gjefsen, Gunnes,                  \& Stølen, 2014). Subsequently, this was adjusted to between 18,000 and 20,000 within                  2020. Moreover, it will be difficult for educational establishments to meet the continuing                  education requirements for teachers.                    The pupils’ performances in national and international assessments have been used to                  argue that teachers need more expertise. This debate is lacking alternative explanations                  for the results. Others would like the curriculum to include values that contribute to                  creativity and expression, in order to develop the children as “whole persons” (Falch \&                  Strøm, 2009).                      The  teacher‘s role  has  changed  considerably  with  the  new  curricula,  customized                  training  and  more  time  for  research  and  development  work.  A career  of  teaching,                  through  30–40  years  in  school,  forces  teachers  to  be  both  adaptable  and  willing  to                  change in order to meet the role expectations. From being alone in a classroom with                  many students and a joint curriculum, the teacher will now be working in teams with                  other  teachers  and  facilitate  customized  training  for  all  students.  In  this  setting,  all                  students should be integrated in a learning environment that promotes learning and                  social skills regardless of learning abilities. This is a job that also requires a lot of the                  teacher‘s personal qualities. The reason could also be that the teacher training itself, as                  well as the organization of the study programs and subjects are under revision.                                                             29                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   29                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                    Profession and loyalty                     There  are  many  challenges  to  come  for  the  Norwegian  school.  The  media  draws                   a picture of the teacher subject to a fiduciary duty that may be an obstacle to his                   assignment and professional ethics. Even in an open democracy like ours, it appears                   that  the  general  educational  and  organizational  culture  does  not  give  individual                   teachers the opportunity to point out the flaws in school, but only to convey the                   professional  voice  from  the  classroom  (Sandefjord-case).  This  may  be  one  of  the                   reasons  why  teachers  are  relatively  silent  regarding  school  development  matters                   in  media.  It  seems  that  individual  teachers  to  a limited  extent  participate  in  the                   public debate. In political contexts, the teachers’ organizations and school owners                   (municipalities),  as  well  as  leading  politicians  have  the  opportunity  to  engage  in                   the debate. There is little to suggest that this would be of particular help in solving                   any of the major challenges. The public debate is characterized by limits on who                   might express their opinion on school matters and who may not. Bureaucrats and                   politicians refer to loyalty matters if a teacher makes statements about anything other                   than their own teaching (Sandefjord Case, 2014). From time to time, the discussions                   in the Norwegian media are characterized by the ethical boundaries between loyalty                   and  professionalism.  Politicians  and  bureaucrats  appear  mostly  concerned  about                   the school’s main task being to deliver measurable results. Teachers however, want                   to  give  emphasis  to  the  general  section  of  the  curriculum,  which  deals  with  the                   development  of  the  students  as  a “whole  person”,  with  non-measurable  values  of                   ethically importance, like cooperation, endurance, gratitude, ideas, environmental                   awareness etc. (LK06 – General Section). This general section is now being edited,                   and is likely to be completed in 2017/2018 (Ny generell, n.d.).                     Despite  the  fact  that  Norway  has  a strong  national  economy,  it  is  a widespread                   assumption  that  Norwegian  schools  are  characterized  by  financial  constraints  and                   a lack of overarching understanding. Many teachers express through their unions that                   this is distressing. Recognition of society’s complexity does not make it easier to find                   good solutions for children with severe challenges. The teacher organization’s statistics                   of schooling for children with special challenges shows an increasing need for special                   education, while economists want to suppress this need because it is expensive. The                   number of pupils requiring customized education (special education) increases during                   the 10 years of compulsory school. In 2014, the figure was 3.8% in the first grade                   and  11.2%  in  tenth  grade,  even  though  the  Education  Acts  requirements  on  early                   intervention should indicate that it is wiser to invest in early mastery as a preventive                   measure. Obviously, this development worries pedagogues, economists and political                   authorities alike. This trend affects the teacher’s workday as well. It is being discussed                   whether  the  use  of  unqualified  assistants  for  demanding  pupils  provides  a better                   educational offer, or if it only helps to curb unrest without having a direct or indirect                   educational effect (Stortingsmelding 18, 2011).                                                                30                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   30                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","2. Main challenges for the norwegian schools during the last decade                   Children with special needs                    Since school gained ground in a relatively primitive society in the 1800s, this was also the                  beginning of a debate about the understanding of normality. Children were defined as                  normal or not-normal and even as “abnormal”. Who was considered suitable for learning                  and how much training children and youths should have, reflected the predominant                  values of the time. The Church’s need for training was limited to reading and writing                  skills  in  order  to  understand  the  fundamental  matters  of  faith.  Increasing  need  for                  trade and production, road construction and development of cities and a more modern                  society, made it necessary that some pupils had more knowledge than others. In Norway,                  a distinction between those who were given the opportunity and those who were not,                  had existed for a long time.                    For centuries, Norway had been under Danish rule, and during this period, higher                  education took place in Copenhagen. In the building of Norway as an independent nation,                  a well-functioning school system was important. Likewise, it was an aspiration that all                  children should receive training. This applied even to those who fell outside the concept                  of normality. In 1881 a law was passed, that launched the special school system in the                  country. From now on, also the „abnormal“ children should receive tuition. As mentioned                  previously, it was traditionally a strong distinction between children‘s schooling in the                  rural and urban areas. For children in rural areas the schooldays were shorter and the                  curriculum was lesser. This was a time of slow social change, which is reflected in the long                  lifetime of the curricula of 1889. A range of institutions for all kinds of disabilities was                  established, and eventually all children from the age of 7 were offered education. Children                  should have equal opportunities for education and partly to care, and the institutions                  would cover both needs. Although institutions for severely disabled children existed in                  the late 1800s, the 1950s and ‚60s saw an expansion with continuing establishment of                  new special schools. These were schools for children with various learning disabilities,                  behavioral problems, milder hearing and visual impairment. But, the integration idea                  had taken root, and the law on special schools (1951) was eventually replaced. A special                  committee (Blom Committee) was working to abolish the law and succeeded the mid-70s.                  The integration of children with special needs started and children were now entitled                  to  schooling  in  their  local  area  or  school  district.  Consequently,  the  normal  school                  faced new challenges and a need for both more resources and expertise. In addition to                  requirements on age and aptitude, school maturity had previously been an admission                  criterion.  According  to  the  Education  Act  (Opplæringsloven,  1999)  children  should                  enter school from the sixth year of age. There is also a provision in the law that that                  opens  for  a one-  year  delay,  based  on  an  expert  assessment  of  the  child.  When  the                  child starts school it should be ensured that he/she receives the education they are                  entitled to through customized training. Many teachers report that this is particularly                  challenging, as it requires both resources and expertise. Likewise, the integration has                  been a challenge for the teacher training institutions, which have facilitated for further                  and continuing training programs in special education. In addition to special pedagogics                  being included in regular teacher training, it has also been established various master                                                            31                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   31                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                    programs directed towards education of children with major challenges. Today the vast                   majority of these children are integrated into regular schools. To many pupils, parents                   and teachers, this requires an understanding of the widened concept of normality. In                   relation  to  this  challenge,  schools  and  teachers  may  need  guidance  to  find  efficient                   solutions to the daily tasks and the necessity of coaching.                     Today, most people would agree that the concept “abnormal” is unsuitable, but despite                   of this, the school is still referred to as the normal school. The concept of normal, is now                   used in a much broader sense, and covers the majority’s educational needs as well as the                   right to special education. Within these rights, various diagnoses are used as alternatives                   to the normality concept. The diagnoses are often related to individual understanding                   of  a child’s abilities,  but  a systematic  understanding  is  gaining  ground.  This  means                   examining  the  causes  and  circumstances  that  result  in  some  children  having  greater                   difficulties than others. The ability-oriented understanding of the normality term is in                   danger of being constricted. For many teachers, the consequence is increased need for                   guidance related to these challenges.                      Ethical challenges in school                     In the context of a deepening education, greater diversity in everyday school and the                   schools  extended  mandate,  teachers’  unions  have  also  had  the  need  to  distinguish                   themselves as professional players in society. A professional ethical platform has therefore                   been endorsed in all schools in the country (Nesfeldt, 2013). This code of ethics should                   define the teacher‘s mission in school and provide clear guidelines for the expectations                   of  the  teacher.  Likewise,  it  requires  teachers  to  be  able  to  deal  with  various  ethical                   dilemmas in their work. This both to underline that they are acting in a professional                   role, but also that they act in accordance with the ethical standards expected by the                   society. It is an overarching aspiration that professionality is based on ethical principles,                   since actions in everyday school might be in conflict with political and personal interests,                   as shown previously. An example of this is the assessment culture, where teachers are                   required to report on student achievements in contexts where the results will be used for                   political purposes rather than educational. With safe ethical guidelines, it will be easier                   to act as a single professional group, rather than individual teachers alone in pointing                   out the ethical dilemmas. Unions stress that the individual teacher should not be put                   in situations contrary to their professional ethics, i.e. through reporting used for other                   purposes. The Ethical platform refers to two main areas, of which one is about ethical                   values and the other about the teacher’s ethical responsibility and respect of all parties                   involved.                     In  working  with  children  from  kindergarten  to  upper  secondary  school,  teachers                   encounter increasingly explicit expectations about what these institutions’ responsibilities                   are. Such expectations can create ethical dilemmas when political decisions are governing                   the activity in the kindergarten, or the school has to deliver solid, measurable results.                   The preparation in the ethical platform is of course part of the teachers training, but                                                             32                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   32                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","2. Main challenges for the norwegian schools during the last decade                   takes  place  at  the  individual  institution  as  well.  It  is  strongly  linked  to  the  teacher                  assigned task. Such ethical guidelines also reflect society’s view of humanity and the                  prevailing values. The teachers’ ethical decisions should be characterized by knowledge                  of diversity and be in accordance with the expectation that the teacher should be able                  to convey the message that every individual can contribute to the common challenges.                  Ethics is subject to various interpretations, but in both kindergartens and schools, the                  focal starting point has been “the best interest of the child”. This is also reflected in                  the government’s guidelines to cooperation between Kindergarten and child protection                  services (Q–0801). This means of course that there are many answers to what is best for                  the child, and that ethics alone is not able to decide this. This applies not least to how                  peoples take care of each other, and what is the behavior pattern in different contexts.                    Increasing need for guidance                    Based on all these elements, work is being done to provide guidelines for kindergartens                  and  schools  to  clarify  the  opportunities  and  limitations  of  individual  teachers  and                  individual schools. The workday may seem challenging, and at the same time, many                  teachers experience that the opportunities are being delimited. This is also the point of                  departure for our method of guidance; to find new ways, shed light on the teachers’ role                  and make good ethical decisions based on the individual situation. Similarly, the school                  owner is seeking to facilitate for competence development and encourages the guidance                  of newly qualified teachers.                                                                                             33                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   33                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   34                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","3.  Selected issues that are current                       in Czech education                        Since 1989 Czech schools have undergone a process of turbulent change. Decentralization                  has turned schools into legal entities and provided them with considerable autonomy.                  Most of the changes that schools have been through in the last 25 years are anchored in                  the strategic document National Programme for the Development of Education, also called                  White Book (see MŠMT, 2001), and the legislation documents created in 2004 (MŠMT,                  2004). Today we find ourselves in the period of final revisions to and adoption of a new                  Education Act, which will present schools with more changes and challenges. The wording                  of the new Act reflects the Strategy for the Education Policy of the Czech Republic until 2020                  (MŠMT, 2015), a strategic document that follows Europe-wide trends of development.                  Two priorities are typical of this document: elimination of unequal access to education                  and reinforcement of the quality of teachers and teaching. It is considered fundamental                  to promote these ideas in practice and create corresponding procedures and standards                  of implementation (EDUin, 2014). As for current challenges related to basic schools,                  we have chosen three topics that in recent years and months have provoked a lot of                  discussions  as  well  as  emotion:  pupils’  educational  results,  inclusive  education  and                  professional development of teachers.                     Pupils’ results                   Post-communist  schooling  legislation  substantially  relaxed  the  obligatory  curriculum.                  Framework Education Programmes were developed at the central level; schools use them to                  create and modify their own curricula, and to a certain extent they are able to specialize.                  After some time it has turned out that although this relaxation, resulting in a two-level                  curriculum, has brought several advantages, at the same time it has deepened disparities                  among students’ and schools’ results. There is a lively discussion on the question of which                  of personal and social (key) competences or academic knowledge is more important for                  a pupil’s life  and  further  development.  Voices  can  be  heard  recalling  the  traditional                  form of schooling, which accentuates academic knowledge and returns teachers to their                  traditional role.                    There has been a long discussion on pupil results at lower secondary level (ISCED                  2),  with  particular  reference  to  the  changing  structure  of  classrooms  because  of  the                  best students leaving for eight-year grammar schools. In the 1990s and, even more so in                  the first years of the new century, secondary education underwent significant changes:                  some schools merged, traditional study subjects disappeared, new ones originated and                  a fair number of secondary private schools (ISCED 3) emerged, some of them providing                                                           35                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   35                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                    continuation study programmes (ISCED 4). All this was motivated by the good intention                   to make secondary and tertiary education accessible to more applicants. Yet schools                   could  not  avoid  the  rules  of  the  market,  so  in  order  to  attract  students  in  a period                   of demographic decline they compromised standards and some of them abandoned                   admission proceedings.                     The  transformation  of  schooling,  particularly  the  transition  from  a knowledge-                   oriented  model  to  a model  based  on  competences,  has  generated  new  demands  for                   the conduct of teaching and new requirements for forms of testing and evaluation of                   results.  The  verification  of  the  current  level  of  outcome  expected  by  the  Framework                   Education Programmes is a legal task of the Czech School Inspectorate. Another duty of                   this institution is to gather and analyse information on education and evaluate conditions                   for and procedure of schooling. In regular periods, schools selected by fixed criteria                   are invited to carry out electronic testing in various grades and in selected subjects.                   As  a result,  there  is  a database  that  provides  information  for  participating  schools,                   professionals and the public and, at the same time, is available to schools that choose to                   join the testing voluntarily in order to compare their pupils’ results with others. Recent                   years have witnessed particular emphasis on the testing of 5th and 9th grade pupils (i.e.                   those proceeding from ISCED 1 to ISCED 2 and from ISCED 2 to ISCED 3). Apart from                   this official testing there are portals of other organizations and associations that provide                   schools with opportunities for testing and comparison (SCIO, CERMAT and others).                     Pupil  testing  is  not  unanimously  accepted,  however.  The  risk  that  results  will  be                   manipulated and/or the curriculum reduced in order for pupils to prepare for testing                   and admission examinations for secondary schools or universities is often highlighted.                   Research has shown that some headteachers do not consider the results they generate                   comparable because of the different adjustments to educational programmes and testing                   conditions (Lazarová, Pol, \& Sedláček, 2015).                     In order for the requirements of basic and secondary schools to conform with each other                   at least roughly, uniform entrance tests for secondary schools are being discussed and                   uniform secondary school graduation examinations gradually introduced. An important                   argument is that a fixed minimum of knowledge has to be proven by those who wish to                   study subjects in which they will graduate. This measure should improve the quality of                   education in these subjects, but it entails certain risks and makes manifest shortcomings in                   the Czech education system in the measurement of results (EDUin, 2014).                     This adjustment comes up against the requirement of inclusion (see below), which                   dictates  optimum  usage  of  each  pupil’s potential  and  as  a consequence  complicates                   the matter of evaluation of the performance of weaker pupils. The results of inclusive                   schools and the outcome of pupils with special education needs are therefore hard to                   evaluate, measure and compare by means of standard testing.                     Starting from the 1990s, Czech schools have participated regularly in international                   surveys  such  as  TIMSS  (mathematics  and  sciences),  PIRLS  (reading  literacy),  PISA                   (mathematical,  reading  and  scientific  literacy),  CIVED  (civic  education)  and  ICILS                   (computer and information literacy). In comparison with the results of other countries,                   those  of  Czech  students  are  not  considered  bad,  but  they  are  not  stable  (significant                                                             36                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   36                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","3. Selected issues that are current in Czech education                   deterioration was shown by the TIMSS 2007 survey) and differ in various literacies. As                  for recent years, let us mention the PISA 2012 survey in which Czech students recorded                  mediocre  scores  (Palečková,  Tomášek,  \&  Blažek,  2014).  Above-average  results  were                  achieved  by  fifteen-year-old  students  in  problem-solving  and  financial  literacy  (PISA,                  2014). Recent PIRLS and TIMSS surveys have shown improved results achieved by Czech                  students as compared to 2007 (MŠMT, 2011) and there were excellent results in the                  ICILS 2013 survey in which Czech students achieved the highest score of all participating                  countries (Basl et al., 2015).                    Therefore, international comparison has become a powerful indicator of strong and                  weak points of education in terms of pupil results. On the other hand it does not provide                  clear interpretations in the national context. Big questions are yet to be answered as                  concerns the relation between teachers’ professional behaviour/growth and students’                  results. As is the case in other countries in recent years, evidence-based education has                  become  an  important  topic  of  discussion.  Also,  academics  are  carrying  out  a lot  of                  practical and action research intended to produce evidence of the effects of various                  educational methods, so at last moving theory closer to practice (Starý, Dvořák, Greger,                  \& Duschinská, 2012).                     Inclusive education                    The  vision  of  “open  schools”  was  already  mentioned  in  the  White  Book,  but  today                  there is much more stress on the openness of schools for all pupils, regardless of their                  particularities and disadvantages. With the accent on pro-inclusive behaviour of schools,                  the new amendment to the Education Act reacts to the frequently quoted but controversial                  D. H. Judgement concerning the assignment of socially disadvantaged pupils to special                  schools, passed down by the European Court of Human Rights in 2007. The Ministry                  of Education strives for restriction, if not abolition, of the practice of assigning children                  from socially disadvantaged backgrounds to off-mainstream schools (such as the so-called                  practical basic schools), in order to guard against malpractice. Currently, basic schools                  are obliged to accept all pupils from the vicinity, and it is expected that schools (basic                  schools in particular) will be open to students at various types of risk and disadvantage.                  The implementation of this regulation provokes a lot of emotion. The problem is not that                  school leaders and teachers reject inclusive education as a value, but they find it difficult                  to imagine a common education for gifted pupils on the one hand and the mediocre and                  mentally disadvantaged, including pupils with sensory processing, behaviour, emotional                  and personality disorders, on the other. They are afraid of not being able to manage                  classes with such a large diversity of pupils under current conditions, as:                   –  there are still many schools with physical barriers (although pupils with disorders and                     physical disabilities are usually welcome and experiences with them give no reason                     for doubts about overall inclusion); as the Czech School Inspectorate has found, only                     22.8% of schools visited had barrier-free access in 2012/2013,                                                           37                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   37                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                    –  there are still high numbers of pupils in classrooms (17 to 30 pupils are allowed),                   –  teachers lack experience of work with pupils with more severe disorders; neither were                      they trained for such work,                   –  classroom assistants are still rare and they vary in quality; their salaries are low and                      schools must regularly ask for them in relation to the numbers of disadvantaged                      pupils reported and put to check,                   –  schools are not automatically entitled to employ specialists such as school psychologists                      and special educators; their work is often organized as part-time jobs financed from                      the resources of the school and from projects focused on short-term employment                      (a special educator was employed in 16.1% of schools and a school psychologist in                      9.4% of schools visited by the Czech School Inspectorate in 2014),                   –  pupils and their parents do not seem to be ready for inclusive education; there is                      a lack  of  explanation  and  information  for  the  public  (ČŠI,  2014;  Lazarová  et  al.,                      2015).                      As the Czech School Inspectorate has reported, almost 70% headteachers of basic                   schools can see obstacles to a higher share of inclusive education (ČŠI, 2014).                     As  in  certain  other  countries,  there  are  two  extreme  groups  on  the  Czech  scene:                   supporters  of  absolute/overall  inclusion  versus  opponents  of  these  changes  (Allan,                   2008; Clark, Dyson, Millward, \& Robson, 1999; Hodkinson, 2012). An important topic                   of discussion is the fundamental idea of inclusion and the understanding of the terms                   ‘inclusion’ and ‘inclusive education’. Traditionally, discussions in Czech schools refer to                   ‘pupil integration’, and it is integrated pupils at whom various support measures financed                   from off-school resources are aimed. Our survey (Lazarová et al., 2015) has shown that                   schools seldom work with the term ‘inclusion’, tending to regard it as a political notion;                   as a result, different people in schools understand inclusive education as different things.                   An important matter is the location in which the school operates: some understand                   inclusion as being an open school in the local community, not scared of a high diversity                   of pupils, while others understand inclusion mainly as an obligation to educate pupils                   with special needs. In the latter, teachers are afraid of having to compromise previous                   efforts to achieve high quality of teaching. Also, headteachers point out organizational                   problems connected with the scheduling of lessons and teachers’ workload, which would                   have to be changed due to the individualization of teaching, i.e. distribution of pupils                   to smaller groups (Lazarová, Pol, \& Sedláček, 2015). The implementation of support                   measures  for  certain  pupils  may  also  produce  an  increased  administrative  workload,                   with requests for higher allowances and justification of costs. It is evident that education                   policy  is  hastily  overtaking  the  reality  of  schools  and  that  schools  are  not  ready  for                   changes in culture and specific practice (Lazarová et al., 2015).                     Inclusive education in the Czech Republic is currently supported by a variety of political                   and strategic documents (MŠMT, 2015) as well as nationwide (centrally controlled) and                   local projects. Some projects carried out in the past resulted in examples of good practice,                   but they do not provide convincing proof that inclusive education gives schools a new                   quality, that is perceived positively and generally accepted. Under these conditions, there                                                             38                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   38                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","3. Selected issues that are current in Czech education                   is a rising demand for assistants and other professionals and specialists who can support                  schools on their way to inclusive education. Within these projects some teachers are                  trained to become inclusion coordinators. The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports                  of the Czech Republic is striving for system-anchored support for school psychologists                  and  special  educators.  Mentors  and  consultants  for  teachers  and  school  leaders  are                  mentioned more and more often in discussions.                    Inclusion is a political and ideological issue, so some schools may feel that orders                  are being issued from above. At the same time, it is evident that if inclusion is to be                  implemented successfully it must be accepted as a value, not an order imposed upon                  schools  from  above.  In  this  respect,  differences  among  schools  are  immense  and                  discussions reveal a wide gap between policy and practice.                    Professional development and the career system of teachers                    Inclusion is not the only demand placed on today’s teacher education. In recent decades                  the content and form of in-service training have changed considerably. Competence-                  focused teaching requires new work methods and approaches to evaluation (difficult                  evaluation  of  competences,  individualized  demands  on  pupils,  etc.).  Several  surveys                  carried out at Czech schools have evidenced that teachers consider in-service education                  to be an important component of their job. As to the content of in-service education,                  language and IT courses have been popular for years; increasing attention is paid to                  problems experienced by pupils with special educational needs and school counselling                  (Starý,  Dvořák,  Greger,  \&  Duschinská,  2012).  Apart  from  courses  typically  required,                  which  offer  specific  development  procedures  in  didactic  competences  in  particular                  subjects, trainingthat discusses the practice and personal development of teachers is                  increasingly promoted (e.g. Kasíková, 2013; Nehyba et al., 2014).                    Besides  courses  and  seminars,  teachers  learn  from  their  colleagues.  Many  schools                  encourage teachers to visit each other’s classes; there is not, however, much interest in                  visits to other schools, teacher exchanges between schools and stays abroad (Starý et al.,                  2012). Lack of cooperation among teachers is remarked upon often (teams collaborating                  in projects are an exception to this), as is a lack of peer support such as mentoring. Starý                  et al. (2012) argue that some teachers are afraid of telling others about their teaching,                  which they protect as their own know-how. So-called ‘subject boards’, in which teachers                  of the same or similar subjects meet to discuss the curriculum, textbooks, evaluation and                  so on, provide a basis for cooperation in Czech schools. Several projects support the                  work of internal and external specialists (e.g. education consultants, mentors) who can                  help people in schools to develop in terms of professional growth.                    Currently  there  is  an  emphasis  on  educating  whole  teams  of  teachers  in  schools.                  Whole schools are involved so that the school’s climate and culture can change gradually.                  Made-to-order education of teams is preferred by bigger schools (Starý et al., 2012).                  There  is  emphasis  on  workplace  learning,  consideration  of  experience  and  teacher                  self-evaluation.  Nevertheless,  some  surveys  indicate  that  Czech  headteachers  tend  to                                                           39                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   39                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                    misrepresent learning at the level of the whole school. Contrary to their view, teachers                   admit that they rely on themselves in a lot of matters or opt for informal exchange of                   experience with colleagues (Pol et al., 2013).                     Most Czech teachers express satisfaction with choices available for in-service education,                   but it is evident that a clearly defined responsibility for its quality is missing at the national                   level. Accreditation for educational programmes is based on presented documents only;                   the courses and their impact are not monitored. There is no system of evaluation of the                   effects of in-service training in school practice (Starý et al., 2012).                     Following  efforts  to  word  precisely  the  notion  of  quality,  an  expert  group  was                   established  in  2008  in  order  to  establish  a Teaching  Profession  Quality  Standard.  The                   Standard  is  considered  to  be  an  important  tool  for  greater  professionalization  of                   teachers which should serve to increase the quality of their work basis for cooperation                   in  Czech  schools,  as  urged  by  curricular  reform.  The  Standard  describes  the  job  of                   a professional  and  is  interconnected  with  a comprehensive  system  of  support  for                   teachers and their professional growth (Rýdl, 2014). The Standard formulates the key                   professional knowledge (pedagogical knowledge, knowledge of subjects taught, didactic                   knowledge of content, knowledge of the curriculum, knowledge of objectives, purposes                   and  values  of  education,  knowledge  of  educational  settings,  knowledge  of  students                   and their characteristics, knowledge of oneself) and professional operations in which                   professional competences are reflected. The Standard describes four categories of quality                   criteria  and  indicators  (tuition  planning,  learning  environment,  learning  processes,                   pupil work evaluation, reflection of teaching, school development and peer cooperation,                   cooperation with parents and the public, professional development of teachers). All this                   is inspired by efforts to explain the concept of quality teaching to teachers (Kohnová et                   al., 2012). This document, too, has supporters and opponents among school politicians,                   academics and practitioners.                     As  for  the  professional  development  of  teachers,  no  legislative  requirements  are                   stipulated and in-service education still fails to connect with the career order. Attempts                   to create a new career system for teachers have suffered from misunderstandings among                   the groups of its supporters, and the completion of these efforts has been postponed. The                   basic assumption was that the most experienced teachers would engage most intensely in                   both in-service training and education policy, assuming the roles of internal or external                   mentors and consultants, therefore operating beyond their immediate work in classrooms.                   For this reason, some expressed worries about the risks and negative impacts of the                   proposal for educational practice under discussion – mainly fears of a worsened school                   climate, a lack of clarity regarding the role and position of headteachers and “taking                   teachers away from classrooms and children” (because of the stress on dissemination),                   which in other words would mean de-professionalization of teaching (Janík, Píšová, \&                   Spilková, 2014). Supporters of certifications, portfolios and testing committees as tools                   of teacher quality improvement found themselves in opposition to those who looked                   for  quality  improvement  in  the  creation  and  dissemination  of  a learning  culture  in                   schools, under which it was not necessary to motivate teachers by a vision of career                   advancement.  People  discuss  whether  the  vision  of  teachers  as  “agents  of  change  in                                                            40                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   40                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","3. Selected issues that are current in Czech education                   schools” or even “campaigners of nationwide importance” should really be reflected in                  career advancement, or whether the appropriate place of teachers is in the classroom.                  The lack of clarity in the career system is a token of the somewhat chaotic atmosphere                  that  obtains  in  Czech  education.  A survey  of  headteachers  has  shown  that  the  main                  causes of misinformation, misinterpretation and the resulting worry and resistance are                  political instability and frequent changes (at the Ministry of Education) (Lazarová, Pol,                  \& Sedláček, 2015).                    Recommendations resulting from analyses of the current situation a strive for more                  intensive  cooperation  between  schools  and  the  higher  education  institutions  that                  prepare future teachers. Also recommended are involvement of assistant teachers and                  proposals for introducing creative days off for teachers. Discussions on the professional                  development of teachers always highlight the role of school leaders (Starý et al., 2012).                    The  three  issues  described  were  chosen  principally  on  the  basis  of  discussions                  monitored in teacher journals, internet portals and scholarly articles dealing with issues                  of education policy and specific practice in schools. It is evident that Czech education has                  taken a great step forward in recent decades, as it tries to react consciously to Europe-                  wide trends. Naturally, rapid change brings doubt and anxiety in its train. Some changes                  are difficult to fit into the existing culture, in schools and in society. The implementation                  of  the  challenges  addressed  here  requires  the  backing  of  a number  of  internal  and                  external supporters. Some of these matters will be discussed in the chapters below.                                                                                                 41                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   41                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   42                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","4. Landscape of support mechanism in Norway                         Quality development is closely linked to quality assessment. At national level, a system of                  quality assessment administered by the Directorate of Education (Utdanningsdirektoratet)                  has been established. The overall objective of the national system of quality assessment                  is to contribute to quality improvement at all levels of basic education, in terms of                  customized education and improved learning outcome for the individual pupil. The                  quality assessment system will furthermore contribute to openness, transparency and                  dialogue  around  the  school’s activities  and  provide  information  to  the  education                  sector as a basis for decisions, founded on documented knowledge about the local                  and  national  situation.  Locally,  the  system  should  form  a basis  for  assessment  and                  development  work  through  facilitation  for  assessment  and  follow-up  of  results  on                  the part of school owners and school leaders. It is intended as the basis for quality                  improvement in each school. “The different parts of the test and assessment system                  aim to meet different needs. The system makes it possible to see relations that may                  provide more information about the education than the individual test and evaluations                  alone” (UDIR, 2010).                    This  system  includes  elements  such  as  supervision,  to  ensure  common  practice                  across counties in terms of interpretation and implementation of the Education Act                  (Opplæringsloven) and the Independent Schools Act (Lov om privatskoler), and the use                  of mapping materials to identify the need for individual support and organization at                  the level of the individual and the school. Summative and formative assessments make                  it possible to examine a pupil’s knowledge in key areas of a subject, and, based on this                  documentation, to determine what efforts are required to improve the pupil’s mastery of                  the subject. Moreover, there is guidance material that illustrates how school authorities,                  schools and teachers may use the system pedagogically. International studies make it                  possible to assess pupil competence in Norway as compared with other countries, so                  forming a basis for indicator development and policymaking.                    By giving explicit functions to the different forms of assessment, it should be easier                  to see how they can complement each other and contribute to an overall assessment.                  It is obvious, however, that this essentially revolves around what knowledge and skills                  the pupils have acquired, measured in specific ways at specific times. Furthermore, the                  system contains guidance material, online conveyance of results and information about                  some of the activities going on in a school.                    However, the question is how all the available information is helping teachers move                  forward.  This  requires  analytical  skills  at  school  level,  something  the  OECD  report                  “Synergies for Better Learning” (OECD, 2013) points out with regard to the Norwegian                  school. The report recommends that the school leaders’ skills should be improved in                  terms of their being able to analyse and follow up the results of the quality assessment                  system.                                                           43                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   43                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                      Systems of quality assessment should help reveal aspects of the schools’ activities and                   thereby provide a qualified basis for taking action both nationally and locally.                     Allerup  et  al.  (2009)  question  how  the  aspect  of  learning  is  safeguarded  in                   today’s increasingly complex assessment system:                        The current system with different user surveys and tests seems to make it difficult for teachers to                      distinguish among an increasing number of surveys, which are perceived increasing workload.                      Our data indicate that at present there is a great deal of confusion about what it is you respond                      to. Excessive complexity reduces the possibility of learning. In addition, it is demotivating.                      (Allerup et al., 2009, p. 13)                      With this in mind, the authors claim that the current system essentially provides a basis                   for control, while the opportunity for learning that the system could have provided is                   maintained to a lesser extent. An overview from the Knowledge Centre for Education                   (Kunnskapssenter) reinforces this statement, based on experience gleaned from teacher                   assessments:                       The inclusive literature contains descriptions of national systems for teacher assessment from                      Chile, China, Belgium and Portugal. Common for all countries is that the systems have dual                      purposes.  They  should  both  contribute  to  professional  development  (formative)  and  ensure                      quality  and  control  (summative).  The  research  shows  a tendency  towards  a downgrading  of                      professional development and that the control functions take over. Problems seem to arise when                      national intentions are to be implemented locally. If the assessment should lead to learning and                      professional  development,  it  requires  knowledgeable  school  owners  and  school  leaders,  and                      good collaboration between management and teachers. (Lillejord et al., 2014, p. 3)                      This is also in line with the conclusion of Ekholm (Ekholm, 2004), who claims that                   schools are obliged to solve tasks outlined by the national authorities, although this may                   be carried out through local adaptation. Allerup et al. (2009) point out that consideration                   should be given to whether other instruments/procedures are suitable for creating a local                   commitment to a stronger assessment culture, or whether quality assessment should be                   organized in alliances with others with similar aims. “One should think through whether                   today we have instruments in the quality assessment system that maintain, in a good way,                   the teachers’ and schools’ need to master their own role in creating quality” (Allerup et                   al., 2009, p. 14).                     Our  conclusion  is  therefore  that  the  data  basis  for  future  quality  assessment  in                   a greater extent should include both outcome indicators and performance indicators                   (process indicators) and that the assessment must be more didactic in its approach. The                   schools gradually gain possession of substantial information on student performance                   and achievement through national tests and test results. Furthermore, student surveys                   and different organizational analyses are applied. Teaching evaluation is also carried                   out in upper secondary education, and it is likely that it will be introduced in primary                   schools as well. Thus, large quantities of various types of data, mainly of a quantitative                                                            44                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   44                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","4. Landscape of support mechanism in Norway                   character,  are  generated.  Jensen  (2012)  discusses  the  extent  to  which  different  types                  of data are suitable for quality development in schools. Allerup et al. (2009) argue for                  a wider use of qualitative data.                    Valid information about the qualities of core activities in schools show a requirement                  for greater use of qualitative data and dialogue as a supplement to the quantitative data.                  Focus should be directed towards the learning process and improvement of this, and the                  consequences this might have for both teachers and pupils. Quality assessment of the                  learning process should be based on actual pupil participation. It should be systematized                  as early as possible in the schooling and applied in both primary and secondary education.                  Pupils of all ages seem to be able to contribute to quality assessment and development                  in their own way.                    National initiatives                    Other initiatives for quality development in Norwegian schools comprise various types                  of continuing education. For teachers, this is mainly related to the subjects of English,                  mathematics  and  Norwegian,  in  addition  to  assessment  for  learning  and  continuous                  assessment.                    Likewise, many school employees are offered school leadership education, which may                  involve people already working as school administrators, as well as others who would                  like such a job in the future. Besides, support measures, such as guidance for newly                  qualified teachers and advisory teams to assist schools in quality development, are being                  developed,  and  an  Educational  Psychological  Service  offers  courses  in  organization                  and leadership development. An increasing number of these initiatives are carried out                  online, through Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC).                     School support services                    According  to  Norwegian  law,  all  children  in  the  country  have  an  obligation  to  be                  schooled and a right to schooling. This applies to all children regardless of their abilities                  and skills, ethnicity or religious or cultural affiliation. It is a public responsibility that                  the child gets to school and receives a good, appropriate education. Even children with                  temporary residence in the country are obliged to attend school if their stay lasts for                  more than three months (Education Act § 2.1). Compulsory school applies regardless,                  but the law permits private tutoring under certain conditions. The Education Act gives                  the pupil the right to both school supplies and training in a variety of subjects. Children                  start school at the age of six, and compulsory schooling lasts for ten years (ISCED 1 + 2).                  There is an opportunity to defer school entry if special conditions present an obstacle to                  school entry when the child turns six. Furthermore, the pupil is entitled to three years                  of upper secondary education (ISCED 3), where he/she follows either a general studies                  (studiespesialisering) or vocational studies (yrkesfag) path (Opplæringsloven, 2006).                                                           45                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   45                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                      Since schooling in Norway is an obligation, schools must accept all children regardless                   of  the  prerequisites.  Schools  should  be  in  possession  of  the  necessary  resources                   and expertise to ensure that all children are provided with an equal education. This                   equivalence is partly based on national regulations regarding the content of education,                   but also on different cultural conditions depending on where children live in the country.                   Consequently,  a school  in  the  far  north  or  west  of  the  country  may  have  the  same                   curricula while the activity and connection to the subject matter is rooted in the local                   culture, whether this is hunting and fishing along the coast or, elsewhere, characterized                   by agricultural or urban culture.                     Support agencies                     There are three public agencies besides school which help to ensure that children and                   young people receive education and adequate upbringing, the first being health services.                   Health services have a responsibility towards children of all ages, and will assist both                   schools and parents with advice and help if needed. For the school, collaboration with                   health services is vital. They represent a part of the support services accepted by all.                   The  healthcare  service,  through  the  public  health  nurse,  meets  newborns  and  their                   mothers  after  birth  and  follows  them  until  they  start  school.  It  also  meets  children                   at kindergarten and school as part of the vaccination and health control programme.                   Furthermore, the public health nurse is able to arrange for psychiatric help, although                   this service is offered primarily to families, children and young people. Likewise, the                   child’s GP has influence over welfare measures at school, as he or she can refer the                   child directly for psychiatric treatment or to other specialists, if this proves necessary.                   The service is public and regulated by the government through laws and regulations                   (http://www.forebygging.no).                     The Education Act (Opplæringsloven) sets the framework for school activities. It also                   includes the right to special monitoring if necessary. A separate section of the Act (§ 5)                   entitles pupils who are unable to follow regular education to special education. This                   education should facilitate good and structured training for pupils according to their                   abilities. The responsibility for such education is delegated to experts at Pedagogical/                   Psychological  Services,  which  is  another  agency  with  special  obligations.  A child                   who raises concerns at school or at home will normally be referred to Pedagogical/                   Psychological Services (Pedagogisk Psykologisk Tjeneste – PPT), through a collaboration                   between  school  and  home.  The  child  will  then  be  assessed  to  determine  whether                   special  education  is  necessary.  The  conclusion  reached  by  PPT  is  binding  for  the                   school owner (municipality) and thereby entitles the child to special education. PPT                   may  also  refer  the  child  for  further  evaluation  to  Child  and  Adolescent  Psychiatry                   (Barne- og ungdomspsykiatrien – BUP) or the Habilitation Service (Habiliteringstjenesten).                   The Habilitation Service is responsible for children and young people with congenital                   or early-acquired disability or chronic illness in the age group 0–18 years. These are                   children in need of long-term, multidisciplinary professional services that, amongst                                                             46                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   46                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","4. Landscape of support mechanism in Norway                   other things, examine their need for aids or appliances. This is a municipal service for                  anyone who needs it (http://www.habilitering.no).                    The third agency is the Child Welfare Service (Barnevern). Children who grow up in                  the country are also protected by the Child Welfare Act (Barnevernsloven) of 1993. The                  objectives of this law are as follows:                   –  to  ensure  that  children  and  young  people  who  live  in  conditions  that  may  be                     detrimental to their health and development receive the necessary assistance and                     care at the right time,                  –  to help ensure that children and young people grow up in a secure environment.                     This means that the Child Welfare Service, too, has assignments that are closely linked                  to  kindergarten  and  school  activities.  According  to  legislation,  it  plays  an  important                  part in our pupils’ lives. Thus, the Child Welfare Service is a major contributor to the                  safeguarding of a child’s interests in everyday life. The Child Welfare Service has the                  authority to intervene if a child appears to be neglected in any way by his/her parents                  or other responsible authorities. The Child Welfare Act also gives the Child Welfare                  Service the authority to take the child into custody against the parents’ wishes (§ 4.2)                  (Regjeringen, 2005).                    The mission of school owners is to ensure that the school has sufficient expertise,                  including in special pedagogy, to provide the best possible education. This work is often                  organized through regular meetings between the various professions (interdisciplinary                  meetings).  Likewise,  the  social  services  and  the  police  may  attend  such  meetings  if                  necessary.                    Since so many government agencies have the mission of ensuring that children in                  Norway grow up in good circumstances, every child should feel secure as a result of this.                  Nevertheless, in 2014 more than 53,000 children in Norway received assistance from the                  Child Welfare Services. Children are a vulnerable group, and it is not unthinkable that                  some numbers have gone unrecorded.                    In Norway there are many agencies that work for a safe and sound environment for the                  nation’s children. The community’s main contribution is to safeguard the child’s rights                  and make sure that those who work with children are competent and trustworthy. In                  guidance contexts, familiarity with the various rights of and opportunities for children                  is important. Guidance may be the beginning of changed perception of children and                  their situation, and thus be the start of a change process. From a systemic perspective,                  it is necessary to be aware of the many aspects of a child’s life. Guidance of the person                  responsible for the child’s education can be a trigger for a better and changed life for                  both the child and the child’s family, and for educational opportunities.                                                                   47                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   47                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   48                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","5.  Support for learning: Selected support activities                       and systems in Czech education                        The 1990s witnessed a change in the paradigm of school management in the Czech                  Republic. The accent was shifted to the inside of schools; from then on, in an externally                  delimited  scope,  they  could  do  whatever  they  considered  useful.  Teachers  obtained                  more  liberty  in  the  creation  of  the  curriculum  and  primary  attention  was  on  the                  main process: pupils’ learning. Greater autonomy for schools and teachers generated                  larger responsibilities, other procedures and, in many cases, more work, creativity and                  inventiveness. Teachers faced the need to acquire new knowledge and skills as required                  by work in transforming schools and society. Therefore, learning became an issue for                  both pupils and teachers.                    Soon after the important changes in the 1990s it was evident that schools would                  need  a lot  of  support  measures  from  the  outside  as  well  as  measures  constructed                  on  their  own.  Some  of  the  activities  from  the  outside  supporting  processes  of                  learning in schools will be described in this chapter. We will focus on current support                  information and material and human resources available to Czech schools. We will                  present selected institutions which provide various types of support from the state                  or local administration authorities, non-profit organizations and other subjects. Also,                  some important programmes and projects for schools will be presented. We do not                  have pretensions, however, to making a complete list of available options. The aim                  is to present a framework of support mechanisms and their objectives and forms as                  available for schools in the Czech Republic.                     Support for learning in schools from the government                  and local administration                   It is necessary to mention at the outset the legislative support that has been provided by                  the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic (MŠMT ČR) since                  2004. Currently in preparation is an amendment to the School Act that will facilitate                  access  to  support,  particularly  in  terms  of  handling  pupil  diversity  (see  the  part  on                  inclusion in Czech schools). In the first place, easier access to personal support from                  assistants, school psychologists and special educators is promised to schools. These are                  people who can become agents of change and boost the processes of learning.                    The Ministry has responded to the continuous, sometimes turbulent changes society                  and schools with calls for projects that draw on structural funds. In the area of these EU                  funds, the Ministry of Education administrates the operational programmes Education                  for Competitiveness and Research and Development for Innovation (cf. MŠMT, n.d.). Through                                                          49                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   49                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                    these projects, schools can access interesting financial resources that may support the                   quality of teaching and cooperation in schools, and therefore learning too. However,                   in  recent  years  two  fundamental  drawbacks  have  appeared  in  the  context  of  project                   support:  (1)  heavy  administration  workload  related  to  the  materialization  of  these                   projects; (2) topics of project calls do not always react to the needs of schools. As a result,                   in their efforts to get money schools sometimes enter projects that are far from subjects                   potentially useful for them, thus renouncing the sustainability of outcome (Lazarová,                   Pol, \& Sedláček, 2015). The Ministry tries to react to this by (1) calls for projects with                   simplified administration (templates) and project counselling for schools; (2) transferring                   the responsibilities for thematic project calls to local administrations. As a consequence,                   so-called Local Action Plans of Education Development have originated, based on the                   real needs of schools and providing a basis for the formulation of project calls.                     Nevertheless, it is also clear that project calls aimed at regions should correspond with                   the strategic documents of Czech schooling policy and the priorities defined for national                   development  projects.  For  instance,  the  priorities  for  2016  within  the  development                   projects  of  the  Ministry  of  Education  are  Czech  language  teaching  for  the  needs  of                   foreign pupils, conditions for basic education of underage asylum-seekers, free-of-charge                   preparation for basic education of children of parents from other EU countries, and so                   on (MŠMT, 2016).                     The administration of many of the most extended projects is entrusted to institutions                   directly governed by the Ministry, such as the National Institute for Education (NUV)                   and the National Institute for Further Education (NIDV). The mission of the National                   Institute for Education is to back in a versatile way general, professional, artistic and                   linguistic education and support schools in their pedagogical, psychological and career                   counselling and in-service teacher training, all this with a stress on lifelong learning and                   EU cooperation (NUV, n.d. /a/). The Institute is in charge of the creation of the Framework                   Education Programmes and helps schools to create their own education programmes and                   implement them in teaching. One of the projects the National Institute for Education                   was  entrusted  with,  Support  for  Regional  Action  Planning,  focused  on  secondary  and                   vocational schools in order to harmonize their support with the educational strategy                   of the Ministry of Education. Its aim was to guarantee methodological and supervision                   support in the use of action planning at the levels of Regions and schools. A regional plan                   of education stipulates the priorities and specific steps necessary for the achievement                   of  the  objectives  of  education  policy  as  based  on  desirability,  urgency,  benefits  and                   justification by real data and analyses. Recent years have featured increased interest in                   mentors, who may become an interesting benefit for quality improvement in teaching                   and cooperation in schools. The project Lecturers and Mentors for Schools (NUV, 2014)                   was  based  on  the  assumption  that  lecturers  and  mentors  can  have  a great  influence                   on  education.  It  counted  with  strong,  large  and  direct  support  for  schools  in  their                   improvement, aiming at better quality and accessibility of trainers and mentors who are                   familiar with practice in various fields of education (2014–2015). A recently completed                   successful project, Road to Quality Improvement (Cesta ke kvalitě, 2009–2012), was focused                   on school self-evaluation; it has produced a set of self-evaluation tools that have been                                                             50                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   50                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","5. Support for learning: Selected support activities and systems in Czech education                   verified in practice and may represent a first step towards development and learning. At                  the same time, a network of schools originated that would be supported in evaluating                  themselves and exchanging experience. People from schools had several opportunities                  to receive feedback and inspiration from partner schools.                    Another terminated project, or rather the multiple projects Education, Information,                  Counselling  (VIP  I –  Career,  VIP  II  –  Development  of  School  Counselling  Centres,  VIP  III                  – Development and Methodological Support for Counselling)  were focused on the quality                  of counselling services in education and were useful for the development of learning                  processes in schools. School psychologists and special educators supported by this project                  have outlined a new procedural approach that is going on in schools. They commented                  on the strong potential for the development of teaching, quality and comfort in schools.                  Nevertheless,  these  projects,  which  were  carried  out  between  2005  and  2014,  have                  revealed an essential problem: the lack of sustainability of activities once the financial                  support of a project has run its course. Not even the latter projects could result in the                  creating  of  a meaningful  system  of  employment  for  school  psychologists  and  special                  educators (NUV, n.d. /b/).                    Since 2012 the National Institute for Education has been administrating RVP.CZ,                  a methodological  portal  serving  as  major  methodological  support  for  teachers  as                  they create school education programmes. Its original aim was to set up a platform                  on which teachers could inspire each other and share experience. Typical content                  of the portal comprises information about how to create specific chapters of school                  education  programmes,  promote  innovative  teaching,  cope  with  the  development                  and  evaluation  of  key  competences  and  so  on.  These  incentives  are  intended  to                  inspire teachers (RVP, n.d.).                    Another institution already mentioned as directly governed by the Ministry of Education                  is the National Institute for Further Education. Through a network of regional offices                  this Institute sees to the professional development of educators in schools, educational                  institutions and non-profit organizations in which people work with children and young                  people. It acts as guarantor of the fulfilment of tasks emerging from national priorities                  in education and objectives of the Ministry of Education; at the same time its education                  offer reacts to the needs of schools (including at the level of individual schools) and                  educational institutions. Educational and other activitites provided by this institution are                  supported by the government, co-financed by schools and, frequently, financed for the                  most part from European funds (NIDV, n.d.).                    It is also necessary to mention that new opportunities are emerging in the field of                  international cooperation. Major responsibility for international cooperation is borne                  by  the  Centre  for  International  Cooperation  in  Education  and  its  component  (DZS,                  since 2007), the National Agency for European Educational Prorammes (NAEP). The                  National Agency coordinates European educational programmes in the Czech Republic                  and mediates the use of EU funds in the branches it is entrusted with. The basic mission                  of  the  Centre  for  International  Cooperation  in  Education  is  to  help  to  disseminate                  European education policy in lifelong learning while adhering to the national policy of                  education, implementation of European educational programmes as appropriate and                                                            51                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   51                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                    the fulfilment of tasks rooted in government resolutions, bilateral agreements between                   governments  and  the  decisions  of  the  Ministry  of  Education.  The  programmes  run                   by the Centre for International Cooperation in Education cover a variety of fields of                   education:  Erasmus+,  Eurodesk,  Euroguidance,  Norway  Funds  and  EHP  Funds,  CEEPUS                   and others. Their target group is not only schools, other educational institutions and                   students in this country; they also support foreign students in the Czech Republic and                   Czech teachers abroad. It is evident that Czech teachers’ experience of foreign stays is an                   important factor in the development of learning in schools (DZS, n.d.).                     Programmes and projects of other support subjects                     One of the independent platforms active in its response to issues of schooling policy                   and practice is EDUin. Declaring impartiality and openness, EDUin is financed from                   projects and private resources and aims to mediate information for the public about                   current developments in education, objectives of its reform and comments made on                   these developments by specialists. Apart from the focus on the public, EDUin has created                   a network of institutions and professionals and is publisher of an electronic information                   weekly (bEUDin) with discussion and comment that can serve to inspire schools and                   people in them. Also, EDUin has published a list of schools (the interactive Map of Czech                   Schools) that are involved in various programmes in the long term, so both the public and                   professionals can become familiar with current projects (EDUin, 2012).                     A similar focus on information and discussion is adopted by the Standing Conference                   of  Education  Associations,  which  is  a voluntary  (non-profit)  grouping  of  educational                   associations, programmes and civic associations striving for support and protection of                   progressive changes in education. Another aim is to mediate the exchange of opinions                   among educational initiatives, non-profit organizations, the state administration, self-                   administration and the public. The Standing Conference organizes a variety of events                   such as round tables, conferences and publishing activities (cf. SKAV, n.d.).                     Another important actor in this field is AISIS, a civic association whose original intent                   (dating back to 1998) was to promote changes in ways education is applied, particularly                   at  basic  schools.  Today’s clients  of  AISIS  are  schools  of  all  levels  plus  leisure-activity                   institutions,  non-profit  organizations  and  state  administration  bodies.  The  education                   target group at AISIS comprises teachers, headteachers and children as well as parents                   and school-establishing entities. In partnership with commercial companies, AISIS works                   on charitable and innovative projects given names that indicate their goals: I’ll Succeed,                   E-Study-Room, Elimination of Bullying, We Can Understand Money, Schools in Motion, Healthy                   ABC, School for All, etc. The advantage of these programmes is their compactness, long-                   term focus and the variety of schools and teachers involved, potentially creating networks                   for the exchange of experience, cooperation and collective learning (AISIS, n.d.).                     Important educational support for schools is provided by the charitable trust Step                   by  Step,  which  is  the  Czech  branch  of  an  international  project  of  the  same  name,                   guaranteed  by  Children’s Resources  International  Washington,  D.  C.,  an  American                                                             52                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   52                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","5. Support for learning: Selected support activities and systems in Czech education                   non-profit organization, and supported financially by the Open Society Fund. National                  programmes within this project are under the umbrella of the International Step by                  Step Association. In the Czech Republic, this innovative programme was introduced in                  nursery schools and promoted to the primary level of basic schools in 1996. Today there                  are some 100 nursery schools and 70 basic schools in the Czech Republic that claim                  allegiance to Step by Step. The crux of this educational programme is child-oriented                  education. It applies methods of reform pedagogy and advocates cooperative teaching                  and pedagogical constructivism. Major emphasis is placed on a stimulating environment,                  modern teaching methods, good evaluation, cooperation with parents and in-service                  teacher training (Step by Step, n.d.).                    In recent years, the project We Help Schools to Succeed (Pomáháme školám k úspěchu),                  supported by the Kellner Foundation, has gained renown. Most attention is paid to school                  culture, which has a decisive impact on how children learn, what results they achieve and                  what relation to learning they create. The Foundation aims to support schools as they                  aspire to be an ideal school which children like attending, where they learn to the full                  and with pleasure and where both pupils and teachers experience success and always feel                  like improving. On a long-term basis the Foundation supports selected schools in their                  efforts to improve the quality of teaching and creates a network of learning schools that                  are focused on the success of every single child. It supports financially the education                  of teachers, reflection on practice, school networking and the work of school specialists                  such as educational consultants, mentors, assistants and school psychologists. In 2015 the                  Kellner Foundation collaborated with over 400 teachers and, through their mediation,                  supported over 6,000 pupils.                    It is also worth mentioning a web portal named Learning Online (cf. Učení online,                  n.d.) that supports the exchange of experience among teachers. The website is created                  by visitors who publish practical instructions for teaching. For these contributors the                  portal works free of charge and encourages teachers to share their know-how and open                  their virtual classrooms to colleagues. There are many more of these portals, educational                  institutions  and  non-profit  and  commercial  organizations  working  on  a nation-wide                  scale or in regions, focusing on various issues. Some organizations and programmes                  are aimed at current topics, e.g. We Learn in Context, a project implemented by ARPOK,                  a non-profit organization helping teachers to cope with pressing issues such as poverty,                  migration, responsible consumption and so on (ARPOK, n.d.).                    Also, there are continuous non-commercial and commercial programmes and projects                  offered by a number of organizations focusing on the use of modern technologies in                  schools. They strive to popularize modern educational technologies, support e-learning                  activities and present their benefit and importance for modern schooling (EDULAB,                  n.d., Škola online, n.d., etc.).                    This quantity of institutions, educational programmes and projects clearly evidence                  the wide offer of support from which Czech schools can choose the options they prefer.                  In  the  Czech  Republic,  support  for  schools  is  offered  by  a variety  of  subjects;  their                  quality should be guaranteed by means of accreditation granted to their programmes                  by the Ministry of Education. Yet commercial offers are in no way subject to controlled                                                            53                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   53                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                    regulation. School headteachers do not commonly complain about a lack of educational                   support but about the differing quality of programmes. They rely more and more on                   time-proven  providers.  In  recent  years,  topics  that  potentially  develop  the  learning                   climate in schools have been particularly popular. In many instances these are related                   to the education of mentors, coordinators and counsellors whose work in schools can                   support peer collaboration. A noticeable shift is seen in the fact that educational activities                   focused on any subject (special didactic procedures, information technologies, etc.) are                   accompanied more and more often by reflection on practice and mentor support. There                   is strong inclination to continuous support, team education and school networking.                     Unfortunately, support activities carried out as projects do not usually result in systemic                   change, and they lack sustainability. On top of this, education is not connected with the                   career order of teachers, which has been in preparation for several years. For example,                   although  the  training  of  mentors  is  supported  by  European  projects,  their  function                   is  not  (and,  as  it  seems,  will  not  be)  formally  anchored  in  Czech  schools.  A further                   challenge is the evaluation of education and support for schools. Commonly there are                   no clear documents addressing the impact of support for teachers and school leaders on                   the improvement of teaching, learning processes and pupils’ results.                                                                                                        54                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   54                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","Conclusion I                         In recent decades, the Czech schools have been in an ongoing process of change towards                  greater decentralization and autonomy for individual schools. The current situation is                  focused on the adaption of a national strategy for education, which most probably will                  lead  to  further  changes  and  challenges.  This  strategy  is  intended  to  meet  European                  standards, according to equity, with the elimination of unequal access to education and                  increased quality of teaching and learning.                    The  Norwegian  way  of  supporting  schools  seems  to  be  closely  linked  to  issues  of                  quality assessment at all levels of the educational system. The purpose is to provide                  different forms of customized education and to offer an improved learning outcome                  for the individual student. The quality assessment system refers to initiate a continuous                  pedagogical dialogue among schools.                     Fairness and inclusion                    According  to  OECD  (2016)  equity  in  education  has  two  main  dimensions.  The  first                  dimension can be explained as fairness, which means ensuring that personal and social                  circumstances, as gender, socio-economic status or ethnic origin should not be obstacles                  to achieve educational potential. The second dimension is inclusion, ensuring a particular                  minimum  standard  of  education  for  all.  In  concrete  terms  everyone  should  be  able                  to read, write and do simple arithmetic. The two dimensions are closely intertwined:                  combating early school leaving will help to overcome the effects of social deprivation                  which often causes school failure. Fair and inclusive education is a powerful leverage to                  make society more equal.                    The Norwegian schools have a policy of preparing young people for a consistent and                  sustainable national society, as well as being an active and integrate part of Europe. Ethical                  dilemmas and societal challenges sometimes lead to conflicts between the professional                  and  the  political  levels  in  decision  making.  The  responsibility  for  an  organizational                  decision is not always collectively anchored and referred, which may threaten the overall                  targets of human rights imperative for people to develop their capacities and participate                  fully in society.                    Fair  and  inclusive  education  is,  according  to  OECD,  an  important  societal  task                  for every school system. If young people cannot develop enough skills to participate                  socially and economically generate, it may bring to higher costs for health, income                  support,  child  welfare  and  security.  Increased  migration  poses  new  challenges  for                  social cohesion in many European countries, while others still face long-standing issues                  of integrating minorities. Inclusive education for migrants and minorities is one of                  the  keys  to  these  challenges.  It  is  evident  that  both  Czech  and  Norwegian  schools                                                           55                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   55                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","I. Norwegian and Czech schools: Policy and practice                    are  reacting  consciously  to  the  rapid  societal  changes,  although  some  changes  can                   during a transitional period be difficult to incorporate in the national cultures and                   educational systems.                     In-service training of teachers                     The demands on teachers and teacher educators are increasing and changing. School                   actors are called on to play a key role in the improvement and modernizing of education.                   To meet these expectations they have to develop their own knowledge and skills. Initial                   education and continuous professional development of the highest quality, and access to                   support throughout their careers are both essential (European Commission, 2016).                     In Norway there is a remaining public view of the traditional teacher, working alone with                   the students in the classroom. Rapid changes in the political and professional landscape,                   together with a new situation of financial constraints, require school improvement of                   another kind. For the school a main question is how to activate the hidden personal                   resources  among  the  teachers  and  how  to  develop  new  and  alternative  methods  for                   better learning.                     In both the Czech Republic and Norway there is a discussion of the optimum competence                   for teachers and knowledge for the students. Reforming’ teacher education has become                   a popular policy in many countries around the world. Norway is on the threshold of                   implementing a new five year Master’s degree for all primary school teachers. In the                   Czech Republic voices are sometimes heard of recalling traditional form of schooling                   and teachers returning to a more traditional role of an academic schoolmaster. On the                   other hand there is a general assurance that competence-focused teaching requires both                   new work methods and approaches to evaluation.                      Collaborative practice                     The  Eurydice  report  (European  Commission,  2015)  states  that  European  teachers                   generally  express  that  they  need  more  professional  development  linked  to  tailoring,                   diversifying, and innovating teaching practices. There is a mismatch in terms of topics                   between teachers’ stated needs and the content of the professional development they                   participate in. The presence of collaborative practice in schools seems to be positively                   linked with teachers’ levels of satisfaction – both their satisfaction with the profession                   and  with  their  work  environment  Among  the  different  aspects  of  collaboration,  job                   satisfaction  is  found  to  be  most  strongly  linked  to  a collaborative  school  culture  of                   mutual support with other teachers and school leaders, followed by the opportunity for                   staff to actively participate in school decisions.                     Collaborative practice at school is also positively linked with teachers’ perception of how                   their profession is valued in society. In this respect, teachers appreciate a decentralized                   system where staff, parents and students have a role to play and a voice regarding the                                                             56                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   56                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","Conclusion I                   running of the school, and where teachers and leaders can cooperate to mutually support                  each other.                    The Eurydice report states that formal and traditional forms of in-service training,                  such as courses, workshops, and conferences prevail in almost all education systems.                  However, there is a diversity of forms of professional development activities emerging.                  This reveals an opportunity for European countries like Norway and the Czech Republic                  to  co-operate  and  learn  from  each  other  in  how  to  promote  new  forms  of  teacher                  education and training, such as networks of teachers, mentoring and peer learning.                                                                                                                     57                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   57                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   58                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","II.  Support of teachers in theories                                                                            podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   59                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   60                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","6. Organizational learning as condition                         Leadership for Organizational Learning                    Leadership  for  learning  must  be  linked  to  both  learning  theory  and  organization                  theory, which is about how organizations work. Whether leaders succeed in exercising                  good leadership depends on many factors, but the ability to get the members of the                  organization to work towards common goals is vital. In this chapter, we show how this is                  thought in the LOV/LaA project (see Chapter 9).                    Leadership  can  be  understood  as  processes  between  the  members  within  the                  organization (Møller, 2006), where the focus is on the core activity of the school, which is                  learning. In the interaction that takes place between the members, their understanding,                  attitudes and ways to solve cases will change. Learning occurs, both individually and                  in the group. This can be seen as a form of professional leadership, distinct from the                  administrative tasks that also fall under the leadership’s responsibilities. In our context,                  professional leadership is the topic, and we will use the term educational leadership in                  our presentation.                    Wadel (1997) argue that educational leadership largely revolves around safeguarding                  learning and renewal of school:                       Educational leadership is linked to the achievement of learning in organizations and thus plays                     an important role for development and change in the organization’s culture. Essential to the                     exercise of educational leadership is the establishment of learning conditions and development                     of learning systems that ensure learning and renewal of the organization. This means that the                     educational leadership is of particular importance for the development of the part of the                     organizational culture that can be described as the organization’s learning culture. (Wadel,                     1997, p. 39)                      Educational leadership is about learning among school members, both individually                  and collectively, which requires that members interact and have regular dialogue both                  horizontally and vertically within the organization. Reflection on own practice across                  the  organizational  levels  in  the  light  of  theory  and  empiric  evidence,  is  required  to                  develop a justified practice. Systemized reflection is a way to involve the employees in                  the execution of leadership.                    Developing systems to ensure learning, renewal and change, requires the development                  of  sustainable  structures  at  various  levels  in  the  organization.  In  school,  this  means                  classroom- and school level, so that learning transpires as a continuous process between                  all members at all levels, and both established and new knowledge is shared between                  participants and implemented by everyone.                                                             61                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   61                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","II. Support of teachers in theories                       During change in organizations, the educational leadership, will among other things be related                      to initiating reflection and awareness about the existing values   and practices in the organiza-                      tion. Crucial in educational leadership will thus be the development of learning conditions                      and learning systems that enable the learning of new knowledge, skills, practices and values.                      (Wadel, 1997, p. 48–49)                      Based on an ideal understanding, this implies that all stakeholders, be it school owners,                   leaders, teachers, pupils and parents should be involved in reflection on practice based                   on an overall understanding of the school’s undertakings.                     Educational leadership, as Wadel defines it, can be seen in relation to Peter Dahler-                   Larsen’s description of an evaluation culture: “Evaluation is essentially a gathering of                   knowledge in order to control and /or enhance an effort” (Dahler-Larsen, 2006, p. 9).                   He points out that evaluation, as a basis for development in school, is problematic and                   contradictory and can be carried out in many ways and in many areas. Meanwhile, he                   argues that development in school based on certain key conditions is achievable to                   a certain extent, for instance by shared experience, a language suited to express the                   problems, reflection on practice and activities in light of theory and empirical evidence,                   so  that  the  reflection  has  legitimacy  beyond  the  local  context  and  give  scientific                   justifications for practices and activities. Moreover, he believes that the evaluation must                   be based on relevant information (data), and that the results must be used actively. This                   involves identification of “good practices and activities”, as well as testing and change                   with the support and participation of the members of the organization. Based on such                   an evaluation culture can be synonymous with a school that continually raises critical                   questions  about  its  own  activities  and  practices  to  identify  areas  with  potential  for                   improvement. Hence, it is all about a school where organizational learning is central.                   In Table 1 Wadel’s, understanding of productive educational leadership is juxtaposed                   with Dahler-Larsen’s description of organizational learning (evaluation culture).                     Wadel  believes  that  educational  leadership  must  create  awareness  of  the  activities                   in  the  organization.  Dahler-Larsen  points  out  those  teachers  must  be  able  to  justify                   their practices: “Method responsibility means that a teacher is able to justify his choice                   of method based on scientific knowledge” (Dahler-Larsen, 2006, p. 80). The teachers‘                   experiences from practice in the classroom should form the basis for reflection in the                   light of theory and research. Considering Wadel’s idea that educational leadership aims                   to create systems that ensure learning and development, it should be possible to justify                   practice based on theory, research and central governing documents (curriculum, laws                   and regulations). Justified practice is perhaps the strongest learning enhancing structure                   to be developed in school.                     Another example of such a structure is peer observation. By cultivating the qualities                   defined in the form throughout the organization, you will be able to develop a practice                   that is justified, and at the same time works as a system for learning and development                   in the organization. However, this requires shared experience and reflection to be done                   according to the components of the procedures, to ensure that relevant data from the                   core activity form the basis of these processes.                                                             62                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   62                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:55","6. organizational learning as condition                   Table 1.  Correlation between key elements of productive educational leadership                         and evaluation cultures                    Productive educational leadership     Evaluation Culture                   (Wadel, 1997)                         (Dahler-Larsen, 2006)                   Leadership for Organizational Learning  Organizational Learning                    Participation at all levels           Rooted                   Distributed leadership                School owners                                                         Management                                                         Teachers                                                         Students and parents                   Reflection on own practice            Reflection on practice and activities in light                                                         of theory and empiricism                                                         Use of relevant information , analysis of                                                         practice                                                         Development of a functional language and                                                         terminology                   Interaction                           Sharing of experience                                                         Developing a culture of sharing and using                                                         Collective orientation                                                         Development of a learning community                   Application of new knowledge          Evaluation is used constructive                   Change                                Verification, identification                                                         Testing                                                         Change                   Development of systems to ensure learning   Justified practice and activities                   and renewal/change                    Learning enhancing structures:                                                         – participation                                                         – reflection                                                         – cooperation                      The juxtaposition of Wadel and Dahler-Larsen suggests that educational leadership                  involves  organizational  learning  at  both  organizational  level  and  classroom  level.                  Consequently,  this  is  more  about  leading  an  educational  organization  than  guiding                  teachers in their classroom practice, although the development of pedagogical activities                  is based on the classroom practice.                                                                    63                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   63                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","II. Support of teachers in theories                    Reflection on practice and activities in light of theory, empirical                   evidence and governing documents                     A critical point in the schools’ organizational learning is whether sharing experience is                   reflected in the light of theory and valid research. Reflection involves critical questions                   regarding practice and experiences, in order to be better prepared to face the different                   situations in the future. It may involve distancing yourself from the situation to which                   the reflection is related. It also requires the allocation of time for reflection outside of                   teaching hours, because it is difficult to reflect while engaged in teaching. Schön argues                   that reflection has a central place along with trials to develop new understanding and                   change in practice (Schön, 1983).                     Reflection can and should, be carried out as an individual and a collective process.                   The individual teacher should reflect on own teaching for his or her own sake, likewise                   should  teachers  reflect  together  on  their  own  and  each  other‘s practices.  Collective                   reflection  will  help  you  to  benefit  from  others‘  experiences  and  knowledge  through                   input with other approaches and perspectives. To reflect with colleagues is also necessary                   to develop a collective understanding, consciousness, and practice that safeguard the                   school’s tasks, and make the school appear as a professional organization. Meanwhile, it                   is necessary to try out new practices more systematically.                     Reflection is also required for the school to be able to exploit more of the potential that                   lies in all schools, that is the individual‘s knowledge and experience, which to greater or                   lesser extent still seems to exist as tacit knowledge (Polanyi, 1966). To systemize reflection                   through fixed procedures is among the most effective measures to improve the quality of                   practice. It creates collective awareness and transparency in the teacher group, which in                   turn has a greater impact on pupils than teachers acting individually. The greatest effect                   on pupils’ learning is achieved when they interact with various professional teachers                   over time. Many schools seem to possess the knowledge, experience and expertise to                   cope with various challenges in everyday life, if only they manage to make these factors                   available to everyone (Jensen et al., 2014).                     Moreover, systematized reflection makes it possible to link theory, research and values                   more closely to practice. This requires, however, reflection to be done   in the light of                   theory and research. Through such correlations, teachers can develop justification ahead                   of the learning process and readiness for choices along the way. The teachers become                   more confident in their professional performance, individually and collectively. A starting                   point for reflection may be experiences, events or observations made by colleagues or                   management. Reflection is prompted by teachers asking each other questions rather                   than someone telling or instructing others what to do.                     Allerup et al. (2009), points to the importance of developing systematic and collective                   reflection about what is being achieved in schools, and how such a culture can become                   part of the daily routines in each classroom and each school, amongst management,                   organizations and school owners. LOV/LaA specifies that such reflection should include                   the school‘s activities just as much as the individual teacher‘s practice.                                                              64                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   64                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","6. organizational learning as condition                      Having become acquainted with LOV, the concept of “ reflection on own practice “ has made me                     reflect on my practice to a much greater extent than previously. It has also opened for thoughts                     about how some reflections leads to other reflections, and about how, and to what extent, my                     practice changes where a change is opportune. It has also created a general awareness of context                     in my own teaching and in the school’s approach to the teaching. (teacher’s statement)                     The leaders said that participation in the project has contributed to reflection on                  classroom practice and school activities, and that it has led to evaluation and changes                  at individual level and school level. The reflections seem largely to be of educational/                  didactic character, which also would imply that the changes become apparent in classroom                  practice, this is further reflected in what this leader reports, “the training has been more                  research based than experience based”. The statement indicates the development of                  justified practice in line with research findings.                    At the same time, several leaders expressed the view that the practice has become more                  uniform across classes, which has resulted in a greater degree of collective orientation.                  The question is, however, what research should form the basis, and who should make                  this decision. Research is ranging from basic research to different forms of contract                  research that can be adapted to serve the clients’ interests. There are differences in both                  quality and validity of the research, as well as in the schools competency in assessing                  the  research.  Furthermore,  there  is  extensive  use  of  evidence-based  studies  whose                  purpose is to find out that something works, without necessarily emphasize why or how.                  Current theory and research can include both individual learning, group learning and                  organizational learning                    Schools  can  connect  shared  experience  and  reflection  in  different  ways  to  theory                  and  research.  The  easiest  way  is  if  the  school  staff  agree  that  they  individually  have                  a responsibility to justify own practices in light of theory and research, both in planning                  and evaluation of teaching. This requires that teachers spend some time to discuss and                  find relevant research and current theory that supports the educational program. Such                  practice must be developed to an extent and in a manner that is not experienced as an                  additional burden on the teachers, i.e. by spending some of the schools planning time                  and the teachers’ duty hours.                    Another way is that school staff participating in continuing education programs bring                  knowledge of recent research and theory from their studies back to their colleagues, and                  the school uses this actively in the planning and evaluation of practice and reflection                  among colleagues. The same can be done when schools participate in national initiatives                  on topics like assessment, basic skills and classroom management. Many teachers and                  administrators  participate  in  various  forms  of  competence  development  that  enable                  them to contribute to reflection in the light of theory and research.                    Some schools use literature as a starting point for developing justified practice. They                  choose  current  and  relevant  literature  on  the  topics  they  wish  to  use  as  a basis  for                  competence development. The teachers prepare themselves by reading relevant material                  that will form the basis for educational reflection i.e. once a month. This requires that                  one find literature that relies on relevant theory and research. Teachers can also be                                                           65                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   65                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","II. Support of teachers in theories                    encouraged  to  present  findings  from  research  that  can  be  discussed  collectively  at                   school. Much research is presented in various journals and there is plenty to be found                   on the Internet, i.e. on the website of the The Norwegian Directorate for Education and                   Training (Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training, n.d.). Another possibility                   is to get newly qualified teachers to explain what they have learned about theory and                   research  during  their  training  that  may  be  relevant  in  the  educational  reflection  in                   schools. Assuming that schools are interested in how these teachers can contribute.                     School owners, who have employed educational consultants or supervisors, can use                   them to extract relevant theory and research for work in the schools, in order to raise                   expectations that the teachers justify their practice in the light of this.                     Discussions on ethical guidelines for schools, teachers and leaders, should also include                   the discussion on justified practice, based on the question whether it is ethically acceptable                   to practice teaching without support in theory and relevant research. Justified practice                   is also about the school’s and teachers’ professionalism. Professional teachers should be                   able to explain why they do what they do and how they know what effect this has on their                   pupils. The curriculum should possibly be more explicit when it comes to developing                   a justified practice and require that the teachers are able to explain their practice in the                   light of theory and research.                     Many schools are “practice schools”, part of the field experience for universities and                   colleges with teacher training programs. In this cooperation, it should be possible to                   use students to analyze and evaluate the practices they observe in the light of theory                   and research, and talk to their practice teachers about how they justify their practice.                   This could even be added as a topic in the practice cooperation between schools and                   educational institutions.                     Furthermore, it should be possible to clarify the requirements for justified practice                   in  the  school’s national  and  local  quality  assessment  systems,  which  can  in  turn  be                   monitored through supervision services.                     Although the feedback from leaders is often related to teaching and classrooms, we also                   find statements saying that the measures can help create reflection on “one does what                   one is supposed to”, i.e. whether the activities are in line with an overall understanding                   of the school’s mission, what we describe as reflection on the school’s social mandate.                   This becomes evident in the following statement:                       I feel that we have made more people think about what really is most important, to teach well                      or to hasten in order to get through the syllabus. (leader statement)                      This type of reflection, however, seems to occur very rarely in the schools we have                   examined. When we talk with leaders and teachers in the schools, we often hear that                   teachers are experiencing great pressure to get through a sufficient quantity of material.                   In secondary schools and upper secondary school this is also affected by the demand                   that teachers must be able to document that their pupils have received lessons covering                   everything requested in the competence aims, this in case they should receive complaints                   about the overall achievement grades and final assessment.                                                             66                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   66                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","6. organizational learning as condition                     One  can  question  whether  the  quality  assessment  system  is  too  much  focused  on                  pupil achievement in subjects and basic skills, making it difficult to implement a practice                  oriented towards the overall objectives of the curriculum. Examples of such objectives                  may be to develop a deeper understanding, the importance of being a learning individual,                  strategies to master various complex challenges, and consciousness and development of                  values.  It  is  the  leadership’s responsibility  to  demand  justified  practice,  and  it  is  the                  responsibility of each individual to verify that it is justified.                                                                                                                       67                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   67                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   68                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","7.  Mentoring and other consultations                       as a way to peer learning                        The previous chapters referred to selected activities that support learning processes in                  schools. In this chapter, attention will be paid to specific persons whose mission is to                  promote such changes in school that will lead to development of the main tasks: education                  and training. These are the experts who have been contributing to the development                  of quality of teaching through the work with adults–in particular teachers and school                  leaders. They support learning processes and, more generally, they advocate changes in                  culture of schools. Such people are often referred to as change agents (Erchul \& Martens,                  2010; Lapsley \& Oldfield, 2001; Tomala, Schilling, \& Trybus, 2013 and others). An agent,                  respectively change agent, is perceived as the one who acts and supports people and                  organizations in shifting their work in favor of higher quality and better results. His/her                  position in schools can take many forms – but abilities to initiate and manage changes                  are important (see e.g. Bolam, 1975). It is obvious that the people in the roles of change                  agents  have  various  foci  and  specializations.  These  may  be  school  leaders,  teachers                  (Badley, 1986; Lukacs \& Galluzzo, 2014), young students and the aforementioned internal                  and external cooperators and specialists such as facilitators, mentors (Thornton, 2014),                  educational  consultants,  coaches  and  researchers  with  the  competence  to  work  with                  data. This chapter focuses only on the work of consultants and especially mentors in                  schools since the subsequent research from the Czech environment concerns mainly                  their work.                    Various concepts of consultations in schools                    At  the  beginning,  it  is  necessary  to  clarify  some  terminological  ambiguities.  Who  is                  a mentor and who is a consultant? The role, mission and professional intervention of                  these change agents are not clearly defined, they are viewed differently and may overlap                  in many aspects. In Anglo-Saxon literature, a school consultant is often perceived as the                  one who provides professional intervention within solution of problem situations or                  cases. Erchul and Martens (2010), for example, consider school consultants to be those                  who specialize in solving problems related to behavior of young students and supporting                  health in schools. Caplan (1963) defines consultation as a process of interaction between                  two professionals: the consultant, who is a specialist, and the person seeking consultation,                  who  asks  for  assistance  in  relation  to  the  current  work-related  problem.  From  this                  perspective,  the  notion  of  consultation  and  consultant  evokes  problem  solving,  for                  example, also methodical support of teachers by school psychologists, special education                  teachers and other specialists. In the Czech environment, people in schools with the                                                          69                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   69                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","II. Support of teachers in theories                    aforementioned focus (problem solving) are rather called school counsellors (educational                   counsellor, school or counselling psychologist, etc.), who provide methodological and                   advisory support to teachers in problem situations. Similarly, e.g. Nastasi (2005) relates                   school consultations to specific topics, such as communication support of families outside                   the mainstream of schools and considers consultants those who facilitate negotiation                   and the search for consensus in order to ensure cooperation and equality in education.                     In the Czech school environment, the concept of a consultant is bound to the support                   of teachers and schools in connection with certain school-political changes, for which                   schools and their teachers have not been prepared well and need support. These included,                   for example, the creation of school educational programs or currently also inclusive                   education (there are frequent references to the so-called coordinators of inclusion who                   provide the teachers with consultations) (cf. Šteflová, 2008).                     The role and mission of school consultants, however, may not apply to pre-defined                   tasks only, respectively, they do not necessarily have to be focused on solving situations.                   Tomala, Schilling and Trybus (2013) pay attention to the role of consultants in the role of                   evaluators and researchers, who view a school as an organization, they can identify areas                   of development of the school and promote a specific change. These people will probably                   have a closer relationship with the school leadership. Similar efforts could have been                   recorded in the Czech Republic in the 90s, when there were (rather sporadic, within the                   framework of international projects) offers for education of school consultants. It was                   expected that they would be able to support school leadership development processes                   in  the  post-revolutionary  period,  when  Czech  schools  experienced  a whole  range  of                   turbulent changes. Using the support of external professional consultants or coaches of                   school leadership is rather an exception in the Czech environment.                     School consultations are also associated with the position of a mentor. Mentors are                   considered to be change agents in schools as organizations, but they commonly work                   with teachers and young students at a more individual level. Benefits following from                   their work, even though it often takes place at the individual level, should experienced                   by the whole school and especially by young students (Rhodes, Grossman, \& Resch,                   2000). In the Czech environment the position of consultants and mentors was almost                   fully  identified  by  the  project  Helping  Schools  Succeed  (Pomáháme  školám  k  úspěchu,                   see  Chapter  10),  which  financially  supported  the  work  of  both  of  these  specialists.                   The attribute „educational“ then evoked a targeted focus on improving the quality of                   teaching. “An experienced teacher, lecturer, mentor and coach in one person–this is                   an educational consultant in a nutshell ... he/she supports the staff in terms of school                   development planning ... helping teachers to reflect on and improve their teaching and                   plan their professional growth” (Pedagogický konzultant, n.d.). Providing consultations,                   which are a process of interaction between two professional partners and professional                   service for teachers (Erchul \& Martens, 2010) is a joint activity for both consultants and                   mentors. The specifics of the work of mentors will be commented on later.                     From the above-mentioned facts it follows that consultations can be directed either                   to  problem  solving,  or  to  the  development  of  schools  and  teaching,  while  primarily                   there has not been mentioned any problem. It also seems that in the first case it rather                                                             70                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   70                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","7. Mentoring and other consultations as a way to peer learning                   concerns help, in the second case rather support. Based on the different concepts of the                  role of consultants in schools (see the above-mentioned sources), the following summary                  table follows:                   Table 2. Overview of the concept of the role of school consultants                     Role of school consultants                   Consultant –           –  focus on the problems of     –  often a part of the school,                   Advisor in case       young students and problem     –  working more at individual                   of problems           situations,                 level,                                          –  rather psychological and spe-    –  in terms of relations he/she                                         cial pedagogical orientation,  is close to the teacher,                                          –  is an expert on the issue he/                                         she helps with – educator,                                         psychologists, etc.,                   Consultant –           –  focus on support within the     –  works at the school for a time,                   Specialist in         introduction of school policy   these might be people from the                   development           and other changes affecting    school or external consultants,                                         the whole school,            –  in terms of relations consider-                                          –  is a teacher-specialist in the   ably close to the school leader-                                         implementation of actual    ship, or to specific groups,                                         changes,                     –  works both on the individual                                          –  his/her work is supported by   level and with the groups,                                         the school policy (projects, etc.),                    Consultant –           –  focus on specific areas of     –  is usually an external worker,                   Researcher            school development,          –  his/her work is defined by                                          –  performance of evaluation,  certain time (fulfillment of                                          –  supports the potential of the   objectives),                                         leadership (may be close to the  –    in terms of relations he/she                                         role of a coach),           is close to the school manage-                                          –  specializes in the process of   ment,                                         change, need not be an expert  –    working upon contract with the                                         in education,               school leadership,                   Consultant –           –  focus on developing the quality  –    can be both internal and exter-                   Educational consultant   of teaching,             nal worker,                   with focus on teaching    –  does not primarily work with     –  in terms of relationship closest                                         the problem,                to the teacher, students,                                          –  closest to the traditional      –  works primarily at the individu-                                         concept of a mentor,        al level (but this is not a rule).                                          –  is a good teacher.                                                                 71                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   71                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","II. Support of teachers in theories                      Czech researches mentioned further in this publication are focused on the work of                   educational  consultants  and  mentors,  their  work  is  based  mainly  on  mentoring,  i.e.                   supporting teachers to develop their way of teaching. The next section, therefore, deals                   with mentoring as a way to support learning processes in schools.                     Although the traditional view of the work of mentors ranks it above all to the last type                   of consultant, respectively educational consultant, it always depends on how the mentor                   defines his/her role and mission himself/herself and what expectations and needs of                   the school are encountered.                     Support of learning processes in schools through mentoring                     Mentoring is considered one of the oldest models of cooperation to support human                   development;  in  the  professional  sphere,  this  expression  refers  to  professional,  peer                   and  wise  leadership  for  learning  and  professional  growth  (Bey,  1995;  Jonson,  2008;                   Saphier et al., 2001). Zachary (2005, p. 3) defines mentoring as “reciprocal relationship                   of cooperation and learning of two or more people who share a mutual responsibility                   to achieve the aims of the mentee.” Learning becomes a basic process, aim and product                   of mentoring. Similarly Kochan and Pascarelli (2003) considered successful mentoring                   a process within which two or more people are voluntarily educated (shaped) in mutually                   respectful and close relationship focused on achieving certain objectives. However, needs                   of the mentor and the context in which it is implemented also play an important role in                   this relationship.                     It is primarily a specific form of peer learning, which is (or should be) a common part of                   professional life of teachers. Little (1990) ranks mentoring among the strong forms of peer                   support, i.e. those that have a clear impact in practice. Mentoring is specific in the aspect                   that it is provided for a relatively long period of time (to meet the agreed targets) to develop                   and consolidate a permanent ability of the teacher to cope with his/her tasks in school                   and in class within the given standards. Mentoring also involves the mentor providing                   support and assistance to teachers to enhance their professional growth and success at                   work (Jonson, 2008). Mentoring guidance is based on a voluntary relationship of trust, but                   it is primarily a learning relationship between two equal persons. The basic attribute of the                   concept is the relationship between an experienced worker/teacher and usually a teacher                   less experienced in some of the areas, where the mentor acts as a friend, guide, counsellor                   and support of the teacher, and – naturally and primarily – as a teacher (Drago-Severson,                   2004; Kram, 1983; Saphier et al., 2001; Wollman-Bonilla, 1997 and others).                     Target  groups  of  mentoring,  however,  are  not  uniformly  delineated.  Very  often,                   mentoring is perceived synonymously with the process of induction of new teachers or                   sharing experience with the younger ones. In many professional publications, there is no                   distinction between the concepts of mentoring and induction (Portner, 2005). Mentoring                   as an induction of beginning teachers is then seen as a relationship and joint work of                   a mentor and a teacher during the first year or the first years in the profession. It is                   a supportive relationship, while the mentor acts primarily as a model of professional                                                             72                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   72                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","7. Mentoring and other consultations as a way to peer learning                   behavior,  facilitator,  coach  and  counsellor  who  shares  his/  her  own  experience  and                  knowledge with the new teacher (New Teacher, 2010). Similarly, the term mentoring is                  used also in relation to the target group of students or even young students. In this text,                  we will perceive mentoring as a form of peer support, which can include all teachers in                  school, regardless of their age and professional experience.                     Form, aims and activities of mentoring                   Mentoring thus refers not only to the induction of beginning or new teachers, in practice,                  you can encounter mentoring guidance of teachers within introducing certain changes in                  teaching or within the adoption of a new function. For example, one can easily imagine                  a situation where younger, but in some respects (e.g. work with ICT) more experienced                  colleague, in the long run helps and supports an older colleague in the introduction                  of  information  technology  into  teaching.  The  beneficiary  person  and  his/her  needs                  determine the objectives of mentoring support, as well as methods for achieving the                  required length and specifics of the relationship. Mentoring leadership – depending on                  the objectives – may take various forms (cf. Jonson, 2008):                   –  the traditional design, while one mentor works with one colleague at one school,                  –  one teacher may contact more mentors regarding their demands (multiple mentoring),                  –  one mentor may be responsible for more teachers or work with a group of teachers.                      The mentor and his/her colleague may not necessarily be from the same workplace,                  the meeting does not always need to take place in the environment of one school. In                  recent years, communication technologies accelerate and in some ways even facilitate                  management of mentoring. It is a combination, broadening or complete replacement of                  face-to-face mentoring by electronic means: e-mail consultations, chat, video conferencing,                  Internet discussions on the purpose-established websites and the like. Such cooperation                  is thus often referred to by the concepts of e-mentoring, virtual mentoring or telementoring                  (cf. Ganser, 2005; Jonson, 2008).                    Generally,  in  the  broadest  sense,  we  can  consider  the  objective  of  mentoring                  management to be the development of specific professional and personal skills that will                  enable teachers to perform their job well and become true professionals. In a narrower                  focus it can then be support of a teacher in innovation of teaching or improvement in                  some selected area, respectively improving their own professional competence. Although                  mentoring  is  bound  mainly  to  working  environment,  personal  goals  are  reflected  in                  professional goals as well (Zachary, 2005). Objectives of mentoring may therefore take                  different forms and may be more or less specifically targeted. The important thing is                  that they are expressed and the criteria for monitoring their implementation are set up.                  Although it primarily concerns support of learning, a mentor can provide emotional                  support (encouragement, motivation, praise) and physical (help with something) support                  to some teachers as well (Lipton \& Wellman, 2005). Some objectives are characteristic                                                           73                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   73                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","II. Support of teachers in theories                    for the management of beginning teachers, others are characteristic for the mentoring                   relationship between two experienced teachers. In the case of beginning teachers, for                   example, a typical objective may be adaptation and socialization in new environment.                   A good mentor helps the supported teacher formulate goals to be reached, they jointly                   establish criteria for monitoring of fulfillment of the objectives and agree on the manner                   and terms of cooperation.                     The goals are then bound with the activities the mentor performs: he/she provides                   information and resources, helps with preparation for teaching, is a model of behavior                   (demonstrating  it  in  the  way  of  teaching),  provides  teachers  with  feedback  on  the                   teaching, supports them through dialogue and reflection on practice, provides emotional                   support, etc. (Lazarová, 2011). Mentor is an expert in “process control” and plans such                   activities and procedures that are clearly intended for meeting the objectives. His/her                   fundamental skill is conducting interviews (consultations) in order to develop potential,                   independence and responsibility of the supported teacher and at the same time not to                   interfere with the learning and equal relationship.                      Potential of mentoring in support of learning in schools                    Mentoring  enhances  learning  processes  at  both  individual  and  organizational  level.                   Teachers usually construct their “private understanding” based on personal experience                   and they can share it with colleagues with the help of mentoring. Mentoring thus breaks                   the  isolation  of  teachers  and  promotes  the  reflection  of  practice  and  self-reflection.                   The  benefits  at  the  individual  level  include  mainly  accelerated  learning,  opening  to                   more perspectives, improvement of selected skills, but also acquiring self-confidence and                   a sense of self-efficacy (Drago-Severson, 2004; Rhodes \& Fletcher, 2013; Zachary, 2005).                   Benefits of mentoring are thus related to cognitive (new knowledge), psychological (self-                   confidence, self-efficacy) and social issues (a sense of belonging and acceptance).                     Not  only  the  clients  of  mentors,  but  mentors  themselves  mention  that  their  work                   provides a similar range of benefits and is a pleasant way of broadening their teaching role.                   Mentoring is an opportunity for reciprocal learning that results from mutual relationship.                   In cooperation with their clients, mentors gain new inspiration to improve their work                   and have a greater sense of connection to the school community (New Teacher, 2010).                   Some researchers view mentoring as effective means to counteract the psychological and                   physical burnout of teachers (Drago-Severson, 2004). The data from the research clearly                   show personal gains from mentoring in the case of older teachers-mentors in the sense                   of  “reverse  socialization”  and  “revitalization”.  In  the  course  of  care  for  their  younger                   colleagues, experienced teachers are inspired by the way of work and the way of thinking,                   and thus enrich their existing practice (Leshem, 2008). By participating in mentoring,                   older teachers strengthen their sense of purpose and competence, increase self-confidence                   and develop relationship with younger colleagues. Some mentoring programs also show                   good results while working with retired teachers, who have already ended their active work                   directly in class, but in this way they remain in touch with “their” school (Portner, 2005).                                                             74                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   74                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","7. Mentoring and other consultations as a way to peer learning                     The  importance  of  mentoring,  however,  goes  beyond  the  personal,  respectively                  individual level and significantly affects group process and nature of the environment.                  It  is  not  just  a typical  “one-to-one”  relationship,  but  it  provides  the  opportunity  to                  experience cooperation of everyone in an organization. Based on a series of research                  data, it can be summarized that at the organizational level mentoring (e.g. Fullan \&                  Knight, 2011; Kochan \& Pascarelli, 2003b; Thornton, 2014):                   –  initiates a dialogue and reflection on practice, in which it restructures the existing                     knowledge, increases tacit knowledge within an organization,                  –  helps preserve valuable potential through intergenerational transmission of unique                     experience and knowledge and functioning cultural traditions created at a particular                     school,                  –  deepens mutual understanding of people creating cooperating communities,                  –  strengthens the sense of belonging (our class, our students, our school, our problems,                     etc.) and connection of people to an organization,                  –  creates the conditions for organizational change (transformation) and change of the                     culture into a learning culture.                      It is important to take into consideration that mentoring is a journey, not a destination.                  It supports learning processes within an organization and it is the path to organizational                  learning, to a learning school.                    Mentoring  also  has  potential  to  influence  culture  of  an  organization,  respectively                  school culture. Kochan and Pascarelli (2003b) note dynamics between school culture,                  context and mentoring in different environments and they ask whether mentoring is                  primarily aimed at maintaining the status quo or whether it is a transformation process                  (p. 264). People inducing mentoring as a new practice in a specific school must on the                  one hand respect its culture (rapid changes may not be accepted and so it is necessary to                  anchor mentoring to school culture) on the other hand, it is envisaged that the skills and                  professional behavior of a mentor are transferable and can gradually change the school                  culture in the direction towards learning. The mentoring culture is in fact a culture of                  learning.                    Each community of people is characterized by its practice, traditions, norms, symbols                  and meanings. It is obvious that mentoring will perform better within the school culture,                  which highly appreciates the value of innovation, professionalism and adult learning.                  Mentoring requires a culture that supports its implementation and full integration into                  the organization; organizational culture, respectively school culture, is therefore seen as                  an essential condition for the success of mentoring. Thornton (2014) considers school                  culture the biggest obstacle to development of mentoring. Similarly, Zachary (2005),                  who proposes specific procedures for the implementation of mentoring in organizations,                  points out the need to “tune in” the culture of the organization and mentoring and then                  create  an  infrastructure  in  which  mentoring  can  develop  successfully.  Mentors  must                  understand the context in which they work – teachers and their work. It is also clear                  that an important role in the process of integration of mentoring into school culture,                                                            75                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   75                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","II. Support of teachers in theories                    alongside with mentors themselves, is played by the head teacher, “the leader of the                   culture”,  who  reflects  the  traditions,  beliefs,  ethics  and  rituals  (Kochan  \&  Pascarelli,                   2003b).                     mentoring programs and their limits                     Mentoring can work in organizations on the formal and informal level. The informal forms                   usually provide more security as their main attribute is voluntariness. Their disadvantage                   may be missing an evaluation of effects, closeness in the dyadic relationship mentor –                   mentee and a low impact on the development of continuous learning processes across                   an  organization.  It  is  no  exception  that  mentoring  as  a process  supporting  learning                   and change, gets into schools through projects and their financial support. In various                   countries, mentoring programs are part of educational-political strategies, therefore, it is                   bound to the emerging needs and political priorities (Kochan \& Pascarelli, 2003a). From                   the level of educational policy, mentoring programs are initiated in the framework of                   which the formally set mentoring relationships do not always fully respect the condition of                   voluntariness. Programs linked to education policy have undoubtedly the advantage that                   they are financially supported and clearly structured, but the control of fulfillment of goals                   and the project-related evaluation evokes a problem with the induction (implementation)                   of mentoring to schools. Even the primarily formal “imposed” experience if evaluated by                   the person as pleasant, non-threatening and useful, can initiate an interest in mentoring                   and learning in a peer relationship. There already exists a number of documents on the                   ways different mentoring programs were conducted in organizations and what goals,                   successes and limits in achieving them the change agents encountered (Jonson, 2008;                   Kochan \& Pascarelli, 2003b; Portner, 2005; Rhodes \& Fletcher, 2013 and others). Based                   on these findings, it is possible to identify some conditions that need to be set up and                   maintained for the mentor program to be successful:                     –  project support must be long-term,                   –  formal qualifications and continuous training of mentors is necessary,                   –  there is a need to respect the existing school culture,                   –  the evaluation of processes and impacts must not be missing,                   –  it is necessary to continuously support and appreciate mentors and their clients.                      The  researchers  have  agreed  that  the  introduction  of  comprehensive  mentoring                   programs to schools is not always easy, especially if it is to be a peer support among                   experienced teachers. It can be assumed that mentoring in order to induce new teachers                   will have a smoother course. Mentoring can bring certain changes into school life that                   can be threatening for teachers. At some schools, it is not a common practice to ask                   colleagues for support, and all teaching is going on behind closed doors. The data from                   the evaluation of the project recently implemented in the Czech Republic pointed to                   very strong resistance of some teachers to whom mentoring was “imposed” by a project                                                             76                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   76                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","7. Mentoring and other consultations as a way to peer learning                   as a form of peer support. It seems that the project did not respect adaptation to existing                  school culture, and also in a short period (1 year) it was not possible to train really                  good mentors and to convey the pleasant experience of peer support to the teachers                  (Lazarová, Vychopňová, \& Dobrovolná, 2015). This experience confirms the risk of some                  poorly coherent and short-term projects, which are often a result of well-intentioned                  educational-political efforts and pressures.                    Some authors of the publications dealing with mentoring programs have noted the                  requirements for mentors, whose professional skills are essential for success. They have                  just agreed that a mentor has to – in addition to the proficiency in the skills of mentoring                  – be dedicated to mentoring and must be able to adapt his/her communication style to                  individual specifics of the supported teacher. It is considered an advantage if the mentor                  and the mentee have similar philosophy of education and the ability to be “in tune”                  with each other (Jonson, 2008; Otto, 1994; Saphier et al., 2001; Wollman-Bonilla, 1997).                  Mentors are mainly required to have a good understanding of their mission and to be                  ready to cooperate, support the teachers actively not only to watch or supervise. The                  willingness of a mentor to develop informal contacts with the beneficiary, but also with                  other teachers is regarded useful, as well as opening and offering cooperation to other                  colleagues and increasing understanding of mentoring in the organization, respectively                  clarifying his/her role in the school.                    Mentoring and other school consultations are part of the school life throughout the                  world, and their aim is to improve the quality of teaching and support learning processes                  in schools – both for children and adults. They focus both on the current problems                  (typical rather for consultations), as well as on the support of the development of schools                  and people in them. Mentoring and consultation have been struggling with terminology                  ambiguity because they are related to different target groups and take a range of forms                  depending on the context.                    To  conclude,  it  is  worth  pondering  upon  the  question  whether  there  is  a clear                  evidence  that  mentoring  and  mentoring  programs  (and  this  applies  to  all  general                  school consultation) actually function and have a distinct impact on the main process –                  teaching and education of young students. Mentors and other consultants usually work                  with teachers or school leaders (possibly with other entities) but the result should be                  reflected in learning and success of young students. The success of a young student may                  be imagined in various ways and it is usually difficult to measure. Does time and money                  spent  on  mentoring  and  consultations  really  have  effect  for  schools,  respectively  for                  young students? Is it enough to ask about the feelings and experience of teachers who had                  the opportunity to receive the support of a mentor? The question of the effectiveness of                  consultations and other interventions in schools has in recent years been commented on                  by a number of authors (evidence-based interventions, evidence-based practice, evidence-based                  consultations, etc.) and obtaining evidence is becoming a big challenge for mentoring too                  (DuBois et al., 2011; Erchul \& Martens, 2010; Konstam et al., 2015; Kratochwill et al.,                  2012 and others).                                                              77                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   77                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   78                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","8. Reflection and reflective processes                         Most people understand reflection from the word reflex. It is something that happens                  automatically, and is often used about the process that occurs when light hits an object                  and is emitted (reflected) in different directions. A reflection on the surface of water may                  seem to mirror an image identical to the reality that it reflects. However, our experience                  tells us that this is not the case. A small disturbance in the water-mirror will change the                  reflection and prevent a perception of similarity between reality and reflection. Besides,                  we have to rely on our experiences within the world we are familiar with (Biggs, 1999).                  If this image is used as a metaphor and transferred to mental systems, communication                  and  perception  of  reality,  it  seems  that  we  sometimes  fail  to  distinguish  one  reality                  from another (Bateson, 1973). We may find it difficult to distinguish our own ideas and                  perceptions  from  other  peoples’  experienced  realities.  The  terms  and  words  we  use                  may trap us into notions of what the world looks like, and how our own experiences                  blend with a perception of our surroundings. Bateson says that we form an image of                  something,  and  that  this  “something”  is  what  stands  out  from  the  background.  It  is                  what distinguishes itself from the surroundings, although we see both the surroundings                  and the object at the same time. From what stands out, we get a sense of the object.                  Naturally, other elements may be distinctive, such as smell and taste, what we see, feel                  and hear. Moreover, he points out that the concepts we use are not objects we have                  inside our heads. He takes “the chair” as an example. He says that a picture of a “chair”                  is not a chair, but a depiction of a chair. If we grasp the chair and hold it, this means that                  the word “chair” is not merely an image. We do not have a chair inside our head, but we                  agree that there is a connection between the image and the chair (Bateson, 1972). Based                  on such an understanding, a mentor’s thoughts around the conversation with his/her                  mentee might be decisive. The task may be how the mentor manages to distinguish what                  is important in the attempt to understand the mentee, or “the other” as Kierkegaard                  calls it (Kierkegaard, 1859).                    Hence, the mission of guidance may be to help make an overview or draw a “map”                  of the reality as the mentee sees it (Bateson, 1972). This also helps to define what goes                  on during the guidance. The mentor’s task is to communicate so that the language                  recreates the perceptions the mentor and mentee have of the depiction of reality they                  are working with. During this clarification, it might be necessary to narrow down the                  topic or issue by the use of questions. As events that affect us can also make it hard                  to see different perspectives simultaneously, it is the mentor’s task to try to identify                  the mentee’s perspective (Andersen, 2007). Søren Kierkegaard (1859) is often quoted                  in contexts dealing with perceiving reality in the same way as the mentee, to make it                  possible to be of “true help.”                    People have been concerned through the ages with the question of what truth really is.                  The question is put in the Bible, in famous words such as “What is truth?” Governments                                                           79                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   79                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","II. Support of teachers in theories                    and people in power must take an interest in the depiction of truth in order to remain                   in  power.  However,  we  see  that  our  relationship  with  the  truth  is  also  about  how  we                   perceive ourselves and whether we are able to recognize other people’s perceptions and                   perspectives.  In  search  of  a single  truth,  we  can  encounter  many  truths.  There  is  no                   objectivity; everything is rendered subjective by our own background, experiences and                   interpretations (Maturana, 1987). Thus, according to Maturana, there is no universe, but                   a multiverse, as each individual has his/her own perception of what is happening. Given that                   there are different ways of perceiving and understanding the world around us, according                   to Maturana it would naturally be impossible for perceptions of what is happening around                   us  to  be  identical  (Hornstrup  \&  Storch,  2001).  This  is  central  to  systemic  theory  and                   will affect individuals’ perception of reality and of themselves. Reflection helps to clarify                   perceptions and put them into new contexts in relation to others. Through conversation,                   the mentor tries to extract something from a background, i.e. an event, and make it visible,                   as something that makes a difference, as Bateson (1972) describes it.                     A pedagogue, like a psychiatric therapist, encounters different views and has different                   beliefs that affect other people. For the mentor it is relevant how he or she relates to                   other people’s perspectives. The mentor is less concerned with giving advice and more                   focused on charting, or contributing to the outlining of “new maps” of the conversation.                   As everyone has their own perspective in a multiverse understanding, it means that each                   individual perception is to be seen as descriptions of reality. Such descriptions can be                   termed a “map” (Korzybski, 1990). A map displays what stands out in the landscape, is                   significant and worthy of our attention. If the landscape is completely flat, the map will                   be irrelevant. Hence, “maps” are used to define dissimilarities. Metaphorically, “maps”                   are also used as a description of personal experiences of the world around us. Such                   descriptions are not limited to objects; they also include sensations like smell, taste, and,                   of course, emotions. How we assemble our impressions into understanding is decisive                   for how we react to the same experiences.                     Conversation is a necessary tool for familiarizing ourselves with another person’s world                   (Kierkegaard,  1959),  describing  the  mentee’s reality,  so  aiding  us  in  our  attempts  to                   see what the mentee sees. Through this description, the mentor will also pursue other                   perspectives that might contribute to new perceptions of reality and help adjust the                   existing “map” or even draw new “maps” to get on with life (Korzybski, 1990).                     Therapy is about making people able to resume their lives, to heal people after illness                   or injury. In psychiatry, the therapeutic focus is on mental contexts, in which control of                   one’s own life is most important. Historically and traditionally, psychiatry has sought to                   identify the underlying causes of mental health disorders. Often, these can be related to                   congenital disorders or injuries, but they may also be caused by traumatic experiences in                   life where mental mechanisms have taken control. The discourse in different perceptions                   of the impact and potential of mental forces is based in the field of medicine (Magnussen,                   2014). Opportunities and limitations seem to lie in how connections and brain functions                   are understood.                     In  many  ways,  other  aspects  of  the  therapy  deal  with  different  issues.  Family                   therapy  places  great  emphasis  on  relational  challenges  and  interaction  between  the                                                             80                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   80                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","8. reflection and reflective processes                   various  members,  for  obvious  reasons.  Hence,  eco-mental  systems  will  play  a role  in                  organizational development and communication in all human contexts. Regardless of                  our psychological-mental background, the vast majority of us have to relate to other                  people. The risk of communication-related collisions is always present – in the home, in                  the community and at work. In our modern digital world, worldwide social media also                  play a role. The challenges involved in understanding each other and how we behave                  towards each other are ever greater.                    In cases of mental bruises and wounds, it may be therapy’s task to help find a way                  forward, as the psychiatrist Professor Tom Andersen (1936–2007) has realized through his                  meetings with people with various mental disorders. Based on Bateson’s theories on eco-                  mental systems and experiences in the field of treatment, Tom Andersen puts the patient                  first. Treatment theories are plentiful, but Andersen has found that not all of them are                  suitable for people with mental-health issues. This is partially due to attitudes. A hospital                  can appear daunting and reinforce problems. Andersen (2007) takes Bateson’s theory                  of  “a difference  that  makes  a difference”  as  a point  of  departure.  In  his  encounters                  with patients, he chooses to use the terms “conversation” and “dialogue” rather than                  “therapy”. For him, the word “therapy” seems pathogenic and power-loaded.                    In his encounter with a patient, he avoids such terms and instead focuses on listening                  and asking questions. The questions are related to what patients talk about, and this in                  various ways has a bearing on what it is important to talk about. Andersen believes it                  is important not to be biased by a pre-understanding of the patient, because this can                  direct attention to something that might not be of importance. To identify essential                  areas that could be of crucial importance, Andersen draws on his collaboration with the                  physiotherapist Bülow-Hansen. From her, he has learned that a physiotherapist may use                  three designations for “differences”, thus turning Bateson’s phrase about “a difference                  that makes a difference” into various degrees of difference. If the physiotherapist presses                  too hard on the patient’s back, she meets a counter-pressure as the patient tightens the                  musculature, and the treatment does not serve the purpose. When the pressure is too                  light, it is of no avail. However, if the pressure is just right, it does make   a difference.                  Furthermore,  this  is  linked  to  the  respiratory  system  and  inhalation  and  exhalation,                  and the recognition that when the patient exhales completely, all muscles relax and the                  pressure has a positive effect.                    In the therapy session he describes, Andersen tried to transfer this mindset to the                  conversation.  He  thought  of  the  conversation  as  three  conversations  at  once.  Each                  participant had an internal conversation where words and concepts had to be chosen,                  thought through and then spoken. In addition, there was an external, audible conversation                  between the interlocutors. He states that the conversation should like respiration, with                  exhalation and inhalation. Simultaneously, Andersen listened for words it would be wise                  to talk more about and others that could wait, with reference to Goolishian’s axiom: “You                  do not know what you’re thinking before you have said it” (Sundet, 2007). Goolishian                  is greatly concerned with the significance of language, because it expresses emotions                  and experiences that might otherwise be difficult to explain (Sundet, 2007). Andersen                  is greatly concerned with the meaning of words and their function. Words are tools that                                                           81                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   81                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","II. Support of teachers in theories                    will help determine where “just the right pressure” has an effect. Thus, the conversation                   becomes reflective and the choice of words is important.                     In  our  context,  a “word”  may  also  have  a different  meaning,  because  the  word                   might have multiple significances. Besides, it can be a metaphor for mental processes                   in learning, organizational development and reasons behind planned and completed                   actions. Metaphor can be a complicated concept, because it can have different meanings                   when it is used and comprehended. Language can be an obstacle and a barrier, caused                   by linguistic ambiguities. The same word may have several distinct lexical definitions                   in one language, which do not correspond to the definitions in another language. In                   Norwegian, we have many examples of polysemous words, i. e. where the same word has                   many meanings and the significance is determined by the context in which it occurs. It is                   easy to imagine that such conditions give rise to misconceptions if conversations are not                   precise and participants’ interpretations are based on different contextual frameworks.                   In this context, we examine how we can use reflection on mental processes and argue                   for better learning outcomes. This includes the possibility of increasing the awareness                   of learning processes and the mental challenges posed by collaboration, team-building                   and problem-solving.                     We have also seen reflection in relation to empowerment, which is about enabling the                   teacher in the classroom and finding one’s own strength in daily challenges, and also                   about contributing to the common development of the school’s organization. The school                   is based on various theoretical, pedagogical and psychological approaches. Furthermore,                   the school is ruled by authorities that define the content of the curriculum. Herein lie                   many challenges, because the curricula and the school’s organization evolve and change                   constantly, just as the rest of society evolves and changes. New needs are created and                   new awareness contributes to such changes. Consequently, this requires that the teacher                   and the school contribute to the changes and fulfil their social mandate through daily                   practice. In this chapter, we show how reflective processes can be useful tools in the                   performance of the school’s many tasks. Along with other measures, these processes                   may help address everyday challenges.                     Teaching  is  not  just  about  transferring  knowledge;  to  a large  extent  it  is  about                   developing competence related to comprehension, abilities and attitudes. Knowledge, in                   terms of facts, can be learned, but to understand how these facts can be utilized requires                   that we find connections. Whether you are a child or an adult, this is about exposing the                   knowledge to reflective processes that help clarify, explain and generate more curiosity.                   Reflection  can  be  a useful  tool  in  a teaching  context,  but  it  also  draws  attention  to                   learning as a process and interaction between the participants in the learning process.                   Moreover, reflection enables the teacher to identify justifications and options that were                   not prominent and obvious beforehand.                     Reflection,  both  in  terms  of  accomplishment  and  evaluation  during  the  planning                   stage  and  the  assessment  of  the  teacher’s and  the  school’s activities,  can  provide  an                   opportunity to develop good practice and get rid of and/or restrain undesirable practices.                   Reflection in this context is more than looking back on or forward to an activity; it is                   about challenging the activity and exposing it to new and different ideas or solutions.                                                             82                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   82                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","8. reflection and reflective processes                     Pupils’  reflection  on  their  own  learning  can  be  related  to  comprehension  and                  contexts of the educational material and linked to the pupils’ learning objectives. The                  teacher’s reflection can turn in several directions: on one hand, to the teaching and                  language he or she exposes the pupils to, on the other to the choice of learning and                  teaching strategies. Through reflection, the teacher’s activities may also help develop                  the  school’s expertise  in  relation  to  curriculum  objectives,  the  school’s pedagogical                  groundwork and various didactic challenges.                    The  school’s complex  assignment  and  different  challenges  regarding  diversity  and                  integration contribute to pressure placed on and expectations of the teacher’s professional                  role.  A systematic  and  purposeful  approach  to  the  opportunities  available  is  vital.                  Reflective practice can raise awareness of such opportunities. In our complex society, it                  is also likely that the challenges become greater and more apparent. Reflection can be                  an instrument that enables us to go further in our thinking, and which helps us to find                  our own resources and recognize which other resources are available.                    Reflection process as facilitated by a reflecting team                    The school’s activity is often about solving problems, and also about identifying useful                  ways to plan and implement actions. Before a thought is turned into action it undergoes                  development – or a process. The process describes a period of time where something                  transpires or develops. For such processes to be fertile, it may be necessary to employ                  various catalysts. We know that time pressure and demands can constitute such a process,                  as can reward. In a guidance context, we use the reflecting team as a catalyst in this                  process to find new or other ways forward.                    Our  thoughts  on  reflective  processes  are  based  in  therapy,  more  precisely  on  the                  theories  of  the  family  therapist  and  psychiatrist  Tom  Andersen.  In  the  world  of                  therapy, reflective processes are often about being in motion, challenging and changing                  life situations. It is vital to identify the medication that works. This is why Andersen                  looks into Bateson’s concept of differences (Andersen, 2007). To Tom Andersen it is                  fundamental to show that there are alternative differences. Some of them are unfruitful,                  others are destructive. He defines the difference that works in line with Bateson, as                  “a difference that makes a difference”. This is the difference that works properly, unlike                  other differences.                    In the school system there are discussions as to whether it is possible for us to make                  changes for children. This applies particularly to children with special needs. Perhaps                  it should be obvious that children in need of customization and special pedagogical                  programmes should be supported by initiatives that may contribute to positive changes                  in  both  their  learning  situation  and  their  life.  If  the  need  for  remedial  measures  in                  school does not decrease, there might be reason to ask whether the school has found                  the right measures.                    Andersen bases his description of the reflecting team on the therapeutic conversation                  (Andersen, 2007). It all started when a conversation between a patient and the therapist                                                           83                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   83                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","II. Support of teachers in theories                    took place in a room with a one-way mirror to the room next door. In this room, the                   therapist’s team sat analysing the conversation behind the mirror. From time to time,                   the therapist left the therapy room to consult his colleagues, who had both listened to                   the conversation and observed the non-verbal communication. After a brief period of                   planning, the therapist returned to the patient, who in the meantime had been alone                   with his thoughts and the experiences they entailed. The patient had not heard anything                   from the neighbouring room and did not know to whom the therapist had talked or                   what about. Andersen got the idea that it might be interesting for the patient to hear                   what his colleagues thought, and so he invited the patient to listen. The mirror and the                   microphone were turned so that the therapist could sit with his patient and together they                   could hear what thoughts the colleagues expressed based on their observations. When                   this was done, the mirrors and microphones were turned back and the conversation                   continued. Having received various descriptions and impressions, the patient was now                   able to express his thoughts about the perceptions of the colleagues behind the mirror                   directly to the therapist. This meant that the patient could hear how his conversation                   was perceived by others. Shortly after, Andersen recognized that his colleagues might                   as well sit in the same room, and let an invisible curtain descend between the reflecting                   team and interlocutors when they were asked for input. A therapeutic reflecting team                   was thus created.                     The notion of the reflecting team was further developed, and today it is often used in                   family therapy.                      How to convert the therapy tool for educational activities                    The school does not engage in therapy. Nor does it choose its pupils; it has a social                   mandate to accept everyone who meets the requirements for school entry. In Norway,                   there  are  few  requirements  to  meet.  Children  must  turn  six  the  year  they  start                   compulsory school, and it is their right and obligation to attend the school where they                   belong geographically. The school is the only institution that is required to deal with all                   children and thereby the children’s families. This puts the school in a different situation                   from other social institutions. Through their children, the parents establish a connection                   with the school system, and close contact and good communication with the school is                   expected for many years. A good, functional collaboration between school and home                   and between pupils and educational staff is important.                     The Education Act (§ 1.3) ensures that children in Norway receive education adapted                   to  their  own  level,  as  well  as  providing  for  the  right  to  specially  adapted  education                   for pupils who are unable to benefit from regular education. There is obviously great                   diversity among pupils. Likewise, there is great diversity among teachers and parents,                   which might lead to situations that call for clarifying, planning and special measures.                     In the field of therapy, clients, or patients, comprise a group of people with serious                   problems. They are little representative of the population at large. Therapy applies for                   people who have a need for change in their lives and life situations, and they meet this                                                             84                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   84                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","8. reflection and reflective processes                   profession in different ways. Tom Andersen’s meetings with his patients are described                  in  a manner  that  pedagogy  can  draw  benefit  from.  Although  pedagogy  does  not                  treat people, it encounters all kinds of people, both children and adults. Thus, it is                  important to note that what Andersen’s activities have generated might be of interest                  to kindergartens and schools as they meet with people. The field of guidance is about                  encounters between people, and the conversation or dialogue is intended to facilitate                  learning and development. This conversation, which is based on trust and symmetrical                  meeting  between  people,  can  make  it  easier  to  collaborate  on  both  educational  and                  special educational questions. During a meeting between parent, teacher and child, all                  parties wish for issues and difficulties to be addressed without force or lack of respect for                  the other. This is the most valuable contribution to pedagogy made by Andersen’s form                  of therapy. Guidance is the most natural way to get acquainted with the reflecting team,                  but the attitude of openness towards others should be characteristic of a professional                  who works with people in any context.                    In this way Andersen explains how work with reflective processes and reflecting teams                  can help bring about change that makes a difference in a hectic day (Andersen, 2007).                     Empowerment – “powerment” for change                   The word “empowerment” is a difficult word to translate into Norwegian. This word                  is frequently used in the area of health, but even there it acquires different meanings                  depending on who is using it and what the person wants to achieve (Tveiten \& Boge,                  2014).                    In  our  context,  we  choose  to  fill  the  concept  of  empowerment  with  qualities  that                  enable  people  to  take  responsibility  for  their  own  actions,  authorize  themselves  in                  relation to their own choices and their own lives, and enable and raise awareness of                  their own resources and opportunities as they address challenges that feel insoluble.                  Some add other values   to the term, such as interaction, participation, self-mobilization                  and  strengthening.  It  may  seem  that  all  translations  tend  to  set  limits  for  the  word                  empowerment  (Tveiten  \&  Boge,  2014).  Thus,  it  might  be  appropriate  to  retain  it  in                  mentoring  contexts.  In  guidance  conversations  we  often  meet  people  who  are  stuck                  in patterns of behaviour that do not create the necessary change. They are no longer                  able to see a way out of a difficult situation and become discouraged and exasperated.                  Moreover, conversation reveals that the mentee is pleased with his or her actions but                  does not understand or see how these can make a change. Both the mentor and the                  reflecting  team  have  a responsibility  to  help  create  awareness  of  new  perspectives,                  seize  challenges  and  look  for  reasons  for  what  is  being  planned  and  what  has  been                  done. Through support and challenges, the mentee is made   aware of ways of seeing                  the situation from new perspectives. The questions and reflection may help him/her                  in the search for other ways of thinking and acting. Both the mentor and the team are                  focused on raising the mentee’s awareness of how limits can be stretched. In many ways,                  it is about creating or restoring confidence in his/her own power over the situation.                                                           85                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   85                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","II. Support of teachers in theories                    Guidance can contribute to the creation of confidence and find solutions in contexts                   where they may be hard to see, when the challenges are overwhelming. In addition to                   having an adequate formal education, guidance can help one realize sides of oneself that                   can be difficult to see (Boge \& Fretheim, 2014). Empowerment can also be perceived as                   a counterforce in a situation of powerlessness. If the mentee feels helpless and stranded                   with his/her problems, guidance can open up opportunities for new perspectives and                   other paths that change the situation, so enabling him/her to acknowledge his/her own                   opportunities (Askheim, 2007).                                                                                                                      86                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   86                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","Conclusion II                         Learning is substantial to educational institutions and leaders of education have their                  most important rule in enhancing the learning outcomes of their students. The relations                  between leadership and learning is an important issue in enhancing the effectiveness of                  educational organizations (Brundrett \& Rhodes, 2010).                     Educational leadership                   The  knowledge,  skills  and  commitment  of  teachers  as  well  as  the  quality  of  school                  leadership, are important factors in achieving high quality educational outcomes. Good                  teaching and the ability to inspire students to achieve their very best have a positive impact                  on young people’s futures. For this reason, it is essential to ensure that those recruited to                  teaching and school leadership posts are well-suited to the tasks they have to fulfil, and                  provide the highest standard of initial education and continuing professional development                  for teaching staff at all levels. This in turn will contribute to enhancing both the status and                  attractiveness of the educational leader profession (The Council..., 2009).                    The school‘s leadership needs to recognize and concretize given goals and negotiate                  different interests, needs and requirements and finally take them into account in their                  daily work. Rapprochement between leaders and the led can be seen as a transition                  to a more democratic leadership, according to the modern demands in working life                  of  influence  and  participation  in  decision  making.  When  school  leaders  design  and                  construct  the  content  of  a development  process  in  a dialogue  with  the  teachers,  the                  school‘s possibility for organizational learning will increase (Sträng, 2011). Educational                  leadership is linked to the achievement of learning in organizations and thus plays an                  important role for development and change in the organization‘s culture. Wadel (1997)                  argues that educational leadership largely revolves around safeguarding the learning and                  learning and renewal of school. Leadership for learning must be linked to both learning                  theory and organization theory. Whether educational leaders succeed in their leadership                  depend on many factors, but the ability to get the members of the organization to work                  towards common goals is vital.                     Organizational learning                    To define organizational learning we need to examine sociological aspects as well as                  information  technology,  leadership  and  processes  (Common,  2004).  Organizational                  learning  often  takes  place  when  organizations  develop  structures  and  procedures  to                  upgrade information processing and improve problem-solving (Olsen \& Peters, 1996).                                                          87                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   87                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","II. Support of teachers in theories                      Organizational learning in schools is essential for continuous development and renewal                   from within. Schools can examine and reflect of what they have already learned, as well                   as innovating, solving problems, and carry out new strategies and knowledge in how to                   to meet new challenges. Organizational learning encourages a proactive stance instead                   of a reactive position (Collinson, Cook, \& Conley, 2006). An obstacle is that schools                   are not always ready to adapt to the proactive position made possible by organizational                   learning.                     Dahler-Larsen  (2006)  argues  that  school  development  is  achievable  to  a certain                   extent, for instance by shared experience, a language suited to express the problems                   and reflection on practice in the light of theory and empirical evidence. Reflection on                   practice has legitimacy beyond the local context and gives scientific justifications for the                   developmental activities.                     Systematized reflection makes it possible to link theory, research and values closely                   to practice, and help the school actors to become more confident in their professional                   performance both as individuals and as team members.                      Reflection and Mentoring                     Researchers emphasize that processes and substance of reflection are crucial to successful                   school  development:  To  focus  on  metacognitive  reflection  will  support  continuing                   professional learning outcomes for teachers (Jamissen \& Phelps, 2006).                     Knowledge is the key to entry and retention in the profession. Reflection helps to clarify                   perceptions and put them into new contexts in relation to others.                     The process of learning to become a professional into the shared knowledge among                   professionals  is  intensified  by  the  personal  adaptation  and  renewal  of  knowledge  in                   professional practice (Edwards \& Mercer, 1987). Teachers engaged in knowledge building                   through reflection have increased opportunity to construct and reconstruct meaningful                   conceptualizations that will go a step further than the hitherto available information                   given. By reshaping their reflections in productive interaction with students, they can,                   make “a difference that makes a difference” in learning (Bateson, 1972).                     Mentoring is a way to gain access to and provide maintenance of knowledge during                   professional practice (Tillema, Westhuizen, \& Merwe, 2015). Mentoring and other kinds                   of  school  consultations  are  aimed  at  improving  the  quality  of  teaching  and  support                   learning  processes  both  for  students  and  teachers.  A relevant  question  might  be  if                   mentoring and consultation really have the intended effect for better learning?                                                                        88                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   88                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","III.  Learning teachers                          as seen through research                                                                       podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   89                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   90                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","9.  Learning and Assessment – a Norwegian                       research and developmental project                        The research and development project LOV – Læring og Vurdering (LaA – Learning and                  Assessment), which stands for Learning and Assessment, is a work that was carried out in                  the period 2007–2012 under the auspices of Østfold University College, where a number                  of schools tried out some measures to increase their focus and awareness of learning.                     Background                    The backgrounds for the LOV/LaA were allegations that the activities in the Norwegian                  school  were  highly  activity-oriented,  with  weak  links  between  activities  and  learning.                  (Kjærnsli et al., 2004; Klette, 2003). This formed the basis of the research and development                  project LOV, initiated in 2007, whose aim was to see whether it was possible to change                  pedagogical practices to make them more learner-centred than activity-focused (Jensen,                  2012; Jensen, Sträng, \& Sørmo, 2014). This was done by introducing the educational                  staff in the schools to the pedagogical basis of LOV/LaA. Subsequently, the schools were                  asked to reflect on their own practices, based on three different measures. These were                  adapted to the current situation in the schools, to prevent them from being experienced                  as “yet another task”. The measures explored facilitated the learning process according                  to  specific  principles:  loop  learning,  including  the  use  of  reflection  among  pupils                  during the learning process, peer observation related to the structure and quality of the                  learning process (Appendix 1) and pupil observation as a means of raising awareness and                  accountability of the pupil’s role in the learning process.                    Furthermore, the schools were asked to follow up the trials with reflection, discussion                  and sharing of experiences; individually, at team level and at school level.                    After testing these measures, we asked teachers and leaders for feedback on their                  experiences  with  the  method.  The  feedback  was  provided  through  letters  from  the                  informants. The research design and analysis of the material are described in the book                  Kvalitetsutvikling fra klasserommet. Oppsummering av LOV – prosjektet (Jensen et al., 2014).                     Theoretical basis                    Learning theory and the theory of organizational learning are central to LOV/LaA. The                  measures in LOV/LaA are directed towards quality improvement of school activities and                  practices in the learning arena (the classroom), based on the learning process, and with                  the pupils, teachers and school leaders as protagonists. The conception of learning in                                                           91                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   91                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","III. Learning teachers as seen through research                    LOV/LaA is mainly based on the works and conclusions of Vygotsky (1978) and Bruner                   (1997). We consistently focus on this conception in terms of both students’ and the                   teachers’ learning. A sociocultural perspective on cooperative learning is essential, as is                   the fact that all participants can act as learning resources for each other by contributing                   their own experience and expertise. Learning and development can be linked to earlier                   references in each individual through active participation. In Vygotsky (1978), we find                   a dialectic relationship between the individual and the community (the culture) where                   the  individual  is  helping  to  shape  and  influence  the  community  and  will  thus,  over                   time, contribute to its development. Hence, the school‘s learning environment will both                   influence and be influenced by the individual, and learning will be characterized by                   dialectical processes between the players in the group. Whether the individual contributes                   to  the  community  and  how  this  occurs  will  affect  how  the  community  accepts  from                   and gives in return to the individual. These processes will have a bearing on whether                   the classroom develops into a learning community. A key point is the importance of                   interaction between individuals as the basis for individual learning.                        Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first on the social level and                      later on the individual level: first between people (inter-psychological), and then inside the                      child (intra-psychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and                      to formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relations between human                      individuals. (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 57)                      Vygotsky here claims that the starting point for cultural and social learning is in social                   interaction. In light of this, it can be argued that the concepts that contribute to and                   are a prerequisite for learning appear and develop primarily as an understanding of the                   individual in meeting and interaction with others.                     Another perspective LOV/LaA measures seek to safeguard is the sociocultural concept                   of scaffolding. In school, this is about whether the teacher facilitates interaction during                   the  learning  process  and  whether  the  pupils  in  turn  develop  interaction  skills.  The                   question is raised whether such understanding and skills among the pupils are subject to                   continuous emphasis in the teachers’ assessment practice. The question is what we want                   the pupils to learn (Hattie, 2013; NOU, 2002, p. 10).                     Dysthe  (2001)  refers  to  communicative  processes  as  essential  in  terms  of  learning                   and  development.  It  is  through  conversation  and  interaction  that  children  acquire                   knowledge and skills that enable them to understand the values   of the culture they are                   and should be a part of. “The many plays and games learned as a child, consist of both                   physical elements and rules, and mastery of both often occurs through a combination                   of linguistic and practical interaction” (Dysthe, 2001, p. 49). Interaction and dialogue                   are therefore basic requirements for learning and development of the individual. This is                   because learning may be understood as processes in which each individual participates                   with different knowledge and skills through interaction, so that the individual learns                   by benefiting from the knowledge of others. In this manner, learning can be described                   as distributed between individuals (Lave, 1997). In the school, this may be obtained by                                                             92                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   92                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","9. Learning and Assessment – a norwegian research and developmental project                   letting the group of pupils serve as a learning community, where the pupils consciously                  take responsibility for their own and others’ learning. In such a community, learning                  can  be  described  as  mediated  between  pupils  and  between  pupils  and  teacher.  One                  condition,  however,  is  that  the  teacher  facilitates  the  pupils’  contribution  (Brown  \&                  Campione, 1990; Palinscar, Brown, \& Campione, 1993). Another precondition is that the                  pupils participate and contribute actively in the learning process and in the interaction                  with other pupils in the learning process. Complicity, participation and contribution in                  such collective processes must, however, be learned and developed over time, and they                  often demand patience on the part of teachers.                    Lave and Wenger (1991) point out that participation in communities of practice starts                  with  limitations  in  each  individual  when  it  comes  to  participation,  and  that  it  takes                  time to acquire knowledge and skills that the individual may bring to the community.                  Moreover, they state that it takes time to acquire interaction skills that make it possible                  to become an accepted contributor to the community.                    Another  objective  of  the  LOV/LaA  measures  is  to  develop  the  school  as  an                  organization. According to Kolb (1984), testing (active experimentation) is an element                  that also appears to be interesting in organization development. In working with schools,                  reflection and shared experiences have been common working methods. The importance                  of identifying or verifying practices that can be justified on the basis of curriculum,                  empirical and theoretical, has been emphasized. Through such a process, teachers will                  also identify aspects of the practice that are not well founded, and where there may be                  reasons for trying out new practices. In such cases, the schools have been encouraged                  to  emphasize  testing  as  an  alternative  to  demanding  change.  The  idea  is  that  when                  teachers, by themselves and with colleagues, have positive experiences with testing, they                  will be able to see where and how practices can be renewed and modified, which should                  ensure more sustainable change.                    Argyris’ (1990) description of double-loop learning may help to highlight the need to                  assess practices and activities against a comprehensive understanding of the curricula,                  where  school  activities  are  considered  in  relation  to  overarching  objectives  set  for                  the school. Argyris’ thinking is relevant in an age where school quality is increasingly                  evaluated  on  the  basis  of  pupils’  performance  in  school  subjects,  while  the  general                  part of the curriculum and principles of education are emphasized less. Senges’ (1990)                  description of the conditions for organizational development, too, supports the thinking                  that underlies the development of LOV/LaA. Organizational development based on what                  is and what occurs, in both practice and activity (personal mastery) will contribute to                  reflection on what should be in the future. The participants reveal their perceptions and                  assumptions about the best ways to reach the organization’s goals through description of                  their own practices (mental models). In so doing, they build a new understanding of what                  practices and activities should be and where there is a need for change (shared vision).                  This happens through collective processes of reflection and learning (team learning). At                  the same time, it is necessary to integrate these elements within a larger context through                  systematic thinking (systems thinking). Senges’ (1990) description of the five disciplines                  is also seen in relation to Senge, Scharmer, Jaworski, and Flowers’ (2005) description of                                                           93                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   93                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","III. Learning teachers as seen through research                    continuous reflection as a cornerstone of a comprehensive development strategy (Senge                   et al., 2005, p. 9). The measures applied by the schools represent facilitation of learning                   activities according to certain principles (loop learning), peer observation related to the                   structure and quality of teaching, and pupil observation as a tool for raising awareness                   and accountability of the pupils’ role in the learning process (Jensen, 2012).                     What follows is a description of one of the measures, peer observation, as a basis for                   quality improvement in classroom practice and organizational learning.                      Peer observation                    Peer observation of quality and structures is a measure designed to systematize shared                   experience and reflection. Moreover, it should help illuminate ‘tacit knowledge’ and help                   teachers to be resources for one another. In our project it was carried out by a teacher                   who observed learning activities in a colleague’s class. Afterwards the colleagues had                   a conversation about the observation. The form that was used is found in Appendix 1.                   Based  on  the  observation  and  conversation,  the  colleagues  were  able  to  determine                   whether  anything  could  or  should  have  been  different  during  the  learning  process.                   Moreover, the observations were discussed in groups of colleagues, often in teams, to                   raise awareness of quality and structure among more people. In this manner, it was                   possible for more people to contribute their experience and expertise to find solutions                   to challenges faced by individuals.                     At primary level, established teams can constitute a cooperative unit. There may be                   teams responsible for each grade in larger schools, or teams responsible for 1st–3rd                   or  4th–7th  grade  in  smaller  schools.  Since  discussion  takes  place  in  the  teams  after                   an observation is completed, there is no need for one teacher to be subject to several                   observations;  once  or  twice  a year  should  be  sufficient.  The  main  thing  is  to  obtain                   regular discussion about educational practice, which is enough to keep awareness alive                   in the team, so that the individual teacher will eventually take this into consideration                   when planning, implementing and evaluating teaching.                     At secondary school (ISCED 2), teachers are often organized so that a group of teachers                   is responsible for following one cohort of pupils through all three years. How closely                   teachers work together seems to vary; it is typically a greater degree of collaboration                   between teachers who teach the same subjects. The same applies to upper secondary                   schools (ISCED 3). Thus, it is more relevant to observe colleagues from the same faculty.                   It is still necessary to find solutions for how to carry out the observations and subsequent                   discussion in each school.                     During  the  implementation  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  observer  following  the                   learning process through a whole session in order to get a thorough impression. When                   observations are reviewed in the teams afterwards, experience-sharing includes more                   people and the learning outcomes become greater. Moreover, this approach increases                   the likelihood of developing a uniform practice for the group of pupils these teachers                   are collaborating on, in terms of general factors such as participation, reflection and                                                             94                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   94                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","9. Learning and Assessment – a norwegian research and developmental project                   interaction, and to benefit from pupils as resources. In addition, it is recommended that                  schools should periodically share experience from these observations in plenary.                    Teachers must opt for or against peer observation across the established work units,                  which some feel produces a limited outcome (Dahler-Larsen, 2005, p. 81). In such cases,                  it is necessary to see how experience-sharing and reflection may be maintained within                  the individual work units and collectively in the school.                    Observations should, as mentioned above, be carried out systematically and regularly                  to  ensure  consistent  discussion  and  reflection  at  team  level.  Lillejord  and  Kirkerud                  (2009) argue that “continuous investigation of practice is necessary to improve practice”                  (p. 151). The times and dates of observation and team discussion should be logged in                  working documents or plan documents in order to ensure accountability in terms of                  quality assessment. Implementation of peer observation in this way will increase schools’                  academic and professional integrity. Both the observer and the person being observed                  gain from peer observations. “[It is] a very good method of raising awareness of what                  we are actually doing. Both observing and being observed is useful. This also creates                  consciousness around your own practice, even when you are not being observed, which                  is most of the time” (teacher statement). Observations often starts with the observer                  focused on what is happening in the classroom where he or she is observing. Eventually,                  though, it seems that the focus shifts towards the observer’s own practice, as this teacher                  describes: “Observation of colleagues has been exciting and interesting, and has opened                  up good reflection on one’s own practice” (teacher statement).                    However,  experience  shows  that  the  form  is  being  used  in  different  ways.  Some                  teachers have attached it above their work station and quite often ‘take a peek’ at it,                  especially during lesson planning. Teams can use it in the planning and assessment of                  teaching. Teachers can use it to convey pedagogical practice to parents or as a basis for                  conversation with students. School leaders use it to monitor teachers’ practice in the                  learning arena.                    The observer should give feedback according to what he or she has seen, and not                  give descriptions of his colleague as a good or bad teacher. The discussions afterwards                  will reveal whether there were good reasons for what went on in the session or whether                  changes should be considered.                    The  main  function  of  this  measure  is  to  raise  awareness  and  contribute  to  the                  development of quality and structure in the learning process. Quality is here understood                  as a good start on the learning session, clear learning goals, learning that is relevant to                  the pupils, and proof that the educational aspect of the subject is being safeguarded.                  Reflection,  effective  teaching  and  the  formative  aspects  of  the  assessment  are  also                  qualities that promote learning. Likewise, the observation of colleagues helps to spread                  the school’s competence across the established work units, as well as to develop basic                  common practice for general factors of importance for learning. This measure can thus                  contribute to a common orientation of the organization.                    The peer observation form contains a number of elements that can be defined as                  learning-promoting qualities, with validity in all learning contexts. When these qualities                  become fixed elements in the learning process, and where this is natural, they turn into                                                           95                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   95                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","III. Learning teachers as seen through research                    learning-promoting structures. Some teachers find it difficult to include all the elements                   in every learning session. Nor is that the intention, but if one wishes to examine the                   qualities present in the learning process, the form may be helpful. Which of the elements                   should be addressed will vary from situation to situation, and this needs to be considered                   in each case.                     One should also be aware of relationships between some of the various elements on                   the form. For instance, punctuality becomes more significant when the lesson focuses                   quickly on the learning activities, and when students work efficiently during the learning                   session.  To  have  a lot  of  time  available  for  learning  is  of  limited  importance  if  the                   efficiency of the learning process is low. Another example is related to peer- and self-                   assessment among pupils, which requires that the pupils have learned to work based on                   criteria, and that relevant criteria have been developed.                     Teacher surveys                     Teacher surveys were carried out in eleven schools following their implementation of three                   of the LOV/LaA measures. The surveys were conducted in two stages and in various types                   of schools, and will be accounted for later. This chapter will describe the method.                     Through letters (the letter method), teachers and leaders described their experiences                   as gleaned from the implementation of the LOV/LaA measures, and how these have                   influenced  the  practice  of  the  participants,  classroom  practice  and  school  activities.                   Clandinin  and  Connelly  (1994)  describe  the  method  under  “Personal  Experience                   Methods”, the purpose of which is to acquire knowledge about people’s worldview and                   their thoughts, experiences and opinions:                       In letters we try to give an account of ourselves, make meaning of our experiences, and attempt                      to establish and maintain relationships among ourselves, our experience, and the experience                      of  another…  In  personal  experience  research,  letters,  as  a research  method,  may  be  used                      among participants, among research collaborators, or among researchers and participants.                      In each case one of their merits is the equality established, the give and take of conversation.                      (Clandinin \& Connelly, 1994, p. 421)                      Letters may be used where one wants information from a larger group of informants                   (Berg, 1999; Sträng, 2011). Admittedly, the disadvantage of a letter is that when it is sent                   to a researcher, it cannot be followed up with elaboration and follow-up questions, as                   in an interview. The advantage is that you can get information from several informants,                   and that the collection of data is completed when the writer sends the letter, so that the                   analysis can start immediately. When using the letter method, nor is selection a problem.                   Everybody who works at the school can provide information from their own point of                   view so that various perspectives are represented.                     The letters are written in a context that is not necessarily accounted for, which can                   be problematic for the analysis. Consequently, some statements have not been used,                   because they do not provide any information relevant for the researcher. The analyses                                                             96                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   96                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","9. Learning and Assessment – a norwegian research and developmental project                   were  initially  conducted  as  a collective  work  process,  and  when  the  statements  were                  categorized,  we  went  through  the  material  several  times,  thoroughly.  This  was  done                  to  ensure  that  the  interpretation  was  not  coloured  by  personal  experience  and  thus                  in danger of creating a different contextual framework from the writer of the letter.                  As Clandinin and Connelly (1994, p. 413) describe: “The situation is controlled by us                  because we have brought the passage forward, and its experiential status depends on what                  we choose to convey contextually.” One challenge presented by this process is therefore                  how to analyse the letters based on what the writer actually conveys (qualitative content                  analysis). Borg and Gall point out that one way of avoiding research mistakes is for                  several researchers to analyse the material individually before they reach a consensus:                      The greatest difficulties in developing scoring methods are with measures that are unstruc-                     tured, such as interview data, observational rating forms, and responses to projective tests.                     If one of these techniques is used, the measure should be scored independently by two or                     more raters. This will reduce the likelihood that bias on the part of a single observer will                     unduly influence the results, and it also permits the determination of interrater reliability.                     (Borg \& Gall, 1979, p. 648)                     The reliability of the data will depend on whether the writers provide honest and                  sincere answers (Clandinin \& Connelly, 1994), not in relation to objective criteria, but                  in relation to the writer’s perception and experience. It is impossible to say whether                  the individual’s subjective perception is expressed or statements are influenced by the                  opinions of others. Perceptions are formed in a social context where everyone, to a certain                  extent, is affected by what is being said and done. The length of the letters cannot,                  objectively speaking, be given importance in terms of reliability. Yet, it is conceivable                  that long letters might be an expression of strong commitment, while short letters could                  be an expression of the opposite. Nonetheless, we have sought to place emphasis on                  precisely what is conveyed in each statement.                    The statements were mainly positive, although some were negative, which can help                  strengthen  reliability.  Participation  was  voluntary,  and  the  respondents  decided  for                  themselves what and how much they should write, but it was required that writing should                  be done during working hours (see also Jensen, 2012).                    The method of analysis is partly in line with what Glaser and Strauss (1967) describe                  as “the constant comparative method of analysis.” Analysis is about dividing a whole into                  individual elements, in this case to look at each statement in the letter. The content of                  the letters from the respondents was examined phrase by phrase, and all statements were                  assessed based on their content. Corbin and Strauss describe “constant comparisons” as                  a method that reveals similarities and differences through comparing different elements                  in the data: “Constant comparisons: The analytic process of comparing different pieces                  of data for similarities and differences” (Corbin \& Strauss, 2008, p. 65).                    Coding means gathering data that is formulated differently by the various informants,                  extracted from different contexts and experiences and placed in common categories                  and  concepts  that  seem  to  describe  the  same  phenomena  (Postholm,  2010).  In  this                                                           97                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   97                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","III. Learning teachers as seen through research                    process, raw data form a basis for developing general categories that the researchers                   can settle on in the further analysis. “Analysis involves what is commonly termed coding,                   taking raw data and raising it to a conceptual level” (Corbin \& Strauss, 1990, p. 66). It                   is not unusual that the coding is carried out in three stages, where you start with open                   coding that provides the basis for the formation of categories and thereafter collect the                   statements  in  more  overarching  themes  through  axial  and  selective  coding,  which  is                   once again compared to the research questions. Axial coding consists of finding patterns                   or categories where groups of statements can be gathered on an abstract and general                   level.  In  this  case,  the  axial  categories  create  (increased)  awareness  of  learning  and                   development, involvement/participation in development, reflection and confirmation/                   change. Selective coding is the final stage of the analysis, and shows how/if the axial                   categories apply to the organizational/institutional level or at classroom level. Then the                   researcher should reach the final and overarching category that is expressed through                   the research question or questions. Table 3 gives examples of statements describing the                   results of LOV/LaA in terms of the two main categories, “learning in the organization”                   and “learning in the classroom”.                     Statements from the informants show that LOV/LaA has had a positive impact at both                   school and classroom level. The summary of the LOV/LaA project as a whole shows that                   teachers and school leaders in primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education                   confirm this. The LOV/LaA project has shown that schools that understand early the                   importance of organizational learning, and the central principles for learning at all levels                   of the organization, gain more out of school development (Jensen et al., 2014; Jensen,                   2016). However, this requires that work with school-based development of competence                   is adapted to the context of each school. The work must therefore be based on a high                   degree of flexibility, so that schools feel that they obtain support at their actual level.                     Experience  gained  from  the  LOV/LaA  project  has  long  been  used  in  school                   development in general, as well as in national initiatives such as Vurdering for læring                   (Assessment  for  learning)  and  Ungdomstrinnet  i utvikling  (Secondary  in  development)                   (Utdanningsdirektoratet,  n.d.).  Østfold  University  College  has  acted  as  an  academic                   environment related to the themes of these initiatives.                                                                                  98                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   98                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","9. Learning and Assessment – a norwegian research and developmental project                   Table 3. Statements on how LOV/LaA has had an impact on organization and practices                     Learning in the organization/institution   Classroom learning, practice                   Statements related to collective awareness/   Statements related to pedagogical awareness                   organizational awareness          It has also led to higher confidence when we use the same                   What impact has LOV had on the school?   terminology, so that we have common points of reference when                   Although we were critical of LOV, particularly at   we have a conversation about pupils and teaching. (I then refer                   the beginning, I now feel that the project has been   to loop learning and discussions around this). Somehow I feel                   unifying and stimulating for us. It has given us   that there is a greater professionalism, i.e. that our work is based                   a common platform that we are all familiar with   on a comprehensive idea and a common understanding, thereby                   and know how to use.              making it safer and easier to intervene to improve teaching.                    Testing and implementation of LOV/loop learning  The most important thing is awareness of the development of                   has had a positive effect and acted as an awareness- quality and structure in the learning. I would like to stress two                   raising process for the staff.    factors in particular. One is that the value of what is learned                                                     becomes visible. The second is equally important: that the pupils                                                     learn to put what they learn into a context.                   Participation in organizational learning and   Participation in learning in the classroom                   organizational development        I have learned that participation of all pupils becomes greater                   Peer Observations have made us teachers talk more  and more palpable when we organize lessons and teaching in                   about our own teaching. Moreover, colleagues have  this manner. Perhaps this might be a new way to safeguard                   got to know each other better in many ways, and   weak pupils.                   I believe that the threshold is lower for us to invite   Pupil observation: Pupils became very attentive to their fellow                   each other into lessons. I think we have become   pupils’ latecoming and disruption of the class. They observed                   more open in terms of our strengths and weaknesses,  things that were not as visible to me as a teacher, such as the use                   and we have been inspired to constantly develop as  of mobile phones and the Internet. Pupils became more alert and                   teachers.                         responsible. Pupil participation was more systematized. They                                                     became aware of how they needed to contribute and commit.                   Reflection on the institution     Reflection on the practice                   What impact has LOV had on the school? That we   I am convinced that LOV will make me a better teacher. By                   all have the same point of departure, a common   talking about different practices, discussing various challenges,                   thread in our work. It can be easier in parent –   being aware of how I do things myself, observing others and                   teacher meetings, for instance, now we have the   being observed myself.                   same principles in the school and the municipality.  I must admit that I thought “What‘s new here?” when I was                   Particularly with siblings in different grades at the   first presented with loop learning. Having worked a few years as                   same school. It also appears more professional from  a teacher, I have probably acquired some habits in my teaching,                   the outside.                      so the work with LOV has helped me to think through my own                                                     teaching practices.                   What impact has LOV had on the school?                   A common platform for us teachers.                   A common awareness of the use of LOV                   Increased focus on assessment.                   Confirmation/change in activity   Confirmation/change of pedagogical practice                   We have received confirmation that what we are   My experience is that work gets started a lot quicker, and the                   doing is good, and that it is healthy to receive   pupils work more independently when we spend some time at                   a visit, and to drop by a colleague’s classroom.  the beginning of each session (perhaps a double lesson) talking                   The learning is more structured, and the school has  about goals and criteria, so the pupils are sure about what to do,                   got a common platform in the organization of the   and why they are doing it.                   individual hours.                 Moreover, I have become much better at asking reflective                                                     questions; “What do you think about it? Do you agree? How did                                                     you reach the conclusion? How can you use ...?” and similar                                                     types of questions.                                                             99                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   99                                                  26.10.2016   11:45:56","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   100                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","10.  Peer support of teachers from the perspective                        of organizational learning – Czech evaluation research                         In the Czech Republic there also exist schools that benefit from continuous and systematic                  peer or other professional external support, but they are still quite exceptional. There                  is also an evident lack of relevant research that would seek understanding of benefits/                  effects the continual support brings to schools and teachers. The action and evaluation                  research is focused on various forms of support for teachers that might describe both                  the  character  of  supporting  interventions  and  indicate  some  risks  and  formulate                  challenges for school leaders, teachers, teacher-workers in specialized positions (mentors,                  consultants, etc.) and also least, but not last the school policy.                    The development of internal collegial and external professional support in schools                  in order to improve the quality of teaching is one of the priority themes of the Czech                  educational policy and it is supported by a number of development projects financed by                  the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic and the European                  Union, as well as various charitable organizations and private foundations (see Chapter                  5). One of the Czech foundations that continuously supports selected primary schools,                  is the foundation The Keller Family Foundation. It has initiated and financed the long-                                                                          1                  term project Helping Schools Succeed. We were asked to perform  two surveys, the results                  of which should contribute to the evaluation of the nominated project and planning                  the following steps in supporting schools. The project the schools have entered into                  (respectively were selected based on certain criteria), should significantly contribute to                  their development, respectively support of learning in schools. A key role in development                  efforts was played by educational consultants and mentors, whose activity was supported                  by the project. This Chapter, therefore, with the agreement of the Foundation and the                  participating schools, presents selected results of the evaluation research to show how                  educational  consultants,  mentors  and  finally,  the  whole  project  contributed  to  the                  development of learning processes in the participating schools.                     One project – two evaluation researches                    The above-mentioned financial and resource support for schools from the Foundation                  in the Czech Republic is part of a rather unique project (still ongoing), which has been                  positively perceived and evaluated by the professional community. The uniqueness of                  the project lies mainly in its long-term and continuous support of selected schools, in                   1  This concerned the employees of the Department of Educational Sciences, Masaryk University, the author of                     the text Bohumíra Lazarová and Milan Pol (project consultant, under which this publication was created).                                                          101                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   101                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","III. Learning teachers as seen through research                    the sophistication of the objectives of the support, in the unusually generous subsidies                   to schools (compared to Czech standards) and periodic review of all the actions from the                   expert advice of the Foundation, respectively the project .                                                                     2                     The first of the above-mentioned evaluation researches (carried out at the end of 2014)                   was focused on the work of educational consultants from four schools involved in the                   project. The educational consultants were funded from the resources of the Foundation,                   in the past, they were also teachers and lecturers in teacher training and they completed                   a training in mentoring or coaching. The role of an educational consultant had been                   offered to them by the Foundation on the basis of the selection criteria. Their task was to                   support the schools involved, respectively the people in them (school leaders, teachers,                   teaching assistants, etc.) to develop teaching quality and professionalism so that they                   could create an environment that stimulates learning of young students, an environment                   in which young students use their potential to achieve good educational results and                   above all experience success. The above-mentioned specialists thus functioned in the                   role of consultants for school leadership and (especially) in the roles of consultants and                   mentors for teachers.                     For  this  evaluation  research   the  method  of  (one-day)  focus  group  was  selected,                                               3                   attended by four educational consultants working for various time periods (from two to                   five years) in four schools. The method of focus groups was chosen deliberately in order                   to create a space for reflection of practice, which the atmosphere of trust contributed                   to,  peer  discussions  and  sharing.  In  addition  to  this,  the  documents  related  to  the                   work of consultants (mission, job descriptions) were analyzed and interviews with the                   management of the project were conducted. With regard to the fact that five schools                   were  involved  in  the  project  in  that  period,  there  was  a nearly  exhaustive  sample  of                   respondents  at  disposal.  Interviews  in  the  focus  groups  were  covered  more  broadly                   (involving the position of a consultant, the reality of practice, reflection on the future),                   in this text there are only the data that covered the reality of practice documenting the                   perceived influence of provided peer support on learning processes in schools.                     The second evaluation research was implemented in the course of the year 2015 and                   its aim was to identify and describe in what way the above-mentioned project supported                   a change of culture at two primary schools  which had been receiving the benefits for five                                                        4                   years; so they were at the end of the project period, and the people in them had a chance                   to look back and evaluate which processes at school and in what way supported the                   project. In both schools, educational consultant worked alongside with teachers-mentors                   (in number from three to five), who had completed training in mentoring and training                   activities, though they were burdened with the regular curriculum and they were also                   supported by the project. In this research, methods for the study of school documents                   were  used  (websites,  annual  inspection  reports),  interviews  with  teachers,  teachers-                   mentors, leadership and other teaching staff in various positions (five, respectively six                   interviews in each school) and focus groups (five, respectively six participants in each                    2   The Foundation has funded and has been funding more projects.                   3   Which was implemented at the end of 2014.                   4   In these schools there worked two of the educational consultants interviewed in the first evaluation research.                                                           102                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   102                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","10. Peer support of teachers from the perspective of organizational learning ...                   school). There was a requirement for the surveyed teaching staff to have at least five                  years of experience in the given school in order to be able to reflect on the changes                  taking place during the project in the school. To capture the impact of the project on                  selected areas of school culture, a modified version of a short evaluation questionnaire                  was used (Kilmann \& Saxton, 1985).                    Providing detailed information on schools is not considered necessary for the purposes                  of this text. It can only be stated that it was a standard, large municipal primary school                  (with numbers of young students over 400 in one school, over 600 in the other school).                  Only  the  data  that  document  the  support  of  learning  processes  have  been  selected                  and special attention was paid to work (and influence) of educational consultants and                  mentors to the processes of learning in these schools.                    From both evaluation researches were created reports for the client – the Foundation,                  respectively the project management. One can appreciate that there has been encountered                  an effort of the Foundation, respectively the project team, which is quite unusual and                  certain  for  similar  development  projects  –  to  look  for  evidence  about  the  effects  of                  support and render the accounts of the activities.                     Peer support in the dimensions of the broadening,                  deepening and anchoring                    For the interpretation of the data of qualitative nature (interviews, focus groups), one of                  the concepts “borrowed” from the theories of organizational learning was used. It is based                  on the assumption that the role of mentors and educational consultants is not only to                  individually support teachers in their growth, but also to start the process of organizational                  learning across a school. Verbiest (2011) distinguishes three dimensions of organizational                  learning,  respectively  learning  in  community:  broadening,  deepening  and  anchoring.                  Broadening the capacity of professional learning community means increasing the number                  of people involved in the learning process, i.e. people who learn and act according to the                  expectations of the professionals in the learning organization/community. For example,                  broadening  means  that  more  people  reflect  their  work,  review  professional  literature,                  participate in further education courses, carry out the vision of the school in their daily                  practice, they share their knowledge with others, they learn with others, cooperate and the                  like. It also means that in order to develop their work they use the services of professionals                  such as mentors, school consultants, school psychologists, etc.                    Deepening the capacities of professional learning community goes hand in hand with                  improvement of quality of learning and action, and improving organizational conditions                  for development of personal and interpersonal capacity. Adult learning in schools is                  becoming more and more common issue and responsibility and it must have clear impact                  on results of young students. Deepening also means the development of supportive,                  participatory and stimulating leadership.                    Anchoring,  respectively  anchoring  capacities  of  a professional  learning  community                  means the embedding of individual and collective learning activities and conditions for                                                           103                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   103                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","III. Learning teachers as seen through research                    learning into school policies. Professional development of teachers is therefore linked to                   school policy and the major development trends within the schools. The visions are the                   basis for decisions about teaching and learning, intervision, class observation and peer                   consultation become everyday routines in the school. It also means that everyone in the                   school purposefully and structurally participates in the development of school policies and                   has access to relevant information (Verbiest, 2011). This view of organizational learning                   has been adopted as the interpretive framework for the obtained data. On the basis of                   the data it is demonstrated how educational consultants and mentors by their presence                   and work in the school contributed to the processes of further learning, marginally we                   mention some of the limitations or difficulties mentioned by the respondents. It has been                   taken into consideration that the organizational learning in our schools has also been                   contributed to by a number of other factors – mainly the method of leadership, further                   education of teachers, events supported by the schools, etc. Educational consultants and                   mentors, however, played an essential role in both schools and that is also why they were                   supported by the project.                     The data from both schools have been processed simultaneously, while also adding the                   data obtained from educational consultants from all four schools (see above). Because of                   anonymization of data, people and schools, the sources, respectively schools where the                   citations come from are not mentioned.                     Educational consultants and mentors in the process of broadening                   the capacity of organizational learning                     The project significantly supported mainly further education of teachers, not only out-                   side the school (educational courses), but especially in terms of cooperative learning in                   the schools. School consultants and mentors became a model of cooperation and knowl-                   edge sharing. They strengthened the awareness that people can ask not only them, but                   practically anyone at the school for consultation or assistance. The teachers adopted the                   fact that consulting with colleagues is normal. Respondents from the schools pointed                   out the openness among teachers, which – according to their experience – is incompa-                   rable with other schools. It is apparent that this openness and willingness to share and                   discuss the project has contributed, especially in the beginning, by involving educational                   consultants, mentors and pair teachers.                        ... today, it is normal that a peer turns to a peer and that he turns to his colleague regarding                      a failure, “Hey, there is something that I am not good at and you are good at it. How do you                      do that, please?”... there really occurs peer support ... (interviews with school leadership, mentors                      and teachers)                      In the schools the trust in the fact that mutual exchange of experience makes sense                   and that nobody will judge anybody or point out his mistakes has been enhanced. The                   teachers began to spontaneously imitate the behavior of mentors, the non-judgmental                                                            104                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   104                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","10. Peer support of teachers from the perspective of organizational learning ...                   way of communication with colleagues and thus their position could be naturally taken                  over by any teacher. Mentors and consultants thus became a model of open behavior                  and communication. People in both schools, admitted that some of the peers are still                  personally and even with professional focus closer than others, and that is why they later                  began to seek other peers (who learned how to provide peer support from the mentors)                  rather than trained mentors. Both consultants and mentors therefore contributed to the                  broadening of capacities of learning by creating more opportunities for mutual learning.                  The project more or less freed their hands from direct teaching activities and sharing                  could thus be spread among other teachers as well. Mentors focused their work mainly                  on the support of innovations in education, the role of consultants was broader – apart                  from the mentoring activities, they focused also on the formulation of common visions                  of the school and the creation and performance of individual plans for professional                  development of individual teachers.                    It was also noticed that in the course of time there was a certain social pressure in                  schools. The culture of high demands and high commitment was sensed by everyone in                  the school and those who were not participating in education, did not experiment, did                  not share and did not engage in activities would be soon easily identifiable within the                  team. When people talk about “working under pressure” or “developing under pressure,”                  it does not always necessarily has to be pressure from the leadership, but social pressure,                  which  the  consultants  and  mentors  initially  undoubtedly  played  a significant  role  in                  while developing the range of activities. On one hand, this implies many advantages                  for the development of schools, on the other hand, obvious risks (some people leaving                  schools, work under stress, etc.).                      People and school are under immense pressure, not everybody can stand that, some left. But                     that does not mean they did not want to grow and learn, but they wanted it in a different way.                     Not at this price. People did not always leave in bad mood … (focus groups in schools)                      In May, the educational consultant comes and says: You are not going to the summer school in                     August? And now you feel bad that you‘re really not going this August to the summer school                     because you should, because everybody is going ... That‘s the flow, as I said, certain flow is set                     and nobody wants to get out of it. (focus groups in schools)                     It  is  obvious  that  consultants  and  mentors  had  to  first  win  the  trust  of  teachers,                  otherwise they could not offer their services and could not be with them to broaden peer                  support among others. They admit that throughout their period of work in schools they                  sometimes encounter resistance of some teachers, but these are rather exceptional cases                  that occur in every school. Even teachers often had to have courage when they decided                  to ask a consultant or mentor for help because they experienced such a situation for the                  first time. Good preparation and experience of the consultants and mentors involved in                  these schools was reflected as well. The consultants mentioned that their work requires                  not only a high level of commitment and careful preparation (as a model of good work),                  but also some invention to be able to get closer to teachers, to find a way to motivate                  them to work together and develop peer support.                                                           105                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   105                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","III. Learning teachers as seen through research                       I thought that the teachers would be happy, but some had no desire to use my assistance, they                      did not want that service. It lasts until today in the case of some of them ... the teachers have                      just been learning how to ask for support. I was offering them a range of options and some of                      them did not know what to imagine beyond that, they had no previous experience. (focus group                      with educational consultants)                       It took some time before teachers gained trust and understood that it is a service for them.                      Consultants must initially be a bit imposing and must not take it personally when teachers                      refuse them ... It took two years before it began to be ok, then things started to change slowly                      ... I learned not to be pushy, to listen and let things flow, everything has its own time. (focus                      group with educational consultants)                      There are therefore outlined certain conditions for the consultants and mentors to be                   able to assume a useful role in the process of broadening learning across organization.                   Good selection of consultants and mentors, who must be educated in providing peer                   support and creating and maintaining (often fragile) relationship is of primary importance.                   They must also be prepared personally and also resistant to misunderstanding, initial                   mistrust and rejection.                       ... we did not know her professionally. It was about finding a job for a educational consultant.                      The leadership announced: you have to go and consult (note: individual development plans)                      with the educational consultant. And defense mechanisms occurred ... (focus groups in schools)                      The teachers have also perceived negatively, even though only implicitly, the obligation                   to consult their work. There thought e.g. that regulations and interventions of the head                   teachers of the schools, as well as their strong connection with the consultants or mentors                   tend to be counterproductive. It is therefore clear that the consultants and mentors in                   an effort to expand learning processes across schools get into often non-transparent                   relationship network, which is complicated by unclear expectations and insufficiently                   defined competences and roles. In order to be successful, they require regular external                   support,  which  was  in  this  case  received  from  the  project  managers  in  the  form  of                   supervision, discussion meetings and the like.                      Educational consultants and mentors in the process                   of strengthening the capacity of organizational learning                     From the perspective of this text, the most significant evidence that the consultants                   and mentors have been involved in the process of deepening organizational learning                   are the changes in thinking of teachers, respectively of all the people in the school.                   The  interviewed  teachers  in  our  schools  often  communicated  that  due  to  the                   project  and  under  the  influence  of  consultants  and  mentors  they  not  only  “work                   differently”, but also “think differently”. And this is the basis for really profound                                                            106                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   106                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","10. Peer support of teachers from the perspective of organizational learning ...                   changes in teachers’ behavior. This means that people formulate goals differently,                  gain another perspective or different insight into various situations, create and share                  new understanding have a different view of the young students, their parents and                  peers.  Teachers  received  different  approach  to  teaching,  they  place  –  under  the                  guidance of mentors and consultants – emphasis on meaningfulness of events, they                  look for evidence of successful work, etc. Different way of thinking brings changes                  in behavior and language use.                       ... When our people go somewhere else to seminars, they themselves come up with the fact that                     their questions there were totally different than the ones of everyone else, right ... nowadays,                     they ask about completely different things than a traditional teacher, they are rather interested                     in learning it in depth. They are interested in the process of learning ... (interviews with school                     leadership, mentors and teachers)                      And the truth is that it affects all of us a lot and some changed personally and in terms of their                     character during that period of time ... (interviews with school leadership, mentors and teachers)                      If there comes a new teacher to school and our school has been changing the staff significantly,                     half the staff speaks different language and there is a need to provide support to the new ones                     ... The new teachers entering the school did not know what we were talking about (focus group                     with educational consultants)                     Support  of  clear  planning  and  seeking  evidence  of  the  benefits  of  innovation  has                  a significant impact on the role of young students in the class. Partnership in planning                  and fulfillment of tasks within the relationship mentor –teacher, consultant – teacher                  are transferred by the teachers to their relationship with young students. According to                  the respondents, young students are also becoming partners of the teachers, they plan,                  formulate goals, choose activities and evaluate the learning processes.                       ... all this must be, of course, reflected on the children. And I think that it is also visible                     enough that the following relationship between the children and my peers does not exist                     – I‘m not saying that nowhere–but it is not based on: Here I am, the teacher. Here are you                     child and you‘re going to do what I say, right? (interviews with the school leadership, mentors                     and teachers)                      ... Children understand it ... they know why they learn, define the objectives and purpose ...                     (focus groups in schools)                      ... I have never experienced that children would be thinking so clearly before ... it sounds                     ridiculous, that one has never seen it before in the school ... but it‘s a completely different level                     of how these children work. (interviews with school leadership, mentors and teachers)                                                             107                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   107                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","III. Learning teachers as seen through research                      The teachers in the schools where the consultants and mentors work are viewed as                   professionals, because by setting goals and seeking evidence the tendency to improvise                   and react only intuitively are weakened. The school leadership, mentors and consultants                   therefore treat teachers as professionals, they express their respect to them (otherwise                   they would not be accepted) and believe in their potential. Everybody in the school thus                   get a chance for their own professional development, as at the school there is available                   someone who offers them the support and offers guidance to quality.                     In both schools the project also offered the teachers the opportunity to broaden their                   role – they can become lecturers or mentors in their own and other schools or just open                   their classes and let other colleagues consult them. Teachers are aware that the project                   has given them (not only) with the help of consultants and mentors an opportunity                   to excel, become better teachers and a better school. They have become self-confident                   teachers who are aware of their qualities and the qualities of their school. Teachers at                   both schools often encountered interest and admiration (reputedly sometimes also even                   envy) from other schools and teachers.                        All can be leaders ... (interviews with school leadership, mentors and teachers)                       I think  that  it  was  important  that  those  who  wanted  benefited  an  opportunity  ...  had  the                      opportunity to learn, develop their teaching skills ... and they found some way to their own                      profiling. (interviews with school leadership, mentors and teachers)                       ... There is an extraordinary staff in our school, the teachers are real masters ... our task is to                      show teachers that if they go for a difficult task, they can complete it – they can do it. (focus                      group with educational consultants)                       ... It just changes me in the sense that I am growing tremendously. I think that if I was at                      another primary school, I still could not reach such qualities as I have dome now for those five                      years. And certainly, I think I owe it to the project, as well as to the leadership and the entire                      teaching staff, who are all helpful. I know that if I ask anybody for advice ... really anyone will                      always help me. (interviews with school leadership, mentors and teachers)                      Educational consultants generally bring new quality to schools. They have agreed that                   they themselves must work with high commitment, they have been carefully preparing for                   their classes and any other activity with the teachers trying to be imaginative, resourceful                   and creative, and clearly target-oriented. This is actually how they show the teachers what                   the quality of work looks like.                       An educational consultant must take the job seriously and should work hard ... It is still about                      high commitment and also about consistency. It must not be let up, but it should still be                      directed towards the agreed goal. (focus group with educational consultants)                                                               108                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   108                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","10. Peer support of teachers from the perspective of organizational learning ...                     When describing the process of broadening organizational learning, we mentioned                  that  teachers  have  become  accustomed,  respectively  adopted  the  culture  of  mutual                  consultation, observation in class, etc., but at the same time the process of deepening                  can be observed. Not only that teachers normally provide each other with feedback, but                  also the quality changes. Support is linked to a number of specific topics and teaching                  methods. It is no longer for example just attending peer‘s class (for the formal completion                  of the task), but the attendance is linked to a clearly defined objective. This model of                  meaningful observation and targeted provision of formative feedback is transmitted to                  teachers‘ work by mentors and consultants.                      They do not do things just formally anymore, it does not make sense, they do not remain on                     the surface and in the feedback they are even not afraid to go deep and look for evidence,                     respectively the impact of innovation of the teacher on quality of teaching. (focus group with                     educational consultants)                      Teachers gradually began to view me as support and I see development of reading throughout                     the school a great success ... The teachers started attending each other‘s classes and providing                     a descriptive feedback. It is joyful to see that some things in the school have changed. (focus                     group with educational consultants)                     Recently, pressure on obtaining evidence about the quality, respectively effectiveness                  of interventions in schools and other environments has generally been growing (Konstam                  et al., 2015). Consultants and mentors, trained in evaluation brought to school efforts to                  seek evidence about the effects of innovations in teaching. The effects of all the efforts                  and great commitment of teachers are not always directly visible and they are usually                  difficult to measure. Mentors and consultants offered teachers possibilities to formulate                  objectives and criteria for monitoring their implementation. But it is also clear that to                  work with evidence is not easy and it is still considered a constant challenge for the                  future.                      ... for example two years ago, when it was said what the evidence of learning meant, we all                     just felt skepticism and today I‘d say that we all know what is the evidence of learning, the                     problem is how to work further with it, how to be able to evaluate it ... This is a topic of this                     year. (interviews with school leadership, mentors and teachers)                       ... we will submit portfolios in advance, which will contain all the information about let’s say                     attended training sessions, sharing, activities and so forth, but mainly there will be evidence of                     learning of young students. It will be handed over to the leadership in advance and they will be                     able to read it before the interview. (interviews with school leadership, mentors and teachers)                      Working  with  evidence  has  become  a natural  part  of  self-assessment  of  teachers.                  Consultants  help  teachers  not  only  in  terms  of  formulating  objectives  but  also  in                  evaluating their own work. The teachers in both schools have been encouraged to apply                                                           109                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   109                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","III. Learning teachers as seen through research                    self-assessment,  respectively  evaluation  of  their  goals  (personal  career  development                   plans), and there has been a clear intention of establishing the processes of accountability                   in work of the teachers. This contributes to the professionalization of the profession                   (Newmann, King, \& Rigdon, 1997). If a teacher works under the supervision of a mentor                   or educational consultant, he is no longer accountable only to himself, but feels a certain                   pressure to complete tasks and submit work at agreed terms and in the supposed quality.                   It is obvious that mentor as well as educational consultant – even though they are partners                   of the teachers – have influence on the teacher that can be explained, for example, by                   sensation of social power (Erchul \& Raven, 1997). In particular, the perceived positive                   referent of social power may have positive effect (positive referent – the effort to work just                   as well as a mentor or consultant) and similarly positive expert power (positive expert),                   but also the legitimate reciprocal power (legitimation of reciprocity) when teachers know                   that they strive for a common good cause and do not want to disappoint their supporter                   (Erchul \& Martens, 2010). The mutual support and collaboration among teachers and                   the “experts” (i.e. co-dependence) contributes to the sustainability of the set processes.                      Educational consultants and mentors in the process                   of anchoring capacities of organizational learning                    If organizational learning is to become a normal part of school life and routine, it must be                   anchored in school policies. The project the schools entered into created the conditions                   for people to learn in the school to formulate and share vision of the school, and also                   to periodically think about their own direction. Consultants were there to support the                   school and individual teachers in formulating clear objectives and in finding ways to their                   fulfillment and control mechanisms. It is obvious that these demands were connected                   with some administrative work and therefore a burden to the teachers, but after some                   time they all began to see the sense in linking learning activities with clear goals and                   visions. The custom to formulate and carry out their own and joint plans and anchor                   the processes of organizational learning into school life supported by the leadership and                   consultants and gave the main processes a clear direction and meaning.                       ... suddenly, simultaneously with the project there was a direction ... certain vision we wanted to                      follow ... and there we jointly identified the areas in which we wanted to develop ... (interviews                      with school leadership, mentors and teachers)                       Teachers learn how to define the objectives precisely, they are involved in the formulation and                      setting of the objectives for the whole school ... thanks to creating a plan, the areas in which                      the school wants to move, to change, as well as the goals it sets, it concerns clarification and                      approximation of the objectives and the like. (interviews with school leadership, mentors and teachers)                        The educational consultant supports us a lot so that we have learned to clearly formulate our                      goals ... (interviews with school leadership, mentors and teachers)                                                            110                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   110                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","10. Peer support of teachers from the perspective of organizational learning ...                     Anchoring of organizational learning is also supported by workshops and educational                  events  closely  linked  to  predetermined  annual  priorities  of  the  school.  Through  the                  activities the project supported, there have been set certain mechanisms for learning in                  the school: planning, sharing visions, annually repeated activities and events for various                  target groups, paired teaching and the use of consultants and mentors. Specific processes                  and changes in relationships (and school culture) have been started, which have a great                  potential for sustainability.                    The  school  continues  to  have  a specific  priority  each  year  and  education  is  then                  implemented in that area–it is good for coordination on information level, for motivation,                  and it is easier even for establishment of cooperation with educational consultants, even                  in the case of resistant people. (focus group with educational consultants)                    The use of the support of consultants and mentors became a common part of everyday                  school life. People have become accustomed to mutual consultations and the relationship                  mentor/teacher consultant has been transformed into the relationship teacher/teacher                  (see also the section about broadening).                       ... Because these people are incredibly open to each other, at least I perceive it like that ... that                     there is a really friendly atmosphere... here it does not work the way I sometimes hear that                     people do not share, do not give or that they invent something and keep it among themselves                     or  that  they  would  gossip  and  did  not  help  each  other  ...  (interviews  with  school  leadership,                     mentors and teachers)                      Well, later, after that year, I think, there started to occur opinions such as: And why can’t it                     be him? ... When he is developing in mathematics, another one in English, this one is in turn                     good at natural sciences ... why should we see only one of the mentors? (interviews with school                     leadership, mentors and teachers)                     It is worth noting that the position of mentors (and partly school consultants) in both                  schools during the five years of the project was gradually weakened; however, it does not                  mean that performed badly. It is the other way round. The teachers gradually stopped                  worrying about attending peers’ classes, they openly shared their know-how, and began                  teaching in pairs. This is a good basis for sustainability.                    It seems that the process of anchoring the capacity of learning brings most of the                  uncertainties and risks because it is connected with sustainability. In connection with                  the  end  of  the  project,  replacement  of  leadership  or  mentors  and  consultants  or                  other  leaders  leaving  the  schools  can  weaken  the  processes  of  learning  and  a range                  of meaningful activities ceases or becomes formal. Some risks – but rather the ones                  associated with a number of changes that took place within the school – were pointed                  out also by the interviewed people from the schools. If the innovations follow each other                  in rapid succession, there is a risk of a change not being adopted, there is lack of time                  for the actual testing and evaluation of innovations in teaching, at a time when the peer,                  mentor or consultant left the innovating teacher.                                                             111                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   111                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","III. Learning teachers as seen through research                       Sometimes  I was  excited  by  something  and  six  months  later  it  had  ended.  We‘ve  been                      everywhere and nowhere. There was so much work ... (focus groups in schools)                      It seems that the change cycle is not always completed fully, when the incorporation                   phase is not fully completed. A lot of attention attention is paid to the adoption of new                   ideas and their implementation into practice, but there is a lack of attention and time to                   make the changes really settled in school life (see e.g. Lagerweij, 1992). This is a typical                   challenge in many innovative environments.                     Last  but  not  least,  one  of  the  significant  supporting  factors  mentioned  was  the                   relatively long time of duration of the project (five years). Educational consultants and                   mentors initially met with suspicion and various expectations from the teachers, and it is                   therefore obvious that the people at the school need sufficient time to make sure about                   the meaning and benefits of learning for them and the whole school and also about the                   usefulness of those who support learning processes – consultants and mentors.                       The work of the educational consultant at one school for five years made sense to me, because                      it is a systematic and long-term support. (focus group with educational consultants)                       Moreover,  the  schools  do  not  have,  respectively  the  schools  in  concern  did  not                   have previous experience with similar projects, with consultants or mentors. Similarly,                   consultants and mentors did not have experience with this role and sought their own                   position  in  the  schools  and  the  professional  identity.  Both  sides  were  therefore  just                   learning,  clarifying  expectations  and  seeking  a way  to  each  other.  And  this  requires                   sufficient amount of time.                     The  results  of  the  evaluation  research  carried  out  in  the  schools  involved  in  the                   development  project  brought  several  key  messages  for  the  supporters  of  the  effort                   to develop learning in schools. They pointed out the role of educational consultants                   and  mentors  in  the  process  of  expanding,  deepening  and  anchoring  capacities  of                   organizational  learning.  The  study  stressed  the  importance  of  long-term  and  clearly                   structured projects that support schools not only financially, but also in terms of high                   quality  assistant  staff  that  can  develop  processes  of  individual  and  joint  learning  in                   schools.                     Good selection of consultants and mentors, and their ongoing training and continuous                   supervision support are to be regarded an essential condition for success. The importance                   of  a thorough  clarification  of  their  position  at  the  school,  their  responsibilities,                   competencies and relationships to leadership, so that they are understandable for the                   teachers cannot be underestimated. The investigated schools, mentors and consultants                   experienced such a situation for the first time. Everyone knew that this was an experiment                   that could fail. The results of the evaluation research thus helped convey the experience                   to other schools currently entering a similar project. Verbiest’s structure – broadening,                   deepening  and  anchoring  –  can  support  the  people  from  the  school  leadership,                   consultants  and  mentors  so  they  understand  some  of  the  nature  of  the  relationship                   between their work related and the support of learning processes.                                                            112                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   112                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","11.  The impact of reflecting team – selected data                        from Norwegian projects                        Reflecting team has its origins in therapy. When Tom Andersen (2007) launched this                  conversation form, it was partly motivated by the experience he had in his meetings                  with sick people. Andersen often felt that it was difficult to be of help to many of his                  patients. This made him more curious about the relationship between the life they told                  about and what experiences they related to their anxiety, depression and other mental                  disorders (Andersen 2007). In the beginning, he was not interested in measuring the                  impact of the conversation form he applied, but he experienced something new in the                  meetings around these talks. Andersen writes that he sees changes or differences – as he                  chooses to call them, with reference to what Bateson (1972) describes as “a difference                  that makes a difference.” The differences in Andersen‘s work with reflecting teams has                  significance for the individual‘s encounter with Andersen. He does not give a summary                  of  one  general  effect.  A difference  that  makes  a difference  means  a change,  in  the                  therapy through a change in your life.                    The  networks  using  reflecting  team  claim  that  there  is  much  evidence  of  change.                  Therapeutic treatments can be given various forms and be based on different theoretical                  approaches.  Most  people  would  probably  consider  the  hospital  a suitable  place  of                  treatment for sick people, even for those with a mental illness. Tom Andersen, however,                  felt that the hospital was a difficult place for his patients to meet for conversations. The                  hospital was frightening and not a suitable place for sick people, Andersen claimed.                  He therefore started the practice of going home to the patients, meeting them in their                  everyday lives. This experience helped to break down the barriers between the doctor,                  the hospital and the patient. During these consultations, the patient was at home, and the                  conversation was characterized by equality, without deteriorating the roles of doctor and                  patient. This was also part of the reason for his practice with reflecting teams. Respect                  for the patients‘ lives and history increased. Andersen describes that this resulted in                  a significant change in the patients‘ lives and proved as a sustainable way of meeting                  people. The reflection and the conversation became equal and balanced, and the patient                  could to a greater extent take responsibility for their own development. This was largely                  due to the way the therapist posed questions and challenged the patient to rethink.                  The patient was faced with, and challenged to reflect on his stories. This created the                  conditions for a different way of perceiving themselves and enabled new perspectives on                  their history and their own lives (Andersen, 2007).                    Jakko  Seikkula’s meeting  with  Tom  Andersen  inspired  him  to  implement  this                  conversation  form  in  his  work  in  the  psychiatry  in  Finland,  and  to  start  networking                  based on conversation and reflection work. Seikkula worked with severe mental illnesses.                  In  the  preface  to  the  book  “Open  Dialogs”  (Seikkula,  2000),  Andersen  says  that  far                                                           113                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   113                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","III. Learning teachers as seen through research                    more  ought  to  wonder  why  Seikkula’s work  with  reflective  processes  led  a very  high                   percentage of his patients back to work and a better life. These were people struggling                   with bipolar disorders. Andersen questioned why Norwegian clinicians appear not to                   find these results interesting (Andersen, 2000). The effects of this work might prove                   difficult to measure, but the feedback is nevertheless remarkable.                      From therapeutic thinking to tools for guidance                    The  therapy’s task  is  to  help  create  change  and  restore  balance  in  life  (homeostasis).                   Traditionally therapy has been a conversation where the client, through meetings with                   a therapist, finds the appropriate measures to address the challenges that he or she faces.                   In our context, we are not talking about reflecting team as therapy. The conversation                   we have during guidance is not about making people healthy or treat illnesses. Yet, it                   happens  that  the  guidance  conversation  touches  the  mentee  emotionally  for  various                   reasons.                     In the logs someone tells that they feel strongly affected when others find their difficult                   work situation interesting. In other cases, the mentees get affected when they find new                   solutions  to  major  challenges.  Others  may  experience  that  the  guidance  forces  the                   mentee to see his or her own work with new eyes. The same tool that is used in therapy,                   will thus in an educational context be about the awareness of own practice (Sørmo,                   2015, p. 142–157). The subjects of reflective processes with guidance and reflecting team                   must justify both their choices and their preparations for activities during the guidance.                   These  activities  could  be  lessons  that  should  have  been  done  better  or  with  better                   learning conditions that there might be reason to dwell upon, preparations for the new                   educational sessions, and meetings with other teachers, co-workers, leaders or parents.                   The method, which includes curiosity, the use of open questions, challenging questions,                   creating wonder and reflection on own practice, can have major effects. Meanwhile,                   the mentee is aware of the presence of a reflecting team, which is listening, wondering,                   and supporting the mentee in the conversation. The mentee is free to choose what he                   or she would like to focus on, but the mentor is always aware of the subtleties in the                   conversation. This can be things that are being said, the way it is expressed, what topics                   are selected and what topics are left out (Sträng \& Sørmo, 2015).                     Logs tells us about experiences                     In  our  mentoring  projects,  all  the  participants  contributed  by  writing  logs  after  every                   session.  The  logs  are  records  of  how  each  participant  was  experiencing  the  work  of                   reflective processes. In such contexts, it may be difficult to relate to words like “effect”, as                   this is perceived as a measurable phenomenon that compares results against each other.                   Whether the “effect” is good or bad will in this context be very subjective. The same event                   can be perceived differently, and thus it may be difficult to measure the actual effect.                                                            114                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   114                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","11. The impact of reflecting team – selected data from norwegian projects                     The logs express how each participant was experiencing the work in reflecting team as                  a mentee, mentor or member of the reflecting team. This expresses a qualitative experience                  of personal involvement. The closest we get to measure the effect, is to examine whether                  the participants have different experiences or if the experiences coincide for some ore                  more of the participants. Here follows some examples from the log material. One mentee                  wrote this after hearing the conversation in the reflecting team:                      So great! Things I had not thought, thought of, or even noticed, were very well observed by                     the expert panel. It did not feel as if anyone was looking to correct me in any way, they were                     solely there to help/support/guide. (mentee)                     One participant of the reflecting team writes:                       I can see that Ingvild supports Karianne along the way, and specifies and clarifies her successes.                     (member of reflecting team)                     None of the participants in the projects has expressed negative experiences concerning                  the guidance. All participants, from different institutions, have consistently shared positive                  experiences  from  their  work  in  reflecting  teams.  They  express  that  they  are  far  more                  successful in finding solutions they had not previously thought of, to the problems with                  which they were struggling. Meanwhile they express that reflecting team is an appropriate                  tool to develop yourself as a teacher and employee in kindergartens and schools.                    A log writer says:                       Good to receive input from “behind your back“: RT is sitting back there hearing and seeing                     something  completely  different  from  what  I notice  when  I am  speaking.  Very  nice  to  get                     comments/questions on body language, intonation – all those things that reveal how you really                     feel in relation to what you talk about. (mentee)                      However,  not  everyone  is  that  enthusiastic.  At  one  school,  where  we  have  been                  working with reflecting team for a few years, the participants experienced that colleagues                  sometimes had different preconceptions and prejudices against this form of guidance.                  Participants expressed that colleagues antagonized the guidance work. The participants                  believed this was largely due to a lack of knowledge and rumors of sensitive guiding.                    Since the guidance tool is based on a therapeutic theory, outsiders can be prone to                  believe that the guidance is dealing with the same thing. It is thus important to ensure                  that the whole staff has the opportunity to attend presentations on this tool and to ask                  all the questions that require clarification before this form of guidance is implemented.                    For several years, we have worked to examine whether the use of reflecting teams, in                  work with reflective practice or processes, can help create change in the everyday lives                  for those who work with children. In this context, we have not defined the characteristics                  of this change; just that it leads to an everyday life that is feels better for adults and                  children alike.                                                           115                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   115                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","III. Learning teachers as seen through research                      Our supposition is that guidance can be a useful tool to achieve such development.                   The adults closest related to the child might also have the best opportunity to contribute                   to change (Sørmo, 2015).                     For  that  reason,  we  have  linked  the  guidance  to  thoughts  of  empowerment.  Both                   the official support systems and other resource persons often experience an increasing                   demand for external help when situations in kindergartens and schools are challenging.                   Frequently, teachers and institutions are the ones crying for help. Our projects have                   shown that the guidance has helped direct more attention towards the teacher’s personal                   skills as a significant other, for both the individual pupil and for the group. By thinking                   empowerment, the teacher’s role is a relationship builder that might have some good                   solutions. In the collaboration with the mentor and the power of having a reflecting                   team, the possibilities of finding new paths have increased. This is being confirmed by                   the participants’ logs.                       This was an exciting conversation. Fun to watch the development of Karianne, moving from                      chaos into being able to get an overview of her frustrations, to see the things that she has done                      right and well and see that her whole body language is different. She is full of “guts”. (member                      of reflecting team)                      Our research team at Østfold University College has worked in various fields with                   reflecting teams. Already in our guidance training of teachers for kindergarten and                   school, we have focused on developing knowledge and skills on how reflecting team                   can be used in everyday challenges. Working students, who are working with children                   while  immersing  themselves  in  the  guidance  studies,  have  during  the  exercises,                   indicated  that  guidance  with  reflecting  team  as  a method  has  been  very  useful.                   During the exercises, these students have used their own, real-world experiences for                   which they have sought guidance. Through meta-guidance from the research team,                   they  have  worked  to  identify  how  the  reflecting  team  tool  can  be  used.  Students                   state that they after such exercises are able to use reflecting team in a manner that                   helps them a lot in their everyday work. Meanwhile, we have also sought to examine                   whether this form of guidance can be used both in organizational development and                   as  well  as  a tool  related  to  educational  challenges  in  primary  education  (Sträng,                   Jensen, \& Sørmo, 2013).                     Obviously,  the  family  therapy  model  has  other  application  areas  than  in  an                   educational context. It has been necessary to convert and adjust the model to be                   able to apply it to guidance contexts. Nevertheless, reflecting team in this context has                   been strongly linked to the communicational thinking applied in family therapy. It is                   all about people or organizations searching for a way out of particular challenges.                                                                    116                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   116                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","11. The impact of reflecting team – selected data from norwegian projects                   The projects                    kariB                   This project was named KARIB, as an abbreviation of the project’s nature – Kulturanalyse                  og  Reflekterende  prosesser  I Barnehagen  (CARIB  –  Culture  Analysis  and  Reflecting                  Processes  In  the  Kindergarten).  We  chose  to  use  the  word  “kindergarten”  because  the                  English word kindergarten and preschool had the same significance as we understood                  it. The project started with a lecture at the University College in 2011. Both students                  and the research team had worked to become familiar with the reflecting team tool. We                  then asked the students whether anyone would like to participate in a project aimed at                  further development of the method, to see if it could be useful in everyday work. Almost                  the  entire  student  group  volunteered  immediately.  Naturally,  we  were  overwhelmed                  by this, but we chose students in a kindergarten in proximity to our college. Harekas                  kindergarten in Halden municipality.                    Before  we  initiate  such  guidance  sessions,  or  other  projects  in  kindergartens  or                  schools,  it  is  crucial  for  us  that  the  organization’s leadership  participates  in  every                  decision related to the project. At the outset in Harekas, this worked flawlessly, since                  one of the participants was also head of the kindergarten. We suggested basing the                  project on a cultural analysis of the kindergarten. The project is described in detail in                  a report published as Høgskolens rapporthefter or College report booklets (Sträng, Jensen,                  \& Sørmo, 2013). The report also describes the method of the cultural analysis and the                  participants’ own experiences of the process.                    This project was followed up by two new culture analyses in the subsequent years with                  one-year intervals. Both the leadership in the kindergarten and the research team wanted                  to  see  how  the  participants  experienced  the  changes  after  some  time.  Our  primary                  interest was whether the project led to changes in a kindergarten that showed strong                  interest in improving everyday life for both the staff and the children. The results showed                  that many changes occurred in the kindergarten. The knowledge acquired by the leaders                  through the project, spread to the rest of the staff. After a few years, the employees                  influence on everyday life in this kindergarten had changed. Initially some members of                  the staff reported that they perceived this project as something the leadership was toying                  with, and that the staff was given too many challenges, but later this changed. Eventually                  the employees expressed that they were very happy to be a part of this (Sträng, Jensen,                  \& Sørmo, 2013).                    the Låby project                    The Låby project got started when the principal at the school contacted our college, to                  ask if it was possible to get guidance for a teaching team with particular challenges. We                  offered to start a guidance project based on the conditions associated with reflecting                  team. Four people, a teaching team of two who were seeking guidance and two other                                                           117                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   117                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","III. Learning teachers as seen through research                    staff-members signed up to be part of a reflecting team. We made an agreement with                   the school principal that the project would last for at least one year, and that participants                   should present their experiences at an international research conference. The research                   team of three people from the college took on the roles as mentor, observer and meta-                   observer. In addition to the actual guidance session, as a regular part of each meeting,                   we started with a 20-minute lesson about reflecting teams. The guidance took place once                   every month. Along the way, these participants wrote logs that we later analyzed. The                   logs showed that the teachers’ team got different roles in the guidance. One of them was                   the principal mentee, while the other was a teammate. Meanwhile the reflecting team                   was strong supporters with observant reflections that helped to raise the mentees’ belief                   in their own skills and to solve difficult classroom challenges in a new way. It appeared                   that “a difference that makes a difference” could also be about the teachers finding new                   solutions in their everyday work, and experiencing increased confidence in their own                   skills and competence.                     the Berg project                     The  project  at  Berg  school  was  intended  to  examine  whether  a team  of  teachers                   could collaborate on developing guidance within their own teaching team. The school                   administration  was  also  interested  to  see  whether  this  could  result  in  stronger  team                   building and the opportunity to develop the team’s competence in a better way. This                   team had no previous guidance training, thus it was necessary to focus on both training                   and model building of guidance conversations. This was a relatively large group of five                   participants. Along the way, they all wrote logs, which were later analyzed. These results                   are still under analysis, but we have already detected a very positive attitude towards the                   method. The participants attended all the sessions with interest, and took turns in the                   roles as mentee and member of the reflecting team. In the final stage of the project, the                   participants took over the whole process, with the research group as meta-mentors.                     The training prior to guidance                     In all the projects, emphasis was placed on training before starting the guidance sessions.                   The training focused on how to safeguard the different roles in the process. Moreover,                   it  was  important  to  stress  the  importance  of  language,  how  the  participants  should                   concentrate on using open questions and be curious about the words that were being                   spoken. They should be observant of behavior during the guidance and be aware not to                   repeat formulations and sequences. It is also important that for participants of reflecting                   teams to be conscious about expressing support, without being artificial or irrelevant.                                                                 118                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   118                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","11. The impact of reflecting team – selected data from norwegian projects                   Challenges of guidance                    Guidance  often  occurs  in  situations  where  a mentee  meets  a mentor  who  is  not                  a colleague. Many mentors prefer to have a written topic question that keeps the guidance                  strictly within the frames of the request. In kindergartens and schools, the guidance is                  often  carried  out  between  colleagues  who  know  each  other  fairly  well.  This  may  be                  a good reason to formulate a problem/issue in writing. In the work with reflecting team,                  the intention is to meet the person who seeks guidance, with as little preconception                  as possible. People who know each other will always have a certain pre-understanding                  of  each  other.  When  mentee  and  mentor  are  close,  the  mentee  might  wish  to  have                  some control over what appears in the guidance. In Tom Andersen’s (2007) form of                  therapy, he wanted to know as little as possible about the topic of conversation before                  they started. He believed that preconception could ruin the real issue, both because of                  the risk of the therapist appearing as a “besserwisser”, as well as the patient’s attitude                  towards the doctor. Some of the same effect might occur during guidance, and the roles                  of mentee and mentor. Equality in the conversation is vital to be able to agree on a good                  solution and contribute to change. If the problem is locked in a pre-formulated written                  presentation, it may impede discussions on problems at a different level (i.e. relational),                  that  might  be  the  actual  obstacle  in  finding  opportunities  for  change.  Thus,  pre-                  formulated written topic questions are avoided in the guidance method with reflecting                  team, and the person seeking guidance must express this orally. From that point, the                  guidance starts, with wondering, open questions and reflection.                                                                                             119                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   119                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   120                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","Conclusion III                         School self-evaluation and reflective practice are two possible paths to improve students’                  learning.                     School self-evaluation                   Experience from many countries indicates that when teachers regularly reflect on their                  own practice and focus on the improvement of teaching and learning in classrooms, they                  can also improve the learning achieved by students. Teachers engaged in school self-                  evaluation will have more opportunities to share their experience with the colleagues in                  a professionally rewarding and supportive way. School self-evaluation can be defined as                  an internal, collaborative process of reflective enquiry on the work of a certain school,                  mainly instigated to raise the level of school improvement and development (Capperucci,                  2015).                    When teachers reflect on their work they become aware of what is working well                  and what might need to be improved. To implement school self-evaluation is starting                  a process of reflection, improvement and development that can take place in a more                  systematic way.                    In  a successful  Czech  educational  project  (Road  to  Quality  Improvement  –  Cesta                  ke kvalitě) a set of self-evaluation tools were verified in practice as a first step toward                  development and better learning. The results and experiences from the certain schools                  were communicated and exchanged to colleagues from other schools, thus implementing                  organizational learning. Norway has long time been engaged in different ways of school                  self-evaluation, including systems of supervision to ensure common practice, and the use                  of mapping materials to identify needs of individual support. Summative and formative                  assessments may facilitate knowledge and understanding of desirable actions to provide                  better learning.                    The assessment system generates a lot of information of what is going on in schools                  around the country. A main question is how the results from school self-evaluation can                  be fully implemented in practice and contributes to better learning. This may require                  analytic skills which are not always available in schools.                    The Norwegian landscape of supporting schools seems to be closely linked to issues                  of quality assessment at all levels of the educational system. The purpose is to provide                  different forms of customized education and to offer an improved learning outcome                  for the individual student. The quality assessment system refers to initiate a continuous                  pedagogical dialogue among schools.                                                              121                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   121                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","III. Learning teachers as seen through research                    Dialogic interaction                     The  dialogic  interaction  may  lead  to  a collective  understanding  of  pedagogical                   phenomena, in which different perspectives and aspects are being visualized to initiate                   organizational learning. Through complex and subtle processes, as well as simple and                   direct mechanisms, different agendas conflict and interact, and in a dialectical dialogue                   the purposes, aims, objectives, and goals of the organization will be formulated. An                   actual  organizational  value  complex  evolves  which,  regardless  of  the  formulation  or                   verbalization  or  rhetoric  in  which  it  is  couched,  becomes  “the  mundane,  quotidian                   philosophy that is translated into the realities and events of the workaday world through                   managerial processes” (Hodgkinson, 1996, p. 11).                     This reveals the complex and challenging tasks teachers face and the need to develop                   high-level  expertise  in  teaching  and  learning  with  an  understanding  of  how  young                   people can succeed in their education. Such actions respond to break the isolation of                   the classroom and the “one teacher one classroom” doctrine. Establishing a culture of                   dialogue and collaboration initiates organization learning, with the aim of improving the                   quality of education and provide better learning.                     In  the  last  three  chapters  we  have  discussed  the  impact  of  local  research  and                   development projects in Czech Republic and Norway, concerning learning and assessment,                   organizational learning and reflecting teams. The descriptions of these activities shows                   the importance of continuing knowledge building to support learning in schools.                     Questions of effectiveness of the support provided to schools and teachers is highly                   relevant and it is evident that studies focused on results of provided support are more                   and more in demand. Results from the mentioned studies show that both individual and                   team support provided to teachers (professionally, with respect for context), including                   also dialogue and reflection of practice, is highly appreciated by teachers and schools.                   However, these studies also indicate certain risks connected with the use of reflecting                   teams,  mentors  and  consultants  and  raise  questions  of  both  (continuing)  training                   of  teachers  and  support  from  their  educators  and  other  “agents  of  change”.  At  the                   same time it is obvious that a short-term project support is seldom sufficient to build                   a “learning school” culture. Short-term project support is only a good start which can                   bring a whole range of inspirations to teachers, educators, school managements and                   education politicians. Evidence-based, justified support and education, continuity and                   anchorage in education systems often remain a challenge. Rethinking the relationship                   between education and practices that scaffold knowledge creation is vital for the future                   (European Commission, 2012).                                                                       122                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   122                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","IV. Concluding remarks                                                                            podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   123                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   124                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","12. Support for learning in schools                         In this book we have shown a variety of practical and theoretical excerpts from school                  research in two European countries, marked by historical and cultural differences, but                  with several common denominators in the field of education and knowledge.                    Our initial aim was to present a number of options for support, focusing on collective                  learning and activity. We were fully aware of the cultural and contextual differences                  between our two countries, but along the way we discovered the potential of reflecting                  on the sustainable development of schools from different starting points.                    We also became convinced of the increasing need of internal and external support in                  implementing new methods and standards of our schools into an overall perspective of                  better learning. A number of questions concerning European schools were raised by the                  OECD (2004) for more than a decade ago, but they are still fully relevant. Are students                  well prepared to meet the challenges of the future? Are they able to analyse, reason and                  communicate  their  ideas  effectively?  Do  they  have  the  capacity  to  continue  learning                  throughout life? Parents, students, the public and those who run education systems need                  to know the answers.                     Building a sustainable support system                   The professional development of teachers is a key challenge for all schools who want                  to improve the quality of education. Local schools are expected by governments, local                  politicians  and  school  managers  to  enhance  capacity  and  competence  building  for                  better individual and collective learning. To promote professional learning is considered                  as  a prerequisite  to  manage  the  continuous  stream  of  changes  and  demands,  such                  as  demographic  changes,  socio-cultural  renewal  and  large-scale  reforms  of  all  kinds                  (Sleegers et al., 2010).                     Successful school support has the emphasis on pupils‘ learning environment as                  the key to achievement in school. Changing of learning environments can positively                  contribute to children‘s and adolescents‘ learning progress. An overall challenge in                  school development, regardless of the choice of perspectives and practices, is how                  to  benefit  from  these  learning  processes  to  enhance  sustainable  development  in                  everyday work.                    A challenge for all schools is how to build well-functioning and sustaining systems                  of support for better learning. Bureaucratic and cultural boundaries may prevent us                  from  seeing  and  understanding  how  to  build  systems  with  shared  responsibility  and                  accountability for learning processes (Oshry, 1995). Failure in the support for knowledge                  sharing appears when employees refuse to share information and knowledge with others                  despite being invited to (Pol et al., 2011).                                                          125                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   125                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","IV. Concluding remarks                      A critical point in implementing models of school support is the way that complex                   chain of organizational mechanisms through the specific planning targets and objectives                   is articulated (Sharp, 1995). Another condition is the expected commitment of all staff to                   participate in the working process. This requires not least an active and visible leadership.                   Lack of continuity in school leadership, can be an inhibiting and counterproductive                   obstacle to sustainable school improvement.                     The underlying pattern of function and actual impact on school culture also needs to                   be visualized and described. Hodgkinson (1983, p. 209) speaks of “the Analysis of Affect”                   as a tool for understanding an organization‘s stakeholders at the micro level. Efforts                   should be made to regularly inform and remind the teachers of their responsibilities,                   especially the specifics of implementation. This level of follow-through by all staff is most                   likely essential to a successful implementation process.                     Building a sustainable support system for teachers’ on-the-job training also includes                   building  up  a learning  organization.  To  incorporate  learning  into  an  organization                   means to actively challenge its cultural values of traditions, character and spirit. School                   development in general can be described as the interaction between the defined school                   culture and its consequences (Sträng, 2011). For real development, and not only the                   structuring of descriptions, require an increased focus on cultural values.                     An  important  task  for  schools  is  to  identify  their  own  cultural  characteristics  and                   develop sustainable support systems towards an integrated whole. Internal resources will                   be maximized when the teachers work together to shape optimal learning environments                   through systems that stimulate new ideas and personal growth.                     Changing a school‘s solid cast and loosening up the fixed patterns of labour relations                   successfully demand much work on a long-term basis. This is often a difficult project and                   the presence of internal and external change agents does not make it more manageable in                   practice. Schools are basically complex systems, composed of a number of different sub-                   systems, and not obvious to define in all parts. Moving toward an integrated culture will be                   a challenging journey for each organization (Snyder, Acker-Hocevar, \& Snyder, 2000).                     An interesting question is whether the school organization, according to its complex                   organizational  structure,  differs  from  other  organizations’  structures  and  conditions                   for their work (Berg, 2003; Sträng, 2013). A parallel question is whether organizations                   really can learn, according to academic attempts of distinguishing between organizational                   learning  and  the  learning  organization.  Some  researchers  (Pol,  Hloušková,  Lazarová,                   Novotný, \& Sedláček, 2011) are questioning the very existence of the learning organization                   and perceive it only as a metaphor and a kind of hypothetic model, rather than normal                   reality.                      Supporting the existing school culture                     Bringing internal or external quality-oriented supporting to a school where the mix of                   educational values and background among the teachers are not obviously fond of the                   requirements for collaboration is well intentioned, but not easy to achieve.                                                            126                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   126                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","12. Support for learning in schools                     Collaboration depends on good communication and shared values. National cultures                  can have different styles of communication, and different understandings of what good                  education looks like and what it should achieve. When these differences are understood,                  they can be dealt with, and the collaboration required to develop better learning in                  schools can be more easily achieved (Fisher, 2012). Research has shown that there are                  great similarities and a considerable homogeneity of school actors in different national                  contexts (Lindblad \& Popkewitz, 2001).                    At the same time it is important to understand the differences related to educational                  traditions and context of schooling, including the presence of educational reforms. Such                  differences are important to consider in order to understand the meaning of educational                  restructuring in different national or regional contexts. This has also been a basic idea                  of our project, which has have limited and prevented us from trying to realize our initial                  idea of finding a common and transnational model for school support.                    School  culture  is  however  a complex  concept.  According  to  Fullan  (2007)  school                  culture can be defined as the guiding beliefs and values evident in the way a school                  operates  and  it  can  be  used  to  encompass  all  the  attitudes,  expected  behaviors  and                  values that impact how the school operates (Fisher, 2012).                    The concept of school culture in this book refers mainly to Berg (1999, 2003) and his                  school development strategy of scope for action. The essential parameters of the “scope                  for action” school development strategy comprise identifying the salient features of the                  current culture of a given school organization, as well as the limits determined by the                  policy documents regulation the work of the school in a particular national or regional                  context. This enables the teachers to discover the scope for action within the prevailed                  culture and the practices representing it in order to the aspects of what is prescribed and                  possible according to the document specifying the current mandate of the school (Berg,                  Namdar, \& Sträng, 2011).                    To  describe  and  explain  different  ways  of  supporting  the  existing  school  culture                  must be made from multiple perspectives in parallel towards a holistic understanding.                  School organizations are often described as complex institutions with their daily work                  constantly influenced by the dual role of the school as an organization and as a social                  institution.                    Berg  (2003)  has  a neo-rationalistic  view  on  organizations,  looking  at  schools  as                  institutions, established within society by an interest group or “mandator” to promote                  its goals and interests. These interests are a mix of ambiguous, conflicting and even                  contradictory  rules  and  values.  The  organization  is  under  the  pressure  of  informal                  control mechanisms, codified and manifested in the local school culture. The school as                  an organization is considered as a result of the interplay between formal steering from                  the state and informal influence from the staff and the local community, described as                  the local school culture.                    In our time of rapid change the perspectives of teachers can sometimes be critical                  to build and rebuild the culture of work in their schools. Snyder, Acker-Hocevar and                  Snyder (2000) identify three main variants of school culture, with different views on                  support and development.                                                           127                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   127                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","IV. Concluding remarks                      At  first  there  is  the  fragmented  culture  which  consists  of  sporadically  and  loosely                   connected individuals with ambiguity and isolation as natural work conditions. Teachers                   are not involved in decision making for school improvement and there is little consensus                   about  how  the  school  can  support  student  needs  and  engage  in  educational  growth                   (Martin, 1992).                     Second we have the integrated culture with consensus and clarity among all teachers                   about the teachers about the school organization’s goals, mission and development plans                   for the future. There is a sense of harmony as well as a sense of predictability (Martin,                   1992).                     Finally, there is the differentiated school culture, characterized by consistent subcultures,                   but often with a contradiction and discontinuity to the dominant culture. In this culture                   there are rooms for multiple support systems like tutoring, mediation self-help groups,                   positive reinforcement and promoting self-esteem. A differentiated school culture may                   look integrated, but when the aims and values of the subcultures differ too much from                   the main culture, it may lead to stagnation and contra-productivity.                     An important question is who actually is involved in the learning at each level of the                   organization. From a traditional view of organizational learning in schools associated with                   the teachers, now there is a potential for other important actors to enter and positively                   affect the development (Pol, Hloušková, Lazarová, Novotný, \& Sedláček, 2011).                     Hofstede (2005) speaks of different values or cultural dimensions related to education                   that affect teachers’ expectations of what happens in the classroom and how they should                   and can behave with their students. The cultural dimensions also inflict on how they                   behave in meetings and how they communicate with colleagues and their head-masters.                   The extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions accept                   and expect that power will be distributed unequally (Fisher, 2012).                     Ekiert-Oldroyd (2011) states that empowering schools for creativity and thus providing                   better learning is substantial to the global problems now facing us. Minor improvement                   activities are not enough. Schools have to be altered radically. Despite this, almost obvious                   insight on today’s requirements, schools are generally not creating organizational and                   social circumstances for individualized and innovative teaching and learning, despite the                   availability of appropriate research-based pedagogies (Sahlberg \& Oldroyd, 2010) and                   well elaborated supporting systems.                     Based on this background it is conceivable that the practical experience from the                   Czech Republic and Norway of how to support the existing school culture in teaching                   and learning may not be fully compatible.                     Reflective practice                     Reflective  practice  is  a general  term  to  describe  a variety  of  activities  in  order  to                   transform an organization into a learning system. A popular view on reflective activities                   is that they will only be successful if the participants will view them as enough important                   to assimilate. Where reflective practice is implemented in a school, it is important to                                                            128                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   128                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","12. Support for learning in schools                   ensure  that  consideration  is  given  to  how  activities  are  received  by  all  school  actors                  (Burton \& McNamara, 2009; Ledvinka, 2006). The organization must learn to create                  effect of the transformation and diffusion of the whole system (Schön, 1983).                    Dialogues  between  school  actors  must  have  a constructive  orientation,  with  the                  participants  focusing  on  how  their  contributions  can  provide  to  a future  oriented                  collaboration with the aim at better learning. Collaborative working relationships may                  help  the  sharing  of  successful  practices  and  the  provision  of  support  (Fullan,  1991;                  Hargreaves \& Dawe, 1990; Little, 1990). Establishing a reflective practice is complex,                  because  the  participants  have  to  reflect,  both  on  different  aspects  of  daily  work,                  and  on  their  own  cultural  identity  (Thorsen  \&  DeVore,  2013).  Reflective  practice  as                  a communication process also means that organizational members will need increased                  dialogic skills (Levin \& Riffel, 2000).                    It is also important to find effective strategies for promoting reflection in different                  contexts and useful approaches of compatible understanding (Sträng, 1997), to attain                  excellence and flow in the activities. Csikszentmihályi (1997) emphasizes that flow is likely                  to occur when an individual is faced with a task that has some clear goals that require                  specific responses. It is important to keep in mind that the collaborative work should,                  ultimately, produce valuable and innovative results.                    Teachers may engage in reflective practice for distinct purposes. One reason is the                  desire to adjust their ways of teaching in order to find better ways of understanding the                  needs of their students and provide better learning. Within their sphere of influence                  they can pursue areas of great impact and better communicate (Gore \& Zeichner, 1991;                  LaBoskey, 1994; Thorsen \& DeVore, 2013). Reflective practice requires strategies for                  systematic analysis and reflection throughout different levels of the organization. The                  participants  must  learn  to  effect  the  transformation  and  diffusion  of  the  system  in                  applying knowledge to practice, while being mentored by professionals.                    The presumed impact of school support as a sustainable learning system raises the                  question  of  how  to  facilitate  the  implementing  of  reflective  practice  as  method  for                  communication (Bell \& Mladenovic, 2013). Research indicates that time and opportunities                  to reflect and ensuring access to a mentor for continuing professional development are                  important steps for promoting reflective practice in an educational organization. The                  mentor will challenge the thinking of the teachers and encourage them to look at things                  from  multiple  perspectives  instead  of  repeating  old  standpoints  and  habits  (Colmer,                  2008; Kinsella, 2009).                    A good relationship has the ability to engage all participants in effective communication,                  emphatic  listening,  personal  learning  and  self-reflection  (Kram  \&  Ragins,  2007).                  Relational  mentoring  e.g.  with  reflecting  teams  (Andersen,  1991)  characterized  of                  members influence and influenced by each other is a possible step forward to reflective                  practice. If the mentoring feels safe and interesting, mutual exchanges of new ideas may                  lead to motivations for change of teaching toward better learning.                    Mentoring with reflecting teams (Andersen, 1991) can be effective as a part of a support                  system, based on reflective practice. The idea of reflecting teams is originally developed                  within the therapeutic field. The concept of reflecting teams has spread from the original                                                           129                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   129                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","IV. Concluding remarks                    therapeutic context and is nowadays applied in a wider organizational context. Reflecting                   teams has been a common method in connection with team mentoring and team appraisals                   (Hornstrup \& Loehr-Petersen, 2003). The implicit value of a reflecting team is to provide                   new  information.  Andersen  (1987)  notices  that  reflecting  teams  allow  an  increased                   exchange of pictures and explanations. By sharing their information and knowledge, each                   participant receives new perspectives on their daily work and can participate in a learning                   process, as a result of a functioning support system for better learning.                      Learning for quality and competence                    To create a sustainable support system for better learning in schools requires a shared                   understanding of concepts such as quality and competence in teaching. These issues                   are often politically entrenched with multiple views on the optimal aims and knowledge                   for practice. In several European countries, e.g. in Czech Republic, a focus on teacher                   competence definitions is also linked to reforms.                     In a given context, the systems of teacher education and professional development                   should also focus on teacher learning for quality and competence. To encourage teacher                   learning  enables  teachers  to  be  effective  in  supporting  the  learning  of  students  in                   different contexts (Hatano \& Oura, 2003)                     Using theory and research to reflect on their own practice will increase the overall                   knowledge about teaching by the teachers themselves. It is important that teachers actively                   maintain and develop their professional competences throughout their careers, in an                   ongoing professional development process, based on their individual engagement.                     A report from the European Commission (2013) proposes three main ways to enable                   teachers to acquire and develop the required professional expertise. The first is to find                   effective  ways  of  how  to  stimulate  teachers’  engagement  in  career-long  learning  and                   competence development. The second is assessing teachers’ competences, with tools that                   make it possible to look at the purpose and design of the teacher competence model                   being used in each system. The third is providing coherent, career-long appropriate and                   relevant learning opportunities, through which every teacher can acquire and develop                   the expected competence.                     To cope with the question of how to stimulate teachers’ engagement in professional                   learning and competence development there is a need of a competence development                   plan. A successful plan should be based on both research and practice to encourage                   and  promote  teachers’  self-reflection,  respect  individual  teachers‘  different  starting                   points and leave room for school autonomy in implementing continuous professional                   development plans.                     A standing  issue  is  how  to  inspire  teachers  in  practice  to  be  proactive,  reflective                   professionals  who  are  prepared  to  who  are  prepared  to  take  responsibility  for  their                   own professional development. Because teachers vary in their learning styles and the                   understanding  of  the  needs  of  acquiring  and  developing  their  competences,  their                   motivation to engage themselves in professional development will also vary.                                                            130                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   130                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","12. Support for learning in schools                     The European Commission (2013) notes that teacher engagement can be stimulated                  by a mix of opportunities, incentives and requirements. Successful opportunities should                  meet the following conditions:                   –  matching  needs  and  demands  at  all  levels  to  build  a stronger  bond  between  the                     teacher and the current school and the education system,                  –  accessibility, relevance and variety of opportunities,                  –  co-ordination between the content of initial teacher education (ITE), induction (early                     career support) and continuing professional development (CPD) and the providers                     at each phase,                  –  dialogue  between  stakeholders  (e.g.  teachers  and  unions,  school  managers  and                     employers,  school  authorities  and  national  ministries,  teacher  educators  and                     universities,  CPD  providers)  at  all  levels,  to  secure  commitment  and  shared                     understanding,                  –  adequate provision of time and resources (e.g. substitute teachers to cover for training                     absences).                     Teachers’  continuing  professional  development  (CPD)  is  of  growing  interest                  internationally.  While  an  increasing  range  of  literature  focuses  on  particular                  aspects of CPD, there is a lack of literature addressing the variety of CPD models in                  a comparative manner (Kennedy, 2006). The paucity of literature in this area was one                  of the reasons for us to compile this book, although we had no intention of doing                  a full comparative analysis of the conditions in Norway and the Czech Republic. To                  make  our  presentation  useful  we  chose  to  discuss  sustainable  school  support  and                  teacher development empirically and theoretically in a European perspective, basically                  anchored in democracy and humanism.                     Supporting teacher educators                   The European Commission (2013) points out the importance for all teachers to have                  the competences they require in order to be effective in the classroom. To achieve this,                  new teacher should be provided with initial teacher education of high quality. Serving                  teachers must at the same time be encouraged to continued developing and extending                  their competences throughout their careers.                    Teacher educators can have a significant impact on the quality of teaching and learning                  in schools. Despite of the knowledge and experience of this key profession they are often                  not very much used in national or local policy-making. Nor will teacher educators always                  get the support and challenge they need in terms of their education and professional                  development.                    Is important that national school systems acknowledge the need to define clearly                  what teacher educators should know, and be able to do. They should also acknowledge                  that great care needs to be taken in recruiting and selecting teacher educators, and                                                           131                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   131                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","IV. Concluding remarks                    in facilitating their career-long professional development. Stimulating and supporting                   the development of explicit frameworks and policies, as well as national and regional                   education authorities will assist the teacher educators to be effective.                     Paradigm shift                     In  a recent  study  conducted  by  the  International  Tuning  Academy  Groningen,  and                   commissioned  by  the  European  Commission  and  Lumina  Foundation  for  Education                   (Birtwistle \& Wagenaar, 2016), there is an on-going paradigm shift from input or staff/                   expert driven learning to student-centred, output-based learning to the reality in Europe.                     The aim of the study was the need for evidence concerning how far the learning                   outcomes approach in higher education has been taken up in institutions. To address                   this aim, a mixed methodology of quantitative and qualitative indicators was used. It is                   also the first study that shows the level of penetration of student-centred approach. The                   ultimate aim was to test whether this approach addresses current issues better than the                   traditional forms of education in the European Union. Though the study focused on                   higher education, the findings seem to be relevant knowledge for all parts of the school                   system, mainly concerning questions of school support.                    –  The distinction between learning outcomes, and the outcomes of a learning process,                      needs to be better understood by all involved.                   –  Teachers  are  struggling  to  adjust  to  the  new  concepts  and  paradigm  shift  and                      are  challenged  by  no  longer  being  the  “knowledge  owners”  but  rather  learning                      facilitators.                   –  Staff  development  focuses  more  on  processes,  than  the  concepts  and  benefits  of                      a learning outcomes approach.                   –  Teaching staff are not adjusting well to close cooperation with their colleagues when                      writing learning outcomes and developing learning activities.                   –  Institutions and systems are caught between the research excellence objective (i.e.                      rankings) and the policy drivers to achieve teaching/learning excellence.                   –  While good practices implementing the student-centred approach emerge in many                      parts of many institutions, there are few initiatives to scale up these good practices.                   –  In all cases, good practices are based on external stimuli via participation in relevant                      initiatives (Birtwistle \& Wagenaar, 2016).                      The  results  from  the  study  indicate  that  the  paradigm  shift  will  be  achieved,  but                   without  additional  and  continued  support,  it  could  fail.  Educational  institutions                   must assume ownership of good practice if it is to be embedded and taken forward.                   This  requires  serious  investment  in  staff  development  and  school  support  activities.                   A stronger  commitment  at  national  level  to  achieve  the  paradigm  shift  is  needed  to                   ensure sustainable development of schools. Systematic approach is needed to analyse                   what is happening in practice.                                                            132                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   132                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","12. Support for learning in schools                   Concluding remarks                    Documents and reports from the European Commission are often presented as the result                  of a process of “peer learning” between experts on education policy and practice in the                  membering countries. Peer learning can be defined as the acquisition of knowledge and                  skill through active helping and supporting among status equals or matched companions                  (Topping, 2005). It also enables participants to compare and contrast different policy                  approaches, learn from each other’s practices, reflect critically on current conditions in                  different contexts countries and draw shared conclusions about what changes can be                  made for effective policies (European Commission, 2013).                    Support for learning in schools is also a product of peer learning. We have shown                  a variety of options for support and focused on collective learning in the Czech Republic                  and  Norway  in  an  overall  European  perspective  of  sustainable  school  support  and                  development.                    Czech schools are in a process of change towards a higher degree of decentralization                  and autonomy for individual schools. The national strategy for education is intended                  to meet European standards, according to equity and increased quality of teaching and                  learning.                    We have noticed that The Norwegian school support systems are closely linked to                  quality assessment systems with the purpose to offer improved learning outcomes. Czech                  Republic teachers have a similar attention on better learning with increasing needs of                  support to develop and strengthen the teaching activities. School actors as assistants,                  school psychologists and special educators, work as potential change agents to realize                  the vision of better learning.                    In both countries collaborative processes of reflective enquiry and self-evaluation are                  strong elements in the work of raising the level of school improvement and development.                  Assessment systems of all kind generate much information, but remaining questions is                  how the information will be implemented in practice and contributes to better learning.                  This  is  not  a particularly  new  problem.  In  a guide  for  evaluating  school  programs,                  Sanders (1992) comments that we are often swamped with information and are asking                  how we can summarize the information we collect so that the message from our data                  gets accurate and clear.                    A common denominator for Czech and Norwegian schools is the need for and the                  possibility of organizational learning. Reflecting and mentoring are other key-words                  of the continuing work of supporting schools for implementing the paradigm shift of                  better learning. In a broader perspective the quality of education and supply of skills                  has increased worldwide and Europe must respond. It is important that European                  education  and  training  systems  will  succeed  in  in  providing  the  right  skills  for                  employability and bring the learning experience closer to the reality of the working                  environment.  By  2020,  20%  more  jobs  will  require  higher  level  skills.  Education                  needs to drive up both standards and levels of achievement to match this demand,                  as well as to ensure young people are able to adapt to the inevitable changes in the                  labour  market  during  their  career.  The  emphasis  will  be  on  delivering  the  right                                                           133                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   133                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","IV. Concluding remarks                    skills for employment, increasing the efficiency and inclusiveness of the educational                   systems (European Commission, 2012).                     This reveals the complex and challenging tasks teachers face and the need to develop                   high-level expertise in teaching and learning and an understanding of what it takes                   for  young  people  to  succeed  in  their  education.  Such  actions  also  respond  to  the                   need to break the isolation of the classroom and the “one teacher one classroom”                   doctrine. Establishing a culture of dialogue and collaboration can improve the quality                   of education.                     New insights in how and where learning takes place indicates that effective teaching                   may require other forms of professional assistance and support as a supplement to the                   traditional teaching work.                                                                                                                134                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   134                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","Appendix 1                    COLLEAGUE OBSERVATION FORM: QUALITY and STRUCTURE                   GRADE …………… DATE …………… SUBJECT …………… TEACHER …………… OBS ……………                     Observations                                          Comments                    On time for lessons                     Min:                    Focus on learning                       Min:                   Lesson begins with collective motivation,   Yes   No                   instruction or summary of former lesson                   Clarity and reflection upon learning goals  Yes   No                    Discussion on strategies for learning    Yes     No                   Putting learning into context            Yes     No                    Students reflect upon how learning influences   Yes   No                   upon their thinking and actions                    Questions addressing:                      –  Learning strategies                Yes     No                      –  Findings and solutions             Yes     No                      –  Understanding and use              Yes     No                    Students have time to answer             Yes     No                   Students are helping each other          Yes     No                    Students assess their own work           Yes     No                    Students assess each other’s work        Yes     No                   Students reflect upon their learning, individually   Yes   No                   and together with each other                   Students have sufficient time for learning  Yes   No                    Students work effectively through the lesson  Yes   No                   Working conditions are satisfactory      Yes     No                    Lesson end with conclusive reflection    Yes     No                                                                135                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   135                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   136                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:57","References                         Aftenposten. 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San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.                                                                               149                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   149                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:58","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   150                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:58","About the authors                         Bohumíra Lazarová is Associate Professor at the Department of Educational Sciences,                  Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University, Brno, the Czech Republic. She teaches, carries out                  research and participates in various national and international development projects. The                  articles and studies she has published are focused on teacher peer support, reflection of                  practice, school counselling and school psychology. She is a lecturer of teacher in-service                  training courses and co-founder of the Czech Association of Mentoring in Education.                   Dan Roger Sträng is Professor of Education at Østfold University College, Norway. He                  has a Ph.D. from Karlstad University in Sweden and a UC in School Management. He is                  a specialist in school development research, organizational analysis, program evaluation                  and school culture research. He and his colleagues have written an array of articles and                  final reports. His current work focuses on the return of Max Weber in modern studies                  of school improvement.                   Roald Jensen is Professor of Education at Østfold University College, Norway. He has                  worked with special education, customized training and educational development for                  many  years.  He  has  had  key  roles  in  several  national  initiatives  to  increase  schools’                  expertise to facilitate special education in an inclusive context, work with basic skills,                  assessment for learning and organizational learning, as well as various other assignments                  for the Norwegian Directorate of Education and Training. Jensen is also frequently used                  as a lecturer and instructor. He has published several books on what promotes learning                  and development in schools.                   Dag  Sørmo  is  Associated  Professor  at  Østfold  University  College,  Norway.  He  has                  been working as a teacher in primary and secondary school until he became a teacher                  educator in 2008. Now he is educating teachers in the ordinary teacher-training program,                  the master program and in the mentoring programs. Through his work with children                  with special needs and the knowledge of Tom Andersen he has been inspired of the                  correlation between the qualities of dialog with parents, teachers and the children in                  school. This has been the starting point of working with reflecting team. The themes in                  his articles, studies and develop program are based on this.                                                                      151                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   151                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:58","podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   152                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:58","Index                          A                                       educational leadership   10, 61, 62, 63, 87                                                          educational policy   7, 17, 76, 101                  analysis of affect   126                Educational Psychological Service   45                  awareness of learning   82, 91, 98                                                          effectiveness of consultation   77                                                          e-mentoring   73                  C                                                          empiric evidence   61                  career system   39–41                   empowerment   82, 85, 86, 116                  change agent   10, 69, 70, 76, 126, 133  ethical dilemma   23, 32, 55                  change cycle   112                      Europe 2020   18, 19, 21                  child-oriented education 53             evaluation culture   62, 63                  child welfare service   47              evaluation research   101, 102, 103, 112                  communicative process   92              evidence-based   37, 65, 77, 122                  compulsory education   25, 26                  compulsory school   25, 26, 30, 45, 84    F                  constant comparison   97                family therapy   80, 84, 116                  counselling service   51                flow   11, 105, 106, 129                  cultural analysis   117                 focus group   102, 103, 105–109, 111, 112                  cultural values   126                   formative assessment   43, 121                  culture of learning   75                Framework Education programme   35, 36,                  curriculum   10, 15, 22, 26, 28–31, 35, 36, 39,   50                    40, 49, 62, 66, 67, 82, 83, 93, 102                                                          further education   25, 26, 50, 51, 103, 104                  D                                                          G                  decentralization   35, 55, 133          globalization   17                  democracy   9, 15, 17, 24, 30, 131      guidance   11, 19, 20, 23, 24, 26, 32, 33, 43, 45,                  demographic changes   125                 47, 72, 73, 79, 83, 85, 86, 107, 108, 114– 119                  dialectical processes   92                  difference that makes a difference   81, 83,   I                    88, 113, 118                  diversity   15, 24, 32, 33, 37, 38, 49, 57, 83, 84  inclusion   18, 36–39, 49, 55, 70                  double loop learning   93               inclusive education   35, 37, 38, 39, 55, 70                                                          information and communication technol-                  E                                         ogy   16                                                          integration   19, 20, 27, 31, 38, 75, 83                  eco-mental systems   81                  Education Act   27, 30, 31, 35, 37, 43, 45, 46, 84  J                  educational consultant   53, 66, 69–72,                    101–112                               justified practice   61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67                                                          153                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   153                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:58","Index                    K                                       PISA   17, 29, 36, 37                                                           primary education   27, 116                   key competencies   20, 21, 22                                                           professional development   39, 44, 51, 56, 57,                                                             108, 129–132                   L                                                           professional development of teachers   35, 40,                   labour market   134                       41, 103, 105, 125                   leadership   45, 61, 70–73, 87, 102–112, 117, 126  pupils results   35, 36, 54                   learning community   63, 92, 93, 103                   learning promoting qualities   95       Q                   learning theory   61, 87, 91            qualitative data   45                   letter method   96                      quality assessment   43, 44, 45, 55, 66, 95,                   lifelong learning   20, 21, 22, 50, 51    121, 133                   loop learning   91, 94, 98, 99          quality development   43, 45                   LOV/LaA project   61, 64, 65, 91, 92, 93, 96, 99                                                           quality of teaching   38, 50, 53, 55, 69, 70, 71,                                                             77, 88, 94, 101, 109, 131, 133                   M                                                           quantitative data   45                   mental models   93                   mental process   82                     R                   mentoring   7, 11, 19, 39, 57, 69, 72–77, 85,   reflecting team   12, 83, 84, 85, 113–119, 122,                     88, 102, 105, 114, 129, 130, 133        129, 130                   mentoring programs   74, 76, 77         reflection on practice   53, 54, 62, 63, 64, 74,                   meta-guidance   116                       75, 88                   metaphor   79, 82, 126                  reflective practice   83, 115, 121, 128, 129                   multiverse   80                                                           reflective process   12, 79, 82, 83, 85, 114                                                           reciprocal learning  74                   O                                                           reverse socialization   74                   OECD   17, 19, 22, 43, 55, 125                   operational programmes   49             S                   organization theory   61, 87            scaffolding   92                   organizational culture   30, 61, 75     school consultant   69, 70, 71, 103, 104, 111                   organizational development   81, 82, 93, 98, 116  school culture   53, 56, 75, 76, 77, 103, 111,                   organizational learning   7, 11, 61–65, 75, 87,   122, 126, 127, 128                     88, 91, 94, 98, 99, 101, 103, 104, 106, 109–   school education programme   51                     112, 121, 122, 126, 128, 133          school management   23, 49, 71, 122                   output-based learning   132                                                           school policy   21, 71, 101, 104                                                           school psychologists   38, 39, 49, 51, 53, 69,                   P                                                             103, 133                   peer learning   57, 69, 72, 133         school reforms   24                   peer observation   62, 91, 94, 95, 98   self-evaluation   50, 121, 133                   peer support   7, 12, 39, 72, 73, 76, 77,   shared vision   93                     101–106                               social interaction   92                   personal mastery   93                   social learning   92                                                            154                podpora_uceni_2016_eng.indd   154                                                 26.10.2016   11:45:58","Index                   social power   110                      U                  social pressure   105                  special education   30, 31, 32, 36, 39, 46, 69, 85  universe   80                  special education teacher   69          upper secondary education   25, 26, 44, 45, 99                  support measures   11, 38, 45, 49       V                  sustainability   9, 50, 51, 54, 110, 111                  sustainable support system   125, 126, 130  virtual mentoring   73                  systemic theory   80                  systems thinking   93                   W                                                          White book   35, 37                  T                  tacit knowledge   64, 75, 94            Y                  teacher educators   56, 131, 132        Youth on the move   19, 20                  teachers assistant   38, 40, 41                  teachers education   23                  team learning   93                  testing   36, 40, 62, 63, 91, 93, 98, 111                  therapeutic thinking   114                  therapy   80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 113, 119                                                                                                  155                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XXX NVOJ D[ QSFTT","Support                                                                                                                                                                      for Learning                                                                                                                                                                     in Schools                       Through the Norway Grants and EEA Grants, Norway contributes to reducing social and      SUPPORT FOR LEARNING IN SCHOOLS                  economic disparities and to strengthening bilateral relations with the beneficiary countries                                                     BOHUMÍRA LAZAROVÁ                  in Europe. Norway cooperates closely with the EU through the Agreement on the European                  Economic Area (EEA).                                                                                                                             DAN ROGER STRÄNG                  For  the  period  2009–14,  Norway’s  contribution  is  €1.7  billion.  Grants  are  available  for                                              ROALD JENSEN                  NGOs, research and academic institutions, and the public and private sectors in the 12                  newest EU member states, Greece, Portugal and Spain. There is broad cooperation with                                                             DAG SØRMO                  Norwegian entities, and activities may be implemented until 2016.                  Key  areas  of  support  are  environmental  protection  and  climate  change,  research  and                  scholarships, civil society, health and children, gender equality, justice and cultural heritage.                                                                                                                                                                                  MASARYK UNIVERSITY                                            NOR.indd   1                                                                                                                                                                            17.10.2016   13:48:09"];